Galateni 1
1 Pavel, apostol nu dela oameni, nici printr-un om, ci prin Isus Hristos, şi prin Dumnezeu Tatăl, care L-a înviat din morţi,
2 şi toţi fraţii cari sânt împreună cu mine, către Bisericile Galatiei:
3 Har şi pace vouă dela Dumnezeu Tatăl, şi dela Domnul nostru Isus Hristos!
4 El S-a dat pe Sine însuş pentru păcatele noastre, ca să ne smulgă din acest veac rău, după voia Dumnezeului nostru şi Tatăl.
5 A Lui să fie slava în vecii vecilor! Amin.
6 Mă mir că treceţi aşa de repede dela Cel ce v-a chemat prin harul lui Hristos, la o altă Evanghelie.
7 Nu doar că este o altă Evanghelie; dar sânt unii oameni cari vă tulbură, şi voiesc să răstoarne Evanghelia lui Hristos.
8 Dar chiar dacă noi înşine sau un înger din cer ar veni să vă propovăduiască o Evanghelie, deosebită de aceea pe care v-am propovăduit-o noi, să fie anatema!
9 Cum am mai spus, o spun şi acum: dacă vă propovăduieşte cineva o Evanghelie, deosebită de aceea pe care aţi primit-o, să fie anatema!
10 Caut eu oare, în clipa aceasta, să capăt bunăvoinţa oamenilor, sau bunăvoinţa lui Dumnezeu? Sau caut să plac oamenilor? Dacă aş mai căuta să plac oamenilor, n-aş fi robul lui Hristos.
11 Fraţilor, vă mărturisesc că Evanghelia propovăduită de mine, nu este de obârşie omenească;
12 pentrucă, n-am primit-o, nici n-am învăţat-o dela vreun om, ci prin descoperirea lui Isus Hristos.
13 Aţi auzit, în adevăr, care era purtarea mea de altădată, în religiunea Iudeilor. Cum, adică, prigoneam peste măsură de mult Biserica lui Dumnezeu, şi făceam prăpăd în ea;
14 şi cum eram mai înaintat în religiunea Iudeilor de cât mulţi din neamul meu, de o vârstă cu mine. Eram însufleţit de o râvnă nespus de mare pentru datinile strămoşeşti.
15 Dar când Dumnezeu-care m-a pus deoparte din pântecele maicii mele, şi m-a chemat prin harul Său, -a găsit cu cale
16 să descopere în mine pe Fiul Său, ca să -L vestesc între Neamuri, îndată, n-am întrebat pe niciun om,
17 nici nu m-am suit la Ierusalim la cei ce au fost apostoli înainte de mine, ci m-am dus în Arabia. Apoi m-am întors din nou la Damasc.
18 După trei ani, m-am suit la Ierusalim să fac cunoştinţă cu Chifa, şi am rămas la el cincisprezece zile.
19 Dar n-am văzut pe niciunul altul dintre apostoli, decât pe Iacov, fratele Domnului.
20 În cele ce vă scriu, iată, înaintea lui Dumnezeu, nu mint.
21 După aceea m-am dus în ţinuturile Siriei şi Ciliciei.
22 Şi eram încă necunoscut la faţă Bisericilor lui Hristos, cari sânt în Iudea.
23 Ele auzeau doar spunându-se: ,,Cel ce ne prigonea odinioară, acum propovăduieşte credinţa, pe care căuta s-o nimicească odinioară.``
24 Şi slăveau pe Dumnezeu din pricina mea.
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Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). 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Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. 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Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). 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Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. 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He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. 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A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125506,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2391,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Apostleship Apostle","title_en":"Apostleship Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP<\/h3>\n<p>Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and conceptual backgrounds.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word for “apostle” is not used outside the NT in the same sense as it is in the NT. It is derived from the verb “to send” and is at home in the language of the sea meaning a particular “ship” or “group of ships,” a “marine expedition” or “the leader” of such. Its usage is almost always impersonal and thoroughly passive. There is no hint of personal initiative or authorization, merely the connotation of something being sent. Later papyri use the word to mean “bill” or “invoice” or even a “passport,” continuing to reflect the vocabulary of maritime affairs.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, the word was used to designate those who had been sent by Jesus with the proclamation of the gospel. From among the wider group of those who followed him, Jesus selected 12 men (Mt 10:1-4; Mk 3:13-19; Lk 6:12-16) who maintained with him a particularly close relationship, receiving private instruction and witnessing his miracles and controversy with the Jewish authorities. On one occasion, Jesus sent these men out to preach the message of repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick; that is, to minister in ways that were characteristic of his own work (Mt 10:1-15; Mk 6:7-13, 30; Lk 9:1-6). The same relationship is expressed in the saying “He who hears you hears me, and he who rejects you rejects me, and he who rejects me rejects him who sent me” (Lk 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 10:40). It is clear that the Twelve are not merely to pass Jesus’ teaching on but to represent his very person. After the resurrection, Jesus commissioned the Twelve (Mt 28; Lk 24; Jn 20–21) to proclaim God’s act in Christ on behalf of all men. Only those who had been with Jesus from the beginning of his ministry to his resurrection were qualified to be his apostolic witnesses (Acts 1:21-22). Paul qualified because he had seen the risen Christ (1 Cor 15:4-10).<\/p>\n<p>The Pauline writings demonstrate two characteristic usages of the word “apostle.” On occasion, it refers to persons authorized by local congregations and entrusted with the safe delivery of specific gifts for other members of the Christian community (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). More important are those passages where “apostle” takes on a more technical sense through the qualifying phrase “of Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 11:13; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 2:6). The “sent one” is the “sent one of Jesus Christ” (Rom 16:7; 1 Cor 9:1, 5; 12:28; Gal 1:17-19). In the statements where Paul claims his own right to this title, he argues along lines assuming the same basic apostolic concept that Jesus had. He consistently links this claim to a specific event in the past in which the risen Lord had appeared to him (1 Cor 9:1; Gal 1:12, 16). This appearance he ranked alongside those of the resurrection appearances (1 Cor 15:3-8). Paul understood his experience outside Damascus (cf. Acts 9:1-19a; 22:6-16; 26:12-18; Gal 1:17) as a lifelong commission to preach the now-resurrected One (1 Cor 1:17; 2:1-2) chiefly among the Gentiles (Acts 9:15; 22:15; 26:17, 23; Gal 1:15-16). It was through his preaching ministry that Christ continued to work, creating the new people of God (1 Cor 9:1-2; Gal 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP<\/h3>\n<p>Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and conceptual backgrounds.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word for “apostle” is not used outside the NT in the same sense as it is in the NT. It is derived from the verb “to send” and is at home in the language of the sea meaning a particular “ship” or “group of ships,” a “marine expedition” or “the leader” of such. Its usage is almost always impersonal and thoroughly passive. There is no hint of personal initiative or authorization, merely the connotation of something being sent. Later papyri use the word to mean “bill” or “invoice” or even a “passport,” continuing to reflect the vocabulary of maritime affairs.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, the word was used to designate those who had been sent by Jesus with the proclamation of the gospel. From among the wider group of those who followed him, Jesus selected 12 men (Mt 10:1-4; Mk 3:13-19; Lk 6:12-16) who maintained with him a particularly close relationship, receiving private instruction and witnessing his miracles and controversy with the Jewish authorities. On one occasion, Jesus sent these men out to preach the message of repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick; that is, to minister in ways that were characteristic of his own work (Mt 10:1-15; Mk 6:7-13, 30; Lk 9:1-6). The same relationship is expressed in the saying “He who hears you hears me, and he who rejects you rejects me, and he who rejects me rejects him who sent me” (Lk 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 10:40). It is clear that the Twelve are not merely to pass Jesus’ teaching on but to represent his very person. After the resurrection, Jesus commissioned the Twelve (Mt 28; Lk 24; Jn 20–21) to proclaim God’s act in Christ on behalf of all men. Only those who had been with Jesus from the beginning of his ministry to his resurrection were qualified to be his apostolic witnesses (Acts 1:21-22). Paul qualified because he had seen the risen Christ (1 Cor 15:4-10).<\/p>\n<p>The Pauline writings demonstrate two characteristic usages of the word “apostle.” On occasion, it refers to persons authorized by local congregations and entrusted with the safe delivery of specific gifts for other members of the Christian community (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). More important are those passages where “apostle” takes on a more technical sense through the qualifying phrase “of Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 11:13; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 2:6). The “sent one” is the “sent one of Jesus Christ” (Rom 16:7; 1 Cor 9:1, 5; 12:28; Gal 1:17-19). In the statements where Paul claims his own right to this title, he argues along lines assuming the same basic apostolic concept that Jesus had. He consistently links this claim to a specific event in the past in which the risen Lord had appeared to him (1 Cor 9:1; Gal 1:12, 16). This appearance he ranked alongside those of the resurrection appearances (1 Cor 15:3-8). Paul understood his experience outside Damascus (cf. Acts 9:1-19a; 22:6-16; 26:12-18; Gal 1:17) as a lifelong commission to preach the now-resurrected One (1 Cor 1:17; 2:1-2) chiefly among the Gentiles (Acts 9:15; 22:15; 26:17, 23; Gal 1:15-16). It was through his preaching ministry that Christ continued to work, creating the new people of God (1 Cor 9:1-2; Gal 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and con...","summary_en":"APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and con...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4742,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","title_en":"and Text of the (New Testament) Bible*, Manuscripts","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, M<span>anuscripts and Text of the (New Testament)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all copies of any work of literature were made by hand (hence, the name “manuscript”). According to a current tabulation, there are 99 papyrus manuscripts, 257 uncial manuscripts, and 2,795 minuscule manuscripts. We can add 2,209 Greek lectionaries to this list. Therefore, we have over 5,350 manuscript copies of the Greek NT or portions thereof. No other work of Greek literature can boast of such numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>• The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantPapyrusManuscripts\">Important Papyrus Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>Papyrus is a tall, aquatic reed, the pith of which is cut into strips, laid in a crosswork pattern and glued together to make a page for writing. The papyrus rolls of Egypt have been used as a writing surface since the early third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. The Greeks adopted papyrus around 900 <span>BC<\/span>, and later the Romans adopted its use. However, the oldest extant Greek rolls of papyrus date from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>. Unfortunately, papyrus is perishable, requiring a dry climate for its preservation. That is why so many papyri have been discovered in the desert sands of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The NT papyrus manuscripts (abbreviated as “P”) are generally the earliest manuscripts of the NT. Broadly speaking, the most important ones can be categorized in three groups: the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (from Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), (2) the Beatty Papyri (named after the owner); and (3) the Bodmer Papyri (named after the owner).<\/p>\n<h5>The Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning in 1898 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus fragments in the ancient rubbish heaps of Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. This site yielded volumes of papyrus fragments containing all sorts of written material (literature, business and legal contracts, letters, etc.) as well as over 40 manuscripts containing portions of the NT. Some of the more noteworthy papyrus manuscripts from Oxyrhynchus are as follows:<\/p>\n<h6>P1 (P. Oxy. 2)<\/h6>\n<p>This late second-century manuscript contains Matthew 1:1-9, 12, 14-20. Grenfell and Hunt in the winter of 1896–97 went to Oxyrhynchus (now called El Bahnasa) in search of ancient Christian documents. P1 was discovered on the second day of the dig. At the time of this discovery, this was the earliest extant copy of any NT portion—at least 100 years earlier than Codex Vaticanus. The copyist of P1 seems to have faithfully followed a very reliable exemplar. Where there are major variants, P1 agrees with the best Alexandrian witnesses, especially B (Codex Vaticanus), from which it rarely varies.<\/p>\n<h6>P5 (P. Oxy. 208 and 1781)<\/h6>\n<p>Two separate portions of this third-century manuscript were unearthed from Oxyrhynchus by Grenfell and Hunt, both from the same papyrus manuscript. The first portion contains John 1:23-31, 33-40 on one fragment and John 20:11-17 on another—probably on the first and last quires of a manuscript containing only the Gospel of John. This portion was published in volume II of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri<\/em> in 1899; the second portion—containing John 16:14-30—was not published until 1922 in volume XV of <em>Oxyrhynchus Papyri.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>After examining the first portion, Grenfell and Hunt said, “The text is a good one, and appears to have affinities with that of Codex Sinaiticus, with which the papyrus agrees in several readings not found elsewhere.” The papyrus, written in a documentary hand, is marked for its brevity.<\/p>\n<h6>P13 (P. Oxy. 657 and PSI 1292)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated between 175 and 225, contains 12 columns from a roll preserving the text of Hebrews 2:14–5:5; 10:8-22; 10:29–11:13; 11:28–12:7. The text of Hebrews was written in a reformed documentary hand on the back of the papyrus containing the new epitome of Livy. For this reason, some scholars think the manuscript was possibly brought to Egpyt by a Roman official and left behind when he left his post. P13 very often agrees with B, and it supplements B where it is lacking—namely, from Hebrews 9:14 to the end of Hebrews. P13 and P46 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P77 (P. Oxy. 2683 + 4405)<\/h6>\n<p>Dated c. 150–75, this is the earliest manuscript of Matthew (23:30-39). The manuscript is clearly a literary production. It was written in an elegant hand and has what was or became a standard system of chapter division, as well as punctuation and breathing marks. P77 has close textual affinities with Codex Sinaiticus.<\/p>\n<h6>P90 (P. Oxy. 3523)<\/h6>\n<p>This second-century manuscript (c. 150–75) contains John 18:36–19:7. The handwriting (an upright, rounded, elegant script) is much like that found in P66. Furthermore, P90 has more affinity with P66 than with any other single manuscript, though it does not concur with P66 in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n<h6>P. Oxy. 4404<\/h6>\n<p>Containing Matthew 21:34-37, 43, 45, this manuscript could be the earliest extant manuscript of the NT in that the script is early Roman and therefore could be dated to the early second century.<\/p>\n<h5>The Chester Beatty Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased from a dealer in Egypt during the 1930s by Chester Beatty and by the University of Michigan. The three manuscripts in this collection are very early and contain a large portion of the NT text. P45 (c. 200) contains portions of all four Gospels and Acts; P46 (c. 125) has almost all of Paul’s epistles and Hebrews; and P47 (third century) contains Revelation 9–17.<\/p>\n<h6>P45 (Chester Beatty Papyrus I)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has the four Gospels and Acts (Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41–26:39; Mk 4:36–9:31; 11:27–12:28; Lk 6:31–7:7; 9:26–14:33; Jn 4:51–5:2, 21-25; 10:7-25; 10:30–11:10, 18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27–17:17). The order of books in the original intact manuscript was probably as follows: Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, Acts (the so-called Western order). This manuscript was dated by Kenyon to the early third century, a date that was confirmed by the papyrologists W. Schubart and H. I. Bell. This continues to be the date assigned to this manuscript in modern handbooks on textual criticism and critical editions of the Greek NT, but the consistent formation of certain letters suggests an earlier date—maybe sometime in the late second century.<\/p>\n<p>The scribe of P45 worked without any intention of exactly reproducing his source. He wrote with a great amount of freedom—harmonizing, smoothing out, substituting at will. In short, the scribe did not actually copy words. He saw through the language to its idea-content, and copied that in words of his own choosing, or in rearranged order. Thus, in the scribe of P45 we see an exegete and a paraphraser.<\/p>\n<h6>P46 (Chester Beatty Papyrus II)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex has most of Paul’s epistles (excluding the Pastorals) in this order: Romans 5:17–6:14; 8:15–15:9; 15:11–16:27; Hebrews 1:1–13:25; 1 Corinthians 1:1–16:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1–13:13; Ephesians 1:1–6:24; Galatians 1:1–6:18; Philippians 1:1–4:23; Colossians 1:1–4:18; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1:9–2:3; 5:5-9, 23-28 (with minor lacunae in each of the books).<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript was originally dated to the early third century. But others, since, have dated the manuscript earlier in the second century. The scribe who produced this manuscript used an early, excellent exemplar. He was a professional scribe because there are stichoi notations at the end of several books (see the conclusion of Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians). The stichoi were used by professionals to note how many lines had been copied for commensurate pay. Most likely, the ex officio of the scriptorium (perhaps connected with a church library) paginated the codex and indicated the stichoi. The scribe himself made a few corrections as he went, and then several other readers made corrections here and there.<\/p>\n<p>The text of P46 shows a strong affinity with B (especially in Ephesians, Colossians, and Hebrews) and next with א (Codex Sinaiticus). P46 agrees much less with the later representatives of the Alexandrian text. In short, P46 is proto-Alexandrian. In Hebrews, P46 and P13 display nearly the same text. Out of a total of 88 variation-units, there are 71 agreements and only 17 disagreements.<\/p>\n<h6>P47 (Chester Beatty Papyrus III)<\/h6>\n<p>This third-century codex contains Revelation 9:10–17:2. The text of P47 agrees more often with that of Codex Sinaiticus than with any other manuscript (including Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus), though it often shows independence.<\/p>\n<h5>The Bodmer Papyri<\/h5>\n<p>These manuscripts were purchased by M. Martin Bodmer from a dealer in Egypt during the 1950s and 1960s. The three important papyri in this collection are P66 (c. 175, containing almost all of John), P72 (third century, having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, containing large parts of Luke 3—John 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h4\" id=\"P66\">P66 (Papyrus Bodmer II)<\/p>\n<p>This manuscript contains most of John’s Gospel (1:1–6:11; 6:35–14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10–20:20, 22-23; 20:25–21:9). The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11), making it the earliest witness to not include this spurious passage. The manuscript is usually dated as c. 200, but the renowned paleographer Herbert Hunger has argued that P66 should be dated to the first half, if not the first quarter, of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>According to recent studies, it seems evident that P66 has preserved the work of three individuals: the original scribe, a thoroughgoing corrector, and a minor corrector. With a practiced calligraphic hand, the original scribe of P66 wrote in larger print as he went along in order to fill out the codex. The large print throughout indicates that it was written to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The text exhibits the scribe’s knowledge of other portions of Scripture (inasmuch as he harmonized John 6:69 to Matthew 16:16 and John 21:6 to Luke 5:5), his use of standard <em>nomina sacra<\/em> (a way of writing divine names), and his special use of <em>nomina sacra<\/em> for the words “cross” and “crucify.”<\/p>\n<p>The original scribe was quite free in his interaction with the text; he produced several singular readings that reveal his independent interpretation of the text. While the numerous scribal mistakes would seem to indicate that the scribe was inattentive, many of the singular readings—prior to correction—reveal that he was not detached from the narrative of the text. Rather, he became so absorbed in his reading that he often forgot the exact words he was copying. His task as a copyist was to duplicate the exemplar word for word, but this was frustrated by the fact that he was reading the text in logical semantic chunks and often became a coproducer of a new text. As a result, he continually had to stop his reading and make many in-process corrections. But he left several places uncorrected, which were later fixed by the <em>diorthotes<\/em> (official corrector). The finished product is quite good, presenting a text that is very close to the Alexandrian witnesses.<\/p>\n<h6>P72 (Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, dated late third century, has an interesting collection of writings in one codex: 1 Peter 1:1–5:14; 2 Peter 1:1–3:18; Jude 1:1-25; the Nativity of Mary, the apocryphal correspondence of Paul to the Corinthians, the eleventh ode of Solomon, Melito’s Homily on the Passover, a fragment of a hymn, the Apology of Phileas, and Psalms 33 and 34.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars think that four scribes took part in producing the entire manuscript. First Peter has clear Alexandrian affinities—especially with B. Second Peter and (especially) Jude display more of an uncontrolled type text (usually associated with the “Western” text), with several independent readings.<\/p>\n<h6>P75 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV)<\/h6>\n<p>This codex contains most of Luke and John (Lk 3:18–4:2; 4:34–5:10; 5:37–18:18; 22:4–24:53; Jn 1:1–11:45, 48-57; 12:3–13:1, 8-9; 14:8-30; 15:7-8.) The manuscript does not include the pericope of the adulteress (7:53–8:11). The manuscript can be dated to the late second or early third century.<\/p>\n<p>The copyist of P75 was a literate scribe trained in making books. His craftsmanship shows through in his tight calligraphy and controlled copying. The handwriting displayed in this manuscript is typically called by paleographers the common angular type of the late second to early third century. The scribe’s Christianity shows in his abbreviations of the <em>nomina sacra<\/em><em>,<\/em> as well as in his abbreviation of the word “cross.” These are telltale signs of a scribe who belonged to the Christian community. Furthermore, the large typeface indicates that the manuscript was composed to be read aloud to a Christian congregation. The scribe even added a system of sectional divisions to aid any would-be lector. Thus, we have a manuscript written by a Christian for other Christians.<\/p>\n<p>There are several indications of the scribe’s Alexandrian orientation. First and foremost is his scriptoral acumen. He is the best of all the early Christian scribes, and his manuscript is an extremely accurate copy. P75 is the work of an extremely disciplined scribe who copied with the intention of being careful and accurate. Scholars generally agree that P75 displays the kind of text that was used in making Codex Vaticanus (there is 87 percent agreement between P75 and B). As such, textual scholars have a high regard for P75’s textual fidelity.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Other Papyrus Manuscripts<\/h5>\n<h6>P4 + P64 + P67<\/h6>\n<p>These three papyrus manuscripts are part of one codex dated <span>AD<\/span> 150–175. The manuscript was the work of a professional scribe, and the text is extremely accurate.<\/p>\n<h6>P32 (Rylands Papyrus 5)<\/h6>\n<p>This manuscript, preserving Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8, is dated c. 175, making it the earliest extant copy of any of the Pastoral Epistles. P32 shows agreement with א and with F and G. Since F and G (nearly identical manuscripts) go back to the same archetype, it is possible that P32 could be linked to the same source.<\/p>\n<h6>P52 (Rylands Papyrus 457)<\/h6>\n<p>This fragment, containing John 18:31-34, 37-38, is noteworthy because of its date: c. 110–125. Many scholars (F. Kenyon, H. I. Bell, A. Deissmann, and W. H. P. Hatch) have confirmed this dating. The manuscript came from the Fayum or Oxyrhynchus site. It was acquired in 1920 by Grenfell, but it remained unnoticed among hundreds of papyri until 1934, when C. H. Roberts recognized that this fragment preserves a few verses from John’s Gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ImportantUncialManuscripts\">Important Uncial Manuscripts<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts typically classified as “uncial” are so designated to differentiate them from papyrus manuscripts. In a sense, this is a misnomer because the real difference has to do with the material they are written on—vellum (treated animal hide) as compared to papyrus—not the kind of letters used. Indeed, the papyri are also written in uncials (capital letters), but the term “uncial” typically describes the majuscule lettering that was prominent in fourth-century biblical texts, such as in א, A, B, C.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Sinaiticus (or א)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex contains the entire OT and the NT in this order: the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews), Acts, the General Epistles, Revelation. It also includes the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. The codex cannot be earlier than 340 (the year Eusebius died) because the Eusebian sections of the text are indicated in the margins of the Gospels by a contemporary hand. Most scholars date it 350–375.<\/p>\n<p>This codex was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in St Catherine’s Monastery (situated at the foot of Mt Sinai). On a visit to the monastery in 1844 he noticed in a wastebasket some parchment leaves that were being used to light the lamps. He was allowed to take this waste paper, which proved to be 43 leaves from various parts of the Greek translation of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>In 1853 he made a second trip to the monastery and found nothing. In 1859, however, on his third trip, he found not only other parts of the OT but also the complete NT. He was finally able to persuade the monastery authorities to present the manuscript to the czar, the great patron of the Greek Catholic Church, who placed it in the Imperial Library in St Petersburg. The czar gave great honors to the monastery and its authorities, and everybody seemed well pleased. Later Tischendorf was charged with having stolen the manuscript from its lawful owners, but the better textual scholars do not accept that story.<\/p>\n\n<p>The manuscript remained in the Imperial Library until 1933, when it was purchased by the British Museum for the huge sum of £100,000 (about $500,000). Textual criticism made the headlines because one manuscript was bought for this much money, raised largely by public subscription during the Great Depression. The manuscript is now on display in the manuscript room of the museum, where it is considered one of its most prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p>The text of Sinaiticus is very closely related to that of Codex Vaticanus. They agree in presenting the purest type of text, usually called the Alexandrian text type. Tischendorf greatly used the textual evidence of Codex Sinaiticus in preparing his critical editions of the Greek NT. Tischendorf thought four scribes had originally produced the codex, whom he named scribes A, B, C, D. After reinvestigation, H. J. Milne and T. C. Skeat identified only three scribes: A (who wrote the historical and poetical books of the OT, as well as most of the NT), B (who wrote the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas), and D (who wrote some Psalms, Tobit, Judith, and 4 Maccabees, and redid small sections of the NT). Milne and Skeat demonstrated that scribe A of Codex Vaticanus was likely the same scribe as scribe D of Codex Sinaiticus. If this true, then א is contemporary with B—perhaps produced in the same scriptorium in Alexandria. Codex Sinaiticus provides a fairly reliable witness to the NT; however, the scribe was not as careful as the scribe of B.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Alexandrinus (A)<\/h5>\n<p>This is one of the three most important codices containing early copies of the whole Bible in Greek (the other two being the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus codexes). The name Alexandrinus comes from ancient records suggesting that it was copied in Egypt during the early part of the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The early history of this manuscript and its Egyptian provenance is partially revealed by its flyleaves. A note by Cyril of Lucar (patriarch of Alexandria and then of Constantinople in the 1620s) states that, according to tradition, it was written by Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt shortly after the Council of Nicaea (325) and that her name was originally inscribed at the end of the volume but the last page was lost due to mutilation. An Arabic note of the 13th or 14th century also says that the manuscript was written by “Thecla the martyr.” Another Arabic note says that is was presented to the patriarchal cell of Alexandria (c. 1098). Cyril of Lucar took the manuscript from Alexandria to Constantinople in 1621 and then gave it to Charles I of England in 1627, where it became part of the Royal Library, then later the British Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Only 773 of the original 820 or so pages still exist. The rest were lost as the book was passed down through the centuries. The surviving parts of Alexandrinus contain a Greek translation of the whole OT, the Apocrypha (including four books of Maccabees and Psalm 151), most of the NT, and some early Christian writings (of which the First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians are the most important).<\/p>\n<p>Frederick Kenyon thought the codex was the work of five scribes, to each of whom he designated a Roman numeral. According to Kenyon, scribes I and II copied the OT; scribe III did Matthew, Mark, 1 Corinthians 10:8—Philemon 1:25; scribe IV did Luke—Acts, General Epistles, Romans 1:1—1 Corinthians 10:8; and scribe V did Revelation. Milne and Skeat, however, argued that the whole codex was the work of two copyists (I and II). W. H. P. Hatch noted that many corrections have been made in the manuscript, most of them at an early date. Some of these corrections were introduced by the scribe himself, and others came from later hands.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently, the scribes of this codex used exemplars of varying quality for various sections of the NT. The exemplar used for the Gospels was of poor quality, reflecting a Byzantine text type. Its testimony in the Epistles is much better, and in Revelation it provides the best witness to the original text.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Codex Vaticanus (B)<\/h5>\n<p>Codex Vaticanus is the Vatican Manuscript, so named because it is the most famous manuscript in the Vatican Library in Rome. This manuscript has been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1475, but it was not made available to scholars, such as Constantin von Tischendorf and Samuel Tregelles, until the middle of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>At one time, the codex contained the whole Greek Bible, including most of the books of the Apocrypha, but it has lost many of its leaves. Originally it must have had about 820 leaves (1,640 pp), but now it has 759—617 in the OT and 142 in the NT. The major gaps of the manuscript are Genesis 1:1–46:28; 2 Samuel 2:5-7, 10-13; Psalms 106:27–138:6; Hebrews 9:14–13:25; the Pastoral Epistles; and Revelation. Each leaf measures ten and a half by ten inches (26.7 by 25.4 centimeters). Each page has three columns (two for the poetical books) with 40 to 44 lines to the column. The manuscript was written by two different scribes. It is dated in the early to middle part of the fourth century. It is not known where the manuscript originated, but it has been in the Vatican Library from the time of its earliest catalog in 1475.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Napoleon conquered Rome, he brought its treasures to Paris, including this manuscript. The scholar Hug identified it and called the attention of other scholars to it. After the downfall of Napoleon, the manuscript was returned to the Vatican Library. Competent textual scholars were not allowed to do careful work on it until a photographic edition was published in 1890. It is now on exhibit in the Vatican Library.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Vatican Manuscript is much like that of Codex Sinaiticus. These are generally recognized as the two finest examples of the Alexandrian type of Greek text of the NT. The Greek text of the OT is very fine too, but it is not quite so important, as the original language of the OT was Hebrew. Virtually all the textual scholars since the days of Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort (who brought out their Greek Testament, including their theory of textual criticism, in 1881), recognize this neutral type of text as a very early text and a very pure text, an extremely accurate reproduction of what the original text must have been. Westcott and Hort called it a second-century text accurate in 999 out of 1,000 words so far as any matter of translatable difference was concerned. א and B are the finest examples of this type of text, but it is also found in a few other Greek uncial manuscripts, a few of the early translations, and in the writings of a few of the early church fathers. Since the days of Westcott and Hort, their theory has been confirmed by the discovery of some papyrus manuscripts, notably the Bodmer Papyri, discovered in the 1950s.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex is a palimpsest (the original writing was erased and different words written on the same material). It originally contained the entire Bible but now has only parts of six OT books and portions of all NT books except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John. The single-column Bible text, written in the 5th century <span>AD<\/span>, was erased in the 12th century and replaced by a two-column text of a Greek translation of sermons or treatises by a certain Ephraem, a 4th-century Syrian church leader. Such a practice was common in periods of economic depression or when parchment was scarce. The original writing was scraped from the writing surface and the surface smoothed. Then new compositions could be written on the prepared surface. Using chemicals Tischendorf was able to read much of the erased document.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscript may have been brought from the east to Florence by a learned Greek named Andrew John Lascar in the time of Lorenzo de’Medici. Since Lascar was known as Rhyndacenus (from the river Rhyndacus), he probably came from the region of Phrygia (site of ancient Laodicea). Where the manuscript was prior to this is not known. The Ephraemi manuscript was brought to Italy in the early sixth century, where it became the property of the Medici family. Catherine de’Medici took it to France, where it remains today.<\/p>\n<p>The text of this manuscript is mixed—it is compounded from all the major text types, agreeing frequently with the later koine of Byzantine type, which most scholars regard as the least valuable type of NT text.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Bezae (D)<\/h5>\n<p>This is a Greek-Latin diglot containing Matthew—Acts, 3 John, with lacunae. Most scholars date it late fourth or early fifth century (c. 400). Some scholars think the codex was produced in either Egypt or North Africa by a scribe whose mother tongue was Latin. Another scholar (D. C. Parker) has argued that it was copied in Beirut, a center of Latin legal studies during the fifth century, where both Latin and Greek were used. Evidently, it was produced by a scribe who knew Latin better than Greek, and then was corrected by several scribes. In any event, the codex somehow came into the hands of Theodore Beza, French scholar and successor to Calvin. Beza gave it to the Cambridge University Library in 1581.<\/p>\n<p>This codex is probably the most controversial of the NT uncials because of its marked independence. Its many additions, omissions, and alterations (especially in Luke and Acts) are the work of a significant theologian. A few earlier manuscripts (P29, P38, P48, and 0171) appear to be precursors to the type of text found in D, which is considered the principal witness of the Western text-type. Thus, Codex Bezae could be a copy of an earlier revised edition. This reviser must have been a scholar who had a propensity for adding historical, biographical, and geographical details. More than anything, he was intent on filling in gaps in the narrative by adding circumstantial details.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex Washingtonianus, or The Freer Gospels (W)<\/h5>\n<p>This codex, dated around 400, has the four Gospels and Acts. It is often referred to as the Freer Gospels—named after its owner, Charles Freer. The codex likely came from the ruins of a monastery near Giza. The handwriting is quite similar to that found in a fifth-century fragment of the book of Enoch found at Akhmim in 1886.<\/p>\n<p>Codex W was copied from a parent manuscript (exemplar) that had been pieced together from several different manuscripts. This is obvious because the textual presentation of W is noticeably variegated and even the stratification of the text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. The scribe who collated the parent manuscript drew upon various sources to put together his Gospel codex. It is likely that the scribe of the parent manuscript used a text that came from North Africa (the “Western” text) for the first part of Mark, and the scribe of W used manuscripts from Antioch for Matthew and the second part of Luke to fill the gaps in the more ancient manuscript he was copying. Detailed textual analysis reveals the variegated textual stratifications of W, as follows: in Matthew the text is Byzantine; in Mark the text is first Western (1:1–5:30), then Caesarean in Mark 5:31–16:20 (akin to P45); in Luke the text is first Alexandrian (1:1–8:12), then Byzantine. John is more complicated because the first part of John (1:1–5:11), which fills a quire, was the work of a seventh-century scribe who must have replaced a damaged quire. (W<span>s<\/span> designates the work of this scribe.) This first section has a mixture of Alexandrian and Western readings, as does the rest of John.<\/p>\n<h5>Codex 1739<\/h5>\n<p>This tenth-century codex has Acts and the Epistles. The manuscript was discovered at Mt Athos in 1879 by E. von der Goltz. The manuscript has strong textual affinities with P46, B, 1739, Coptic Sahidic, Coptic Boharic, Clement, and Origen. The relationship between P46, B, and 1739 is remarkable because 1739 is a tenth-century manuscript that was copied from a fourth-century manuscript of excellent quality. According to a colophon, the scribe of 1739 for the Pauline Epistles followed a manuscript that came from Caesarea in the library of Pamphilus and that contained an Origenian text. The three manuscripts, P46, B, and 1739, form a clear textual line: from P46 (early second century) to B (early fourth century) to 1739 (tenth century based on fourth century).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTextoftheNewTestament\">The Text of the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The original text of the NT is the “published” text—that is, the text as it was in its final edited form and released for circulation in the Christian community. For some books of the NT, there is little difference between the original composition and the published text. After the author wrote or dictated his work, he (or an associate) made the final editorial corrections and then released it for distribution. As is the case for books published in modern times, so in ancient times, the original writing of the author is not always the same as what is published—due to the editorial process. Nonetheless, the author is credited with the final edited text, and the published book is attributed to the author and considered the autograph. This autograph is the original published text. Of course, in this case the autographs do not exist, so scholars have to rely on copies to recover or reconstruct the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars think it is impossible to recover the original text of the Greek NT because they have not been able to reconstruct the early history of textual transmission. Other modern scholars are less pessimistic but still quite guarded in affirming the possiblity. And yet others are optimistic because we possess many early manuscripts of excellent quality and because our view of the early period of textual transmission has been getting clearer and clearer.<\/p>\n<p>When we speak of recovering the text of the NT, we are referring to individual books of the NT, not to the entire volume per se, because each book (or group of books—such as the Pauline Epistles) had its own unique history of textual transmission. The earliest extant copy of an entire NT text is the one preserved in Codex Sinaiticus (written about <span>AD<\/span> 375). (Codex Vaticanus lacks the Pastoral Epistles and Revelation.) Prior to the fourth century, the NT was circulated in its various parts: as a single book or a group of books (such as the four Gospels or the Pauline Epistles). Manuscripts from the late first century to the third century have been found with individual books such as Matthew (P1, P77), Mark (P88), Luke (P69), John (P5, 22, 52, 66), Acts (P91), Revelation (P18, 47), or containing groups of books, such as the four Gospels with Acts (P45), the Pauline Epistles (P30, P46, P92), the Petrine Epistles and Jude (P72). Each of the books of the NT has had its own textual history and has been preserved with varying degrees of accuracy. Nonetheless, all of the books were altered from the original state due to the process of manual copying decade after decade and century after century. And the text of each of the books needs to be recovered.<\/p>\n<p>The NT text was affected with many variations in its early history. In the late first and early second century, the oral traditions and the written word existed side by side with equal status—especially with respect to the material of the Gospels. Often, the text was changed by scribes attempting to conform the written message to the oral tradition or attempting to conform one Gospel account to another. By the end of the second century and into the third century, many of the significant variant readings entered into the textual stream.<\/p>\n<p>The early period of textual transmission, however, was not completely marred by textual infidelity and scribal liberty. There were those scribes who copied the text faithfully and reverently—that is, they recognized that they were copying a sacred text written by an apostle. The formalization of canonization did not ascribe this sacredness to the text. Canonization came about as the result of common, historical recognition of the sacredness of various NT books. Certain NT books, such as the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s epistles were considered inspired literature from the onset. As such, certain scribes copied them with reverential fidelity.<\/p>\n<p>Other scribes, however, felt free to make “improvements” in the text—either in the interest of doctrine and harmonization or due to the influence of a competitive oral tradition. The manuscripts produced in such a manner created a kind of “popular text”—i.e., an uncontrolled text. (This text type used to be called the “Western text,” but scholars now recognize this as a misnomer.)<\/p>\n<p>During the second century, there were a few men who produced recensions of the NT text. According to Eusebius, Theodotus (and his followers) altered the text for their own purposes. In the middle of the second century, Marcion expunged his copies of the Gospel according to Luke of all references to the Jewish background of Jesus, and Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels contains several textual alterations that gave support to ascetic views. And yet another recendor created the D-type text for the Gospels and Acts. This theologically minded redactor, living in the late second or third century, created a text that had short-lived popularity. Three third-century papyri, P29, P38, P48, each containing a portion from the book of Acts, may be precursors to the D-type text in Acts. But there are other papyri containing portions of Acts that provide even earlier testimony to a purer form of Acts—namely, P45 (c. 150) and P91 (c. 200), thereby showing that the D-type text of Acts did not necessarily antedate the purer form.<\/p>\n<p>Besides these endeavors—which are all noted for creating textual impurities—there was no recension of the NT text in the second century. Rather, it was a period in which there were scribes who exercised freedom in copying and those who demonstrated acumen. The manuscripts produced by the latter are those that come closest to preserving the original text. A prime example of an accurate late-second-century manuscript is P75.<\/p>\n<p>It is a well-known fact that the text produced by the scribe of P75 is a very accurate manuscript. It is also well-known that P75 was the kind of manuscript used in formulating Codex Vaticanus—the readings of P75 and B are remarkably similar. Prior to the discovery of P75, certain scholars thought Codex Vaticanus was the work of a fourth-century recension; others (chiefly Hort) thought it must trace back to a very early and accurate copy. Hort said that Codex Vaticanus preserves “not only a very ancient text, but a very pure line of a very ancient text” (Westcott and Hort, <em>The<\/em> <em>Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> pp 250–51). P75 appears to have shown that Hort was right.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the discovery of P75, many textual scholars were convinced that the second- and third-century papyri displayed a text in flux, a text characterized only by individual independence. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, P45, and the Bodmer Papyri, P66 and P72 (in 2 Peter and Jude), show this kind of independence. Scholars thought that scribes at Alexandria must have used several such texts to produce a good recension—as is exhibited in Codex Vaticanus. But we now know that Codex Vaticanus was not the result of a scholarly recension, resulting from editorial selection across the various textual histories. Rather, it is now quite clear that Codex Vaticanus was simply a copy (with some modifications) of a manuscript much like P75, not a fourth-century recension.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars may point out that this does not automatically mean that P75 and B represent the original text. What it does mean, they say, is that we have a second-century manuscript showing great affinity with a fourth-century manuscript whose quality has been highly esteemed. But various scholars have demonstrated that there was no Alexandrian recension before the time of P75 (late second century) and B (early fourth) and that both these manuscripts represent a relatively pure form of preservation of a relatively pure line of descent from the original text.<\/p>\n<p>The current view about the early text is that certain scribes in Alexandria and\/or scribes familiar with Alexandrian scriptoral practices (perhaps those in Oxyrhynchus) were probably responsible for maintaining a relatively pure text throughout the second, third, and fourth centuries. The Alexandrian scribes, associated with or actually employed by the scriptorium of the great Alexandrian library and\/or members of the scriptorium associated with the catechetical school at Alexandria (called the <em>Didaskelion<\/em>), were trained philologists, grammarians, and textual critics. Their work on the NT was not recensional—that is, it was not an organized emendation of the text. Rather, the work of purification and preservation was probably done here and there by various individuals trained in text criticism. This is apparent in the production of P66, which contains the Gospel of John. This manuscript was probably produced in an Egyptian scriptorium by a novice scribe who made many blunders, which were subsequently corrected by another scribe working in the same scriptorium. The first text produced by the novice could be classified as being very “free,” but the corrected text is far more accurate. (See the discussion on this manuscript above.)<\/p>\n<p>What appears to have happened with the copying of the NT text in the early period in Egypt has been poignantly characterized by Zuntz. He said that when a book was immensely popular (such as Homer’s <em>Iliad<\/em> and <em>Odyssey,<\/em> or Plato’s writings), it was copied with wild enthusiasm by novice and scholar alike. But when grammarians and scribes got ahold of it, they tried to rid it of textual corruption. In the process, however, they may have obliterated some authentic readings, but not many. Thus, the popular text (also known as the “Western text”) could have preserved the original wording in some cases. The popular or free kind of text is displayed in several third-century manuscripts: P9, P37, P40, P45, P72, and P78.<\/p>\n<p>In brief, this popular text is usually displayed in any kind of manuscript that was not produced by Alexandrian influences. This text, given to independence, is not as trustworthy as the Alexandrian text type. But because the Alexandrian text is known as a polished text, the popular text sometimes preserved the original wording. When a variant reading has the support of “Western” and Alexandrian texts, it is very likely original; but when the two are divided, the Alexandrian witnesses more often preserve the original wording.<\/p>\n<p>One dilemma still remains for some textual critics. They cannot explain how a P75\/B-type text coexisted with a Western-type text in the second century. All that can be said is that the Western text generally appears to be inferior to the P75\/B-type text. Of course, this kind of judgment troubles certain scholars, who point out that the esteem given to B and P75 is based on a subjective appreciation of the kind of text they contain (as over against the Western text) rather than on any kind of theoretical reconstruction of the early transmission of the text. This same subjective estimation was at work when Westcott and Hort decided that B was intrinsically superior to D (see their <em>Introduction,<\/em> pp 32–42). Yet the praxis of textual criticism time and again demonstrates that the P75\/B-type text is intrinsically superior to the Western text.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, the manuscripts that represent a pure preservation of the original text are usually those called “Alexandrian.” Some scholars, such as Bruce Metzger, have called the earlier manuscripts “protoAlexandrian,” for they (or manuscripts like them) are thought of as being used to compose an Alexandrian-type text. However, this is looking at things from the perspective of the fourth century. We should look at things from the second century onward and then compare fourth-century manuscripts to those of the second. The second-century manuscripts could still be called “Alexandrian” in the sense that they were produced under Alexandrian influences. Perhaps a distinguishing terminology could be “early Alexandrian” (pre-Constantine) and “later Alexandrian” (post-Constantine). Manuscripts designated as “early Alexandrian” would generally be purer, less editorialized. Manuscripts designated “later Alexandrian” would display editorialization, as well as the influence of other textual traditions.<\/p>\n<p>The “early Alexandrian” text is reflected in many second- and third-century manuscripts. On the top of the list is P75 (c. 175), the work of a competent and careful scribe. Not far behind in quality is P4+P64+P67 (c. 150), the work of an excellent copyist. Other extremely good copies are P1 (c. 200), P20 (early third century), P23 (c. 200), P27 (third century), P28 (third century), P32 (c. 150), P39 (third century), P46 (c. 125), P65 (third century), P66 (in its corrected form—P66<span>c<\/span>; c. 150), P70 (third century), P77 (c. 150), P87 (c. 125), P90 (c. 175), and P91 (c. 200). Several of these manuscripts have been placed in the “strict” category by textual critics Kurt and Barbara Aland—that is, they exhibit “strict” scribal control and therefore are accurate copies of an exemplar, if not the original. These manuscripts are P1, P23, P35, P37, P39, P64\/67, P65, P70, and P75.<\/p>\n<p>The “later Alexandrian” text, which displays editorial polishing, is exhibited in a few manuscripts, such as א (fourth century), T (fifth century), ע (seventh century), L (eighth century), 33 (ninth century), 1739 (a tenth-century manuscript copied from a fourth-century Alexandrian manuscript much like P46), and 579 (13th century). Beginning in the fifth century, Byzantine-type manuscripts began to make their influence in Egypt. Some manuscripts dated around 400 that came from Egypt clearly reflect this influence; Codex Alexandrinus (A) is probably the best example. Other Egyptian manuscripts of this era, such as Codex Sinaiticus (א) and Codex Washingtonianus (W) display large-scale harmonization, which cannot be directly linked to any kind of recension.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the third century, another kind of Greek text came into being and then grew in popularity until it became the dominant text-type throughout Christendom. This is the text-type first instigated by Lucian of Antioch, according to Jerome (in his introduction to his Latin translation of the Gospels). Lucian’s text was a definite recension (i.e., a purposely created edition)—as opposed to the Alexandrian text-type that came about as the result of a process wherein the Alexandrian scribes, upon comparing many manuscripts, attempted to preserve the best text—thereby serving more as textual critics than editors. Of course, the Alexandrians did do some editing—such as we would call copy-editing. The Lucianic text is the outgrowth and culmination of the popular text; it is characterized by smoothness of language, which is achieved by the removal of obscurities and awkward grammatical constructions and by the conflation of variant readings. Lucian (and\/or his associates) must have used many different kinds of manuscripts of varying qualities to produce a harmonized, edited NT text. The kind of editorial work that went into the Lucianic text is what we would call substantive editing.<\/p>\n<p>Lucian’s text was produced prior to the Diocletian persecution (c. 303), during which time many copies of the NT were confiscated and destroyed. Not long after this period of devastation, Constantine came to power and then recognized Christianity as the state religion. There was, of course, a great need for copies of the NT to be made and distributed to churches throughout the Mediterranean world. It was at this time that Lucian’s text began to be propagated by bishops going out from the Antiochan school to churches throughout the East, taking the text with them. Lucian’s text soon became the standard text of the Eastern church and formed the basis for the Byzantine text—and is thus the ultimate authority for the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>While Lucian was forming his recension of the NT text, the Alexandrian text was taking on its final shape. As was mentioned earlier, the formation of the Alexandrian text-type was the result of a process (as opposed to a single editorial recension). The formation of the Alexandrian text involved minor textual criticism (i.e., selecting variant readings among various manuscripts) and copyediting (i.e., producing a readable text). There was far less tampering with the text in the Alexandrian text-type than in the Lucian, and the underlying manuscripts for the Alexandrian text-type were superior to those used by Lucian. Perhaps Hesychius was responsible for giving the Alexandrian text its final shape, and Athanasius of Alexandria may have been the one who made this text the archetypal text for Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>As the years went by, there were fewer and fewer Alexandrian manuscripts produced, and more and more Byzantine manuscripts manufactured. Very few Egyptians continued to read Greek (with the exception of those in St Catherine’s Monastery, the site of the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus), and the rest of the Mediterranean world turned to Latin. It was only those in the Greek-speaking churches in Greece and Byzantium that continued to make copies of the Greek text. For century after century—from the 6th to the 14th—the great majority of NT manuscripts were produced in Byzantium, all bearing the same kind of text. When the first Greek NT was printed (c. 1525), it was based on a Greek text that Erasmus had compiled, using a few late Byzantine manuscripts. This printed text, with minor revisions, became the Textus Receptus.<\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 17th century, earlier manuscripts began to be discovered—manuscripts with a text that differed from that found in the Textus Receptus. Around 1630, Codex Alexandrinus was brought to England. An early fifth-century manuscript, containing the entire NT, it provided a good, early witness to the NT text (it is an especially good witness to the original text of Revelation). Two hundred years later, a German scholar named Constantin von Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus in St Catherine’s Monastery (located near Mt Sinai). The manuscript, dated around <span>AD<\/span> 360, is one of the two oldest vellum (treated animal hide) manuscripts of the Greek NT. The earliest vellum manuscript, Codex Vaticanus, had been in the Vatican’s library since at least 1481, but it had not been made available to scholars until the middle of the 19th century. This manuscript, dated slightly earlier (<span>AD<\/span> 350) than Codex Sinaiticus, had both the OT and NT in Greek, excluding the last part of the NT (Hebrews 9:15 to Revelation 22:21 and the Pastoral Epistles). A hundred years of textual criticism has determined that this manuscript is one of the most accurate and reliable witnesses to the original text.<\/p>\n<p>Other early and important manuscripts were discovered in the 19th century. Through the tireless labors of men like Constantin von Tischendorf, Samuel Tregelles, and F. H. A. Scrivener, manuscripts such as Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Zacynthius, and Codex Augiensis were deciphered, collated, and published.<\/p>\n<p>As the various manuscripts were discovered and made public, certain scholars labored to compile a Greek text that would more closely represent the original text than did the Textus Receptus. Around 1700 John Mill produced an improved Textus Receptus, and in the 1730s Johannes Albert Bengel (known as the father of modern textual and philological studies in the NT) published a text that deviated from the Textus Receptus according to the evidence of earlier manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1800s certain scholars began to abandon the Textus Receptus. Karl Lachman, a classical philologist, produced a fresh text (in 1831) that represented the fourth-century manuscripts. Samuel Tregelles (self-taught in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek), laboring throughout his entire lifetime, concentrated all of his efforts in publishing one Greek text (which came out in six parts, from 1857 to 1872). As is stated in the introduction to this work, Tregelles’s goal was “to exhibit the text of the NT in the very words in which it has been transmitted on the evidence of ancient authority.” Henry Alford also compiled a Greek text based upon the best and earliest manuscripts. In his preface to <em>The Greek New Testament<\/em> (a multivolume commentary on the Greek NT, published in 1849), Alford said he labored for the “demolition of the unworthy and pedantic reverence for the received text, which stood in the way of all chance of discovering the genuine word of God.”<\/p>\n<p>During this same era, Tischendorf was devoting a lifetime of labor to discovering manuscripts and producing accurate editions of the Greek NT. In a letter to his fiancé he wrote, “I am confronted with a sacred task, the struggle to regain the original form of the NT.” In fulfillment of his desire, he discovered Codex Sinaiticus, deciphered the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, collated countless manuscripts, and produced several editions of the Greek NT (the eighth edition is considered the best).<\/p>\n<p>Aided by the work of the previous scholars, two British men, Brooke Westcott and Fenton Hort, worked together for 28 years to produce a volume entitled <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek<\/em> (1881). Along with this publication, they made known their theory (which was chiefly Hort’s) that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (along with a few other early manuscripts) represented a text that most closely replicated the original writing. They called this text the Neutral Text. (According to their studies, the Neutral Text described certain manuscripts that had the least amount of textual corruption.) This is the text that Westcott and Hort relied upon for compiling their volume.<\/p>\n<p>The 19th century was a fruitful era for the recovery of the Greek NT; the 20th century, no less so. Those living in the 20th century have witnessed the discovery of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Chester Beatty Papyri, and the Bodmer Papyri. To date, there are nearly 100 papyri containing portions of the NT—several of which date from the late first century to the early fourth century. These significant discoveries, providing scholars with many ancient manuscripts, have greatly enhanced the effort to recover the original wording of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, Eberhard Nestle used the best editions of the Greek NT produced in the 19th century to compile a text that represented the majority consensus. The work of making new editions was carried on by his son for several years, and then came under the care of Kurt Aland. The latest edition (the 27th) of Nestle-Aland’s <em>Novum Testamentum Graece<\/em> appeared in 1993. The same Greek text appears in another popular volume published by the United Bible Societies, called the <em>Greek New Testament<\/em> (fourth edition). Aland has argued that the Nestle-Aland text, 27th edition (NA<span>27<\/span>), comes closer to the original text of the NT than did Tischendorf or Westcott and Hort. And in several writings he intimates that NA<span>27<\/span> may very well be the original text. Though few, if any, scholars would agree with this, the 27th edition of the Nestle-Aland text is regarded by many as representing the latest and best in textual scholarship.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Textual Criticism<\/h5>\n<p>Textual critics working with ancient literature universally acknowledge the supremacy of earlier manuscripts over later ones. Textual critics not working with the NT would love to have the same kind of early witnesses that biblical scholars possess. In fact, many of them work with manuscripts written 1,000 years after the autographs were composed! We all marvel that the Dead Sea Scrolls have provided a text that is nearly 800 years closer to the originals than the Masoretic manuscripts, and yet many of the Dead Sea manuscripts are still over 600 to 800 years removed from the time of original composition. NT textual critics have a great advantage!<\/p>\n<p>The 19th-century NT textual scholars—such as Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort—worked on the basis that the earliest witnesses are the best witnesses. Some textual scholars have continued this line of recovery using the testimony of the earlier witnesses. But many textual scholars since the time of Westcott and Hort have been less inclined to produce editions based on the theory that the earliest reading is the best. Most present-day textual critics are more inclined to endorse the maxim: the reading that is most likely original is the one that best explains the variants.<\/p>\n<p>This maxim (or “canon” as it is sometimes called), as good as it is, produces conflicting results. For example, two scholars, using this same principle to examine the same variant unit, will not agree. One will argue that one variant was produced by a copyist attempting to emulate the author’s style; the other will claim the same variant has to be original because it accords with the author’s style. One will argue that one variant was produced by an orthodox scribe attempting to rid the text of a reading that could be used to promote heterodoxy or heresy; another will claim that the same variant has to be original because it is orthodox and accords with Christian doctrine (thus a heterodox or heretical scribe must have changed it). Furthermore, this principle allows for the possibility that the reading selected for the text can be taken from any manuscript of any date. This can lead to subjective eclecticism.<\/p>\n<p>Modern textual scholars have attempted to temper the subjectivism by employing a method called “reasoned eclecticism.” This kind of eclecticism applies a combination of internal and external considerations, whereby the character of the variants is evaluated in light of the manuscripts’ evidence and vice versa. This is supposed to produce a balanced view and serve as a check against purely subjective tendencies.<\/p>\n<p>The Alands favor the same kind of approach, calling it the local-genealogical method, which is defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>It is impossible to proceed from the assumption of a manuscript stemma, and on the basis of a full review and analysis of the relationships obtaining among the variety of interrelated branches in the manuscript tradition, to undertake a recension of the data as one would do with other Greek texts. Decisions must be made one by one, instance by instance. This method has been characterized as eclecticism, but wrongly so. After carefully establishing the variety of readings offered in a passage and the possibilities of their interpretation, it must always then be determined afresh on the basis of external and internal criteria which of these readings (and frequently they are quite numerous) is the original, from which the others may be regarded as derivative. From the perspective of our present knowledge, this “local-genealogical” method (if it must be given a name) is the only one which meets the requirements of the NT textual tradition. (Introduction to <em>Novum Testamentum Graece,<\/em> 26th edition)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The “local-genealogical” method assumes that for any given variation unit any manuscript (or manuscripts) may have preserved the original text. Applying this method produces an extremely uneven documentary presentation of the text. Anyone studying the critical apparatus of NA<span>27<\/span> will detect that there is not an even documentary presentation. The eclecticism is dispersed throughout the text.<\/p>\n<p>“Reasoned eclecticism” and\/or the “local-genealogical” method tend to give priority to internal evidence over external evidence. But it has to be the other way around if we are going to recover the original text. This was Westcott and Hort’s opinion. With respect to their compilation of <em>The New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> Hort wrote, “Documentary evidence has been in most cases allowed to confer the place of honour against internal evidence” (<em>The Introduction to the New Testament in the Original Greek,<\/em> p 17).<\/p>\n<p>In this respect, Westcott and Hort need to be revived. Earnest Colwell was of the same mind when he wrote “Hort Redivivus: A Plea and a Program.” Colwell decried the growing tendency to rely entirely on the internal evidence of readings, without serious consideration of documentary evidence. He called upon scholars to make an attempt to reconstruct a history of the manuscript tradition. The abundance of manuscripts—several of which are very early—will aid scholars in this ongoing task.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Manuscripts and Text of the (New Testament) Copies of the NT books produced by scribes and editions made from these copies. In the centuries prior to the simultaneous-multiple production of copies via dictation (wherein many scribes in a scriptorium transcribed a text dictated to them by one reader), all manuscript copies were made singly—each scribe producing a copy from an exemplar. Prior to the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type for the printing press, all ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11848,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Faith","title_en":"Faith","content_ro":"<h3>FAITH<\/h3>\n<p>Belief in that which has no tangible proof; trust in God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DefinitionofFaith\">Definition of Faith<\/p>\n<p>In the OT and NT, “faith” carries several meanings. It may mean simple trust in God or in the Word of God, and at other times faith almost becomes equivalent to active obedience. It may also find expression in the affirmation of a creedal statement. Thus, it also comes to mean the entire body of received Christian teaching or truth—“the truth.” In Colossians 2:7, the term suggests something to be accepted as a whole and embodied in personal life. In 2 Timothy 4:7, Paul witnesses to having “kept the faith.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FaithintheOldTestament\">Faith in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT also strongly emphasizes faith as confidence in God’s covenant or in the covenant God made with Abraham and his descendants. The call of Abraham and the promise that his descendants would be used in the history of redemption became the basis of the narratives of the OT, being seen as the working out of that covenant. Once the nation Israel was brought into being, God sustained and protected it. The exodus from Egypt is a prominent indication that God was at work restoring his people to the Promised Land. The obedience of the people of God as the proper expression of faith is seen clearly in the OT. Without seeing God, his people believed and obeyed him. Abraham left his native land to go into unknown territory. The people of Israel left Egypt following the leadership of God to a land they could not see. The promise of God gave them courage to possess the land promised to them. After the exodus, the covenant of Abraham was confirmed with the people of Israel by the sprinkling of blood (Ex 24:6-7). There was to be strict obedience to God’s commands as an expression of faith. This response of human faith to the Lord’s faithfulness was national and collective. There also were commands to, and instances of, personal faith.<\/p>\n<p>Not only the narrative and legal portions of the OT but also the poetic and prophetic writings emphasize faith. The Psalms abound in expressions of personal confidence in the Lord even in dark times. Habakkuk points out that “the righteous shall live by his faith” (Hb 2:4). From such instances it is clear that, as the Lord’s education of Israel proceeded, the matter of faith in God’s faithfulness became more and more a matter of individual and personal response, and it is in the Prophets that several ingredients—such as trust, obedience, fear, and certainty—blend into the understanding of such personal faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FaithintheNewTestament\">Faith in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>As over against the OT, where the accent is on the faithfulness of God, in the NT the emphasis is placed on the active, responding faith of the hearer to the promised, final revelation in the Messiah, Jesus. Both verb and noun regularly describe the adequate response of people to Jesus’ word and to the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>The most striking feature of the synoptic Gospels (quoted below from the <span>rsv<\/span>) is the use of faith without identifying its object: “If you have faith as a grain of mustard seed” (Mt 17:20); “When Jesus saw their faith” (Mk 2:5); “Your faith has saved you” (Lk 7:50). Jesus is portrayed as one who by his work and word opens the door to faith and makes faith possible. The question is not whether the faith is in Jesus or in the Father; the implication is undoubtedly both, but as with every true bearer of the Word of God, the eye of faith is turned to the One who sends.<\/p>\n<p>On more than one occasion, Jesus denies the request for a miracle to substantiate his words (Mt 12:38-39; 16:1-4). Faith is response to the Word alone without any supporting props. No sign is to be given but the sign of Jonah. In the story of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:19-31), Jesus denies the request for the spectacular and insists that the hearer must respond to the word given to him (cf. Jn 20:29). The Word demands self-surrender and commitment. Hence, the very nature of the Word and of faith becomes an obstacle to the proud and the powerful.<\/p>\n<p>Faith is the medium by which the power of God is made visible. It moves mountains, heals the sick, and is the means of entrance into the kingdom. It may be mingled with doubt, as with the father who sought healing for his son (“I believe; help my unbelief!” [Mk 9:24]), or as with John the Baptist in prison, who, even with his doubts, was confirmed by Jesus as the greatest of the offspring of woman (Mt 11:2-15). Peter’s (and the other disciples’) perception was faulty, but Jesus affirms Peter’s confession as the foundation stone of the church. The synoptic Gospels portray the early faith of the disciples in all its limitations and weaknesses, yet it is still faith in that it is their positive response to Jesus’ word and work.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fourth Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>Faith is an especially significant concept in the Gospel of John (quoted below from the <span>rsv<\/span>), though the word (in the Greek) occurs only as a verb. Quite often the reference has to do with the acceptance that something is true, that is, simple credence, or belief: “Believe me that I am in the Father and the Father in me” (Jn 14:11); “If you believed Moses, you would believe me” (Jn 5:46).<\/p>\n<p>Even more significant is the special expression “to believe into” in the sense of putting one’s trust into another. The particular form of the expression is without parallel before the fourth Gospel and may well express the strong sense of personal trust in the eternal Word made flesh. In John 3:16, whoever puts trust in him has eternal life. Those who put their trust in him are given power to become sons of God—to be born of God (Jn 1:12). They will never thirst (6:35); they will live, even though they die (11:25).<\/p>\n<p>In other places, John speaks of trust or faith in an absolute sense, that is, without referring to the one in whom trust is placed. In John 11:15 Jesus arrives after the death of Lazarus and is glad “in order that you might believe.” The outcome is going to be faith. Similarly, in the prologue (1:7), John the Baptist bears witness in order that through him all might believe. As Jesus satisfies the doubt of Thomas concerning the resurrection, he says, “Have you believed because you have seen me? Blessed are those who have not seen and yet believe” (20:29). In these and other passages the fundamental outcome of Jesus’ witness to himself is trust.<\/p>\n<p>Faith and knowledge are closely related. In John 6:69 Peter says, “We have believed, and have come to know, that you are the Holy One of God.” In his priestly prayer Jesus says that eternal life is to “know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom you have sent” (Jn 17:3). Also, God is seen through the eyes of faith. No one has ever seen God, but the Only Begotten has revealed him (1:18). He who has seen Jesus has seen the Father (14:9).<\/p>\n<p>To believe is also expressed in the verb “receive.” Those who receive Christ are given power to become the sons of God (Jn 1:12). Trust is that form of knowing or seeing by which the glory of God (1:14; 17:4) is made present.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>In Paul’s letters (quoted below from the <span>rsv<\/span>), he writes about faith from a number of angles. He sets faith over against “works of the law” as the only and true basis for righteousness (Rom 1–4; Gal 1–4) and appeals to Abraham to prove his point: “Abraham believed God and it was reckoned to him for righteousness” (Gn 15:6; cf. Rom 4:5; Gal 3:6). This is entirely apart from the law (Rom 3:21); righteousness is the gift of God through faith in Christ, specifically in his atoning work. Behind Paul’s conviction lies his awareness of the radical and pervasive sinfulness of humans that renders each one helpless. Humanity is dead in sin but is made alive by faith in the word and work of Jesus mediated through the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Faith, then, is faith in Jesus Christ. The number of metaphors Paul employs to describe the consequences of faith is staggering. It is by faith that believers are justified (Rom 5:1), reconciled (2 Cor 5:18), redeemed (Eph 1:7), made alive (2:5), adopted into the family of God (Rom 8:15-16), re-created (2 Cor 5:17), transported into a new kingdom (Col 1:13), and set free (Gal 5:1). Faith is, for Paul, the <em>sine qua non<\/em> of every aspect of salvation, from the grace that convicts to the receiving of the full inheritance at the coming of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s letters, faith is bound up with love so that the great exponent of justification by faith becomes also the articulate exponent of distinctive Christian love. To say that faith is indispensable to salvation is only part of the truth, for faith expresses itself through love: “For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is of any avail, but faith working through love” (Gal 5:6); “If I have all faith, so as to remove mountains, but have not love, I am nothing” (1 Cor 13:2). Love is both the genesis and the ultimate expression of faith. Hence, even for Paul there can be no <em>total<\/em> separation between faith and works. This love of which Paul speaks is the essential fruit of the Spirit through whom the life of faith is lived. Only by virtue of the indwelling Spirit does faith find expression in love.<\/p>\n<h5>General Epistles<\/h5>\n<p>James speaks of faith as being completed by works (Jas 2:22). He opposed that concept of faith that thinks primarily of creedal assent, of believing that something is true without acting upon it. James, like Paul, assumes the primacy of faith, but he is warning against those who would draw wrong conclusions. Faith apart from works is not faith; it is barren (v 20). The practical dimension of faith is the burden of much of this epistle.<\/p>\n<p>The writer of Hebrews recognizes that faith has always been characteristic of the people of God and their specially called leaders. Faith makes substantial what is otherwise nebulous and uncertain; it makes evidential what is not visible. By faith the people of God have a more certain ground for their lives and their actions than the world is able to discern (Heb 11:1). The great cloud of witnesses (12:1) bear testimony by their faith to the faithfulness of God.<\/p>\n<p>Faith is opened up by the Word of God, finds expression through the Holy Spirit who is given, and bears witness to the lordship of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAITH<\/h3>\n<p>Belief in that which has no tangible proof; trust in God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DefinitionofFaith\">Definition of Faith<\/p>\n<p>In the OT and NT, “faith” carries several meanings. It may mean simple trust in God or in the Word of God, and at other times faith almost becomes equivalent to active obedience. It may also find expression in the affirmation of a creedal statement. Thus, it also comes to mean the entire body of received Christian teaching or truth—“the truth.” In Colossians 2:7, the term suggests something to be accepted as a whole and embodied in personal life. In 2 Timothy 4:7, Paul witnesses to having “kept the faith.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FaithintheOldTestament\">Faith in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT also strongly emphasizes faith as confidence in God’s covenant or in the covenant God made with Abraham and his descendants. The call of Abraham and the promise that his descendants would be used in the history of redemption became the basis of the narratives of the OT, being seen as the working out of that covenant. Once the nation Israel was brought into being, God sustained and protected it. The exodus from Egypt is a prominent indication that God was at work restoring his people to the Promised Land. The obedience of the people of God as the proper expression of faith is seen clearly in the OT. Without seeing God, his people believed and obeyed him. Abraham left his native land to go into unknown territory. The people of Israel left Egypt following the leadership of God to a land they could not see. The promise of God gave them courage to possess the land promised to them. After the exodus, the covenant of Abraham was confirmed with the people of Israel by the sprinkling of blood (Ex 24:6-7). There was to be strict obedience to God’s commands as an expression of faith. This response of human faith to the Lord’s faithfulness was national and collective. There also were commands to, and instances of, personal faith.<\/p>\n<p>Not only the narrative and legal portions of the OT but also the poetic and prophetic writings emphasize faith. The Psalms abound in expressions of personal confidence in the Lord even in dark times. Habakkuk points out that “the righteous shall live by his faith” (Hb 2:4). From such instances it is clear that, as the Lord’s education of Israel proceeded, the matter of faith in God’s faithfulness became more and more a matter of individual and personal response, and it is in the Prophets that several ingredients—such as trust, obedience, fear, and certainty—blend into the understanding of such personal faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FaithintheNewTestament\">Faith in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>As over against the OT, where the accent is on the faithfulness of God, in the NT the emphasis is placed on the active, responding faith of the hearer to the promised, final revelation in the Messiah, Jesus. Both verb and noun regularly describe the adequate response of people to Jesus’ word and to the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>The most striking feature of the synoptic Gospels (quoted below from the <span>rsv<\/span>) is the use of faith without identifying its object: “If you have faith as a grain of mustard seed” (Mt 17:20); “When Jesus saw their faith” (Mk 2:5); “Your faith has saved you” (Lk 7:50). Jesus is portrayed as one who by his work and word opens the door to faith and makes faith possible. The question is not whether the faith is in Jesus or in the Father; the implication is undoubtedly both, but as with every true bearer of the Word of God, the eye of faith is turned to the One who sends.<\/p>\n<p>On more than one occasion, Jesus denies the request for a miracle to substantiate his words (Mt 12:38-39; 16:1-4). Faith is response to the Word alone without any supporting props. No sign is to be given but the sign of Jonah. In the story of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:19-31), Jesus denies the request for the spectacular and insists that the hearer must respond to the word given to him (cf. Jn 20:29). The Word demands self-surrender and commitment. Hence, the very nature of the Word and of faith becomes an obstacle to the proud and the powerful.<\/p>\n<p>Faith is the medium by which the power of God is made visible. It moves mountains, heals the sick, and is the means of entrance into the kingdom. It may be mingled with doubt, as with the father who sought healing for his son (“I believe; help my unbelief!” [Mk 9:24]), or as with John the Baptist in prison, who, even with his doubts, was confirmed by Jesus as the greatest of the offspring of woman (Mt 11:2-15). Peter’s (and the other disciples’) perception was faulty, but Jesus affirms Peter’s confession as the foundation stone of the church. The synoptic Gospels portray the early faith of the disciples in all its limitations and weaknesses, yet it is still faith in that it is their positive response to Jesus’ word and work.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fourth Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>Faith is an especially significant concept in the Gospel of John (quoted below from the <span>rsv<\/span>), though the word (in the Greek) occurs only as a verb. Quite often the reference has to do with the acceptance that something is true, that is, simple credence, or belief: “Believe me that I am in the Father and the Father in me” (Jn 14:11); “If you believed Moses, you would believe me” (Jn 5:46).<\/p>\n<p>Even more significant is the special expression “to believe into” in the sense of putting one’s trust into another. The particular form of the expression is without parallel before the fourth Gospel and may well express the strong sense of personal trust in the eternal Word made flesh. In John 3:16, whoever puts trust in him has eternal life. Those who put their trust in him are given power to become sons of God—to be born of God (Jn 1:12). They will never thirst (6:35); they will live, even though they die (11:25).<\/p>\n<p>In other places, John speaks of trust or faith in an absolute sense, that is, without referring to the one in whom trust is placed. In John 11:15 Jesus arrives after the death of Lazarus and is glad “in order that you might believe.” The outcome is going to be faith. Similarly, in the prologue (1:7), John the Baptist bears witness in order that through him all might believe. As Jesus satisfies the doubt of Thomas concerning the resurrection, he says, “Have you believed because you have seen me? Blessed are those who have not seen and yet believe” (20:29). In these and other passages the fundamental outcome of Jesus’ witness to himself is trust.<\/p>\n<p>Faith and knowledge are closely related. In John 6:69 Peter says, “We have believed, and have come to know, that you are the Holy One of God.” In his priestly prayer Jesus says that eternal life is to “know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom you have sent” (Jn 17:3). Also, God is seen through the eyes of faith. No one has ever seen God, but the Only Begotten has revealed him (1:18). He who has seen Jesus has seen the Father (14:9).<\/p>\n<p>To believe is also expressed in the verb “receive.” Those who receive Christ are given power to become the sons of God (Jn 1:12). Trust is that form of knowing or seeing by which the glory of God (1:14; 17:4) is made present.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>In Paul’s letters (quoted below from the <span>rsv<\/span>), he writes about faith from a number of angles. He sets faith over against “works of the law” as the only and true basis for righteousness (Rom 1–4; Gal 1–4) and appeals to Abraham to prove his point: “Abraham believed God and it was reckoned to him for righteousness” (Gn 15:6; cf. Rom 4:5; Gal 3:6). This is entirely apart from the law (Rom 3:21); righteousness is the gift of God through faith in Christ, specifically in his atoning work. Behind Paul’s conviction lies his awareness of the radical and pervasive sinfulness of humans that renders each one helpless. Humanity is dead in sin but is made alive by faith in the word and work of Jesus mediated through the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Faith, then, is faith in Jesus Christ. The number of metaphors Paul employs to describe the consequences of faith is staggering. It is by faith that believers are justified (Rom 5:1), reconciled (2 Cor 5:18), redeemed (Eph 1:7), made alive (2:5), adopted into the family of God (Rom 8:15-16), re-created (2 Cor 5:17), transported into a new kingdom (Col 1:13), and set free (Gal 5:1). Faith is, for Paul, the <em>sine qua non<\/em> of every aspect of salvation, from the grace that convicts to the receiving of the full inheritance at the coming of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s letters, faith is bound up with love so that the great exponent of justification by faith becomes also the articulate exponent of distinctive Christian love. To say that faith is indispensable to salvation is only part of the truth, for faith expresses itself through love: “For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is of any avail, but faith working through love” (Gal 5:6); “If I have all faith, so as to remove mountains, but have not love, I am nothing” (1 Cor 13:2). Love is both the genesis and the ultimate expression of faith. Hence, even for Paul there can be no <em>total<\/em> separation between faith and works. This love of which Paul speaks is the essential fruit of the Spirit through whom the life of faith is lived. Only by virtue of the indwelling Spirit does faith find expression in love.<\/p>\n<h5>General Epistles<\/h5>\n<p>James speaks of faith as being completed by works (Jas 2:22). He opposed that concept of faith that thinks primarily of creedal assent, of believing that something is true without acting upon it. James, like Paul, assumes the primacy of faith, but he is warning against those who would draw wrong conclusions. Faith apart from works is not faith; it is barren (v 20). The practical dimension of faith is the burden of much of this epistle.<\/p>\n<p>The writer of Hebrews recognizes that faith has always been characteristic of the people of God and their specially called leaders. Faith makes substantial what is otherwise nebulous and uncertain; it makes evidential what is not visible. By faith the people of God have a more certain ground for their lives and their actions than the world is able to discern (Heb 11:1). The great cloud of witnesses (12:1) bear testimony by their faith to the faithfulness of God.<\/p>\n<p>Faith is opened up by the Word of God, finds expression through the Holy Spirit who is given, and bears witness to the lordship of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAITH Belief in that which has no tangible proof; trust in God. Definition of Faith In the OT and NT, “faith” carries several meanings. It may mean simple trust in God or in the Word of God, and at other times faith almost becomes equivalent to active obedience. It may also find expression in the affirmation of a creedal statement. Thus, it also comes to mean the entire body of received Christian teaching or truth—“the truth.” In Colossians 2:7, the term suggests something to be accepted as a...","summary_en":"FAITH Belief in that which has no tangible proof; trust in God. Definition of Faith In the OT and NT, “faith” carries several meanings. It may mean simple trust in God or in the Word of God, and at other times faith almost becomes equivalent to active obedience. It may also find expression in the affirmation of a creedal statement. Thus, it also comes to mean the entire body of received Christian teaching or truth—“the truth.” In Colossians 2:7, the term suggests something to be accepted as a...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13086,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Galatians","title_en":"Letter to the Galatians","content_ro":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","summary_en":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28569,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ordination Ordain","title_en":"Ordination Ordain","content_ro":"<h3>ORDAIN, ORDINATION<\/h3>\n<p>The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Levi (Dt 33:8-11; Jgs 17:13). Through all subsequent clan rivalries—“Zadokite,” “Aaronic,” “Hasmonean”—this claim to inherited privilege persisted. Divine appointment through Levi was traced back to Moses (Ex 4:14; 28:41; 29:9), claimed for the Ephraimite Samuel (1 Chr 6:28), and still celebrated by Sirach (Ecclus 45:6-22, c. 180 <span>BC<\/span>). As the book of Hebrews states (Heb 5:1, 4), no one takes the honor upon himself; he is “called by God, as Aaron was,” by birth into an inherited status.<\/p>\n<p>The first Levites were presented at the tabernacle in the presence of the people, and acknowledged by “the laying on of hands” (Nm 8:10, 14-18). Similarly, Moses received instructions for the week-long consecration of Aaron and his sons, with elaborate sacrifices, vestments, anointing, and ritual (Ex 29; Lv 8). In both cases, the careful preservation of these detailed instructions suggests that the ceremonies were retained, to some degree, in later years, though no repetition is recorded.<\/p>\n<p>Alongside the priests there existed establishments of recognized prophets, or prophetic communities, sometimes with royal patronage (1 Sm 10:5; 1 Kgs 1:9-10; 18:17-19; 20:35; 22:5-28; 2 Kgs 2:3-7; 23:2). The line of prophecy was also traced back to earliest days (see Gn 20:7; Dt 34:10; Jgs 4:4; Jer 7:25). The phrase “sons of the prophets,” and an obscure hint in Jeremiah 35:4, may imply that prophecy, like priesthood, was sometimes hereditary, but the manner of appointment and installation is unknown. The outstanding prophets were frequently opposed to the prophetic “schools” (Elijah, 1 Kgs 17; Micaiah, 1 Kgs 22:5-28; Jeremiah, Jer 27:14-16; 28). Such men were appointed by direct, divine call (1 Kgs 17:1; 21:17; Is 6; Jer 1; Am 7:15), though by God’s instruction Elisha was called and anointed by Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16; cf. Is 61:1). Authentication of the prophet’s message lay not in appropriate installation ceremonies but in its self-evident truth; in the case of predictions, in their fulfillment (1 Kgs 22:13-14, 26-28; Jer 28:5-9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Christian ordination is also a matter of divine choice. Neither Jesus, nor any disciple, came from the professional religious classes. In ordaining the 12 apostles, Jesus called to him those whom he desired, later insisting, “You did not choose me, but I chose you and appointed you” (Jn 15:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The selection of Matthias rested upon prayer and the divine lot (Acts 1:24-26). Paul contended that he had been set apart by God before he was born and did not receive his apostleship from or through men (Gal 1:1, 15). Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by direction of the Spirit during worship, probably through a Christian prophet. Similarly, Timothy was first chosen as assistant to Paul by prophetic utterances that pointed to him (1 Tm 1:18; 4:14).<\/p>\n<p>At Corinth, various ministries of speaking, teaching, healing, and administration were directly conferred as gifts of the Spirit, who apportions as he sees fit (1 Cor 12:8-11, 28; cf. Eph 4:11). Elders of the church at Ephesus were made guardians of the flock by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28). The divine prerogative is everywhere clear: any attempt to obtain the privilege of ministry by personal initiative and unworthy means meets with sharpest condemnation (8:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, the assembled church “nominated” Barsabbas and Matthias before submitting the final choice to God (Acts 1:15, 23). The believers chose the seven servers, then presented them to the apostles (6:2-6). An assembled church, at the Spirit’s command, commissioned and sent off Paul and Barnabas (13:3). Paul and Barnabas themselves appointed elders (14:23), as Titus is instructed to do (Ti 1:5), and probably Timothy also (1 Tm 5:22). Elders at Lystra and Iconium, with Paul, obeying a Christian prophet, appointed Timothy to leadership (1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6). By the time letters were written to Timothy and Titus, elaborate lists of qualifications were required for church leaders (1 Tm 3:1-13; 2 Tm 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>The congregation of believers also participated in selecting leaders. This could have involved prayer, fasting, and casting lots (Acts 1:26; 6:6; 13:2-3; 14:23); sometimes “selection by hands” (Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">cheirotonein<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally meaning “election by raising hands,” later “selection by pointing to”; cf. Acts 14:23; 2 Cor 8:19); and sometimes selection by group choice (Acts 1:15, 23; 6:2-5; 13:3; 16:2; 1 Tm 4:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreordination.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ORDAIN, ORDINATION<\/h3>\n<p>The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Levi (Dt 33:8-11; Jgs 17:13). Through all subsequent clan rivalries—“Zadokite,” “Aaronic,” “Hasmonean”—this claim to inherited privilege persisted. Divine appointment through Levi was traced back to Moses (Ex 4:14; 28:41; 29:9), claimed for the Ephraimite Samuel (1 Chr 6:28), and still celebrated by Sirach (Ecclus 45:6-22, c. 180 <span>BC<\/span>). As the book of Hebrews states (Heb 5:1, 4), no one takes the honor upon himself; he is “called by God, as Aaron was,” by birth into an inherited status.<\/p>\n<p>The first Levites were presented at the tabernacle in the presence of the people, and acknowledged by “the laying on of hands” (Nm 8:10, 14-18). Similarly, Moses received instructions for the week-long consecration of Aaron and his sons, with elaborate sacrifices, vestments, anointing, and ritual (Ex 29; Lv 8). In both cases, the careful preservation of these detailed instructions suggests that the ceremonies were retained, to some degree, in later years, though no repetition is recorded.<\/p>\n<p>Alongside the priests there existed establishments of recognized prophets, or prophetic communities, sometimes with royal patronage (1 Sm 10:5; 1 Kgs 1:9-10; 18:17-19; 20:35; 22:5-28; 2 Kgs 2:3-7; 23:2). The line of prophecy was also traced back to earliest days (see Gn 20:7; Dt 34:10; Jgs 4:4; Jer 7:25). The phrase “sons of the prophets,” and an obscure hint in Jeremiah 35:4, may imply that prophecy, like priesthood, was sometimes hereditary, but the manner of appointment and installation is unknown. The outstanding prophets were frequently opposed to the prophetic “schools” (Elijah, 1 Kgs 17; Micaiah, 1 Kgs 22:5-28; Jeremiah, Jer 27:14-16; 28). Such men were appointed by direct, divine call (1 Kgs 17:1; 21:17; Is 6; Jer 1; Am 7:15), though by God’s instruction Elisha was called and anointed by Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16; cf. Is 61:1). Authentication of the prophet’s message lay not in appropriate installation ceremonies but in its self-evident truth; in the case of predictions, in their fulfillment (1 Kgs 22:13-14, 26-28; Jer 28:5-9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Christian ordination is also a matter of divine choice. Neither Jesus, nor any disciple, came from the professional religious classes. In ordaining the 12 apostles, Jesus called to him those whom he desired, later insisting, “You did not choose me, but I chose you and appointed you” (Jn 15:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The selection of Matthias rested upon prayer and the divine lot (Acts 1:24-26). Paul contended that he had been set apart by God before he was born and did not receive his apostleship from or through men (Gal 1:1, 15). Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by direction of the Spirit during worship, probably through a Christian prophet. Similarly, Timothy was first chosen as assistant to Paul by prophetic utterances that pointed to him (1 Tm 1:18; 4:14).<\/p>\n<p>At Corinth, various ministries of speaking, teaching, healing, and administration were directly conferred as gifts of the Spirit, who apportions as he sees fit (1 Cor 12:8-11, 28; cf. Eph 4:11). Elders of the church at Ephesus were made guardians of the flock by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28). The divine prerogative is everywhere clear: any attempt to obtain the privilege of ministry by personal initiative and unworthy means meets with sharpest condemnation (8:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, the assembled church “nominated” Barsabbas and Matthias before submitting the final choice to God (Acts 1:15, 23). The believers chose the seven servers, then presented them to the apostles (6:2-6). An assembled church, at the Spirit’s command, commissioned and sent off Paul and Barnabas (13:3). Paul and Barnabas themselves appointed elders (14:23), as Titus is instructed to do (Ti 1:5), and probably Timothy also (1 Tm 5:22). Elders at Lystra and Iconium, with Paul, obeying a Christian prophet, appointed Timothy to leadership (1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6). By the time letters were written to Timothy and Titus, elaborate lists of qualifications were required for church leaders (1 Tm 3:1-13; 2 Tm 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>The congregation of believers also participated in selecting leaders. This could have involved prayer, fasting, and casting lots (Acts 1:26; 6:6; 13:2-3; 14:23); sometimes “selection by hands” (Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">cheirotonein<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally meaning “election by raising hands,” later “selection by pointing to”; cf. Acts 14:23; 2 Cor 8:19); and sometimes selection by group choice (Acts 1:15, 23; 6:2-5; 13:3; 16:2; 1 Tm 4:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreordination.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ORDAIN, ORDINATION The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service. In the Old Testament Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Lev...","summary_en":"ORDAIN, ORDINATION The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service. In the Old Testament Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Lev...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57900,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1–2:21<\/strong> Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1–2:21<\/strong> Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1–2:21 Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.","summary_en":"1:1–2:21 Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57901,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1-5<\/strong> As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1-5<\/strong> As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1-5 As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).","summary_en":"1:1-5 As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57902,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>Paul, an apostle:<\/em> Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned <em>by Jesus Christ himself<\/em> and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to <em>God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead<\/em>. The resurrection made Paul’s commission possible.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>Paul, an apostle:<\/em> Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned <em>by Jesus Christ himself<\/em> and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to <em>God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead<\/em>. The resurrection made Paul’s commission possible.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1 Paul, an apostle: Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned by Jesus Christ himself and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead...","summary_en":"1:1 Paul, an apostle: Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned by Jesus Christ himself and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85526,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1–2:21<\/strong> Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1–2:21<\/strong> Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1–2:21 Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.","summary_en":"1:1–2:21 Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85527,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1-5<\/strong> As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1-5<\/strong> As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1-5 As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).","summary_en":"1:1-5 As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85528,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>Paul, an apostle:<\/em> Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned <em>by Jesus Christ himself<\/em> and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to <em>God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead<\/em>. The resurrection made Paul’s commission possible.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>Paul, an apostle:<\/em> Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned <em>by Jesus Christ himself<\/em> and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to <em>God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead<\/em>. The resurrection made Paul’s commission possible.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1 Paul, an apostle: Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned by Jesus Christ himself and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead...","summary_en":"1:1 Paul, an apostle: Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned by Jesus Christ himself and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113152,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1–2:21<\/strong> Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1–2:21<\/strong> Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1–2:21 Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.","summary_en":"1:1–2:21 Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113153,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1-5<\/strong> As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1-5<\/strong> As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1-5 As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).","summary_en":"1:1-5 As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113154,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>Paul, an apostle:<\/em> Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned <em>by Jesus Christ himself<\/em> and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to <em>God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead<\/em>. The resurrection made Paul’s commission possible.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>Paul, an apostle:<\/em> Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned <em>by Jesus Christ himself<\/em> and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to <em>God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead<\/em>. The resurrection made Paul’s commission possible.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1 Paul, an apostle: Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned by Jesus Christ himself and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead...","summary_en":"1:1 Paul, an apostle: Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned by Jesus Christ himself and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140778,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1–2:21<\/strong> Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1–2:21<\/strong> Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1–2:21 Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.","summary_en":"1:1–2:21 Paul’s opponents had questioned his integrity and authority as an apostle, so he opens his letter by defending his apostleship.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140779,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1-5<\/strong> As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1-5<\/strong> As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1-5 As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).","summary_en":"1:1-5 As in all his letters, Paul identifies himself and greets the recipients. This greeting is notable for (1) Paul’s strong assertion of his apostolic authority (1:1); and (2) the lack of thanks, prayer, or praise, which are replaced by rebuke (1:6-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140780,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>Paul, an apostle:<\/em> Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned <em>by Jesus Christ himself<\/em> and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to <em>God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead<\/em>. The resurrection made Paul’s commission possible.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>Paul, an apostle:<\/em> Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned <em>by Jesus Christ himself<\/em> and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to <em>God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead<\/em>. The resurrection made Paul’s commission possible.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1 Paul, an apostle: Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned by Jesus Christ himself and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead...","summary_en":"1:1 Paul, an apostle: Apostles were commissioned representatives having authority delegated by a sending agent, often a church body or council (e.g., 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). But Paul was not made an apostle by the Jerusalem church. Rather, he was directly commissioned by Jesus Christ himself and had Christ’s authority (Acts 9:1-15; 26:12-20; see also Rom 1:5), which gave him equal authority with the other apostles. • Paul traced his commission to God the Father, who raised Jesus from the dead...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65290,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus","title_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term <em>resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\n<p>The historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term <em>resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\n<p>The historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","summary_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92916,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus","title_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term <em>resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\n<p>The historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term <em>resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\n<p>The historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","summary_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120542,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus","title_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term <em>resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\n<p>The historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term <em>resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\n<p>The historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","summary_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148168,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus","title_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term <em>resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\n<p>The historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term <em>resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\n<p>The historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","summary_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":57903,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:2","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> <em>the brothers and sisters here join me:<\/em> Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • <em>The churches of Galatia<\/em> were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> <em>the brothers and sisters here join me:<\/em> Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • <em>The churches of Galatia<\/em> were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:2 the brothers and sisters here join me: Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • The churches of Galatia were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).","summary_en":"1:2 the brothers and sisters here join me: Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • The churches of Galatia were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85529,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:2","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> <em>the brothers and sisters here join me:<\/em> Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • <em>The churches of Galatia<\/em> were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> <em>the brothers and sisters here join me:<\/em> Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • <em>The churches of Galatia<\/em> were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:2 the brothers and sisters here join me: Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • The churches of Galatia were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).","summary_en":"1:2 the brothers and sisters here join me: Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • The churches of Galatia were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113155,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:2","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> <em>the brothers and sisters here join me:<\/em> Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • <em>The churches of Galatia<\/em> were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> <em>the brothers and sisters here join me:<\/em> Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • <em>The churches of Galatia<\/em> were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:2 the brothers and sisters here join me: Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • The churches of Galatia were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).","summary_en":"1:2 the brothers and sisters here join me: Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • The churches of Galatia were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140781,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:2","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> <em>the brothers and sisters here join me:<\/em> Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • <em>The churches of Galatia<\/em> were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> <em>the brothers and sisters here join me:<\/em> Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • <em>The churches of Galatia<\/em> were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:2 the brothers and sisters here join me: Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • The churches of Galatia were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).","summary_en":"1:2 the brothers and sisters here join me: Paul probably wrote from Antioch of Syria. Antioch was the hub of Paul’s ministry and the earliest center of Gentile Christianity (see Acts 11:20-26). Paul did not stand alone (as his opponents in Galatia might have suggested), but in fellowship with a significant New Testament church. • The churches of Galatia were probably founded by Paul during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:26; see Galatians Book Introduction, “Recipients”).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":29392,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Peace","title_en":"Peace","content_ro":"<h3>PEACE<\/h3>\n<p>Total well-being, prosperity, and security associated with God’s presence among his people. Linked in the OT with the covenant, the presence of peace was conditional, based on Israel’s obedience. In the prophetic writings, true peace is part of the end-time hope of God’s salvation. In the NT, this longed-for peace is understood as having come in Christ and can be experienced by the believers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> the most prominent OT term for “peace,” held a wide range of connotations (wholeness, health, security, well-being, and salvation) and could apply to an equally wide range of contexts: the state of the individual (Ps 37:37; Prv 3:2; Is 32:17), the relationship of person to person (Gn 34:21; Jos 9:15) or nation to nation (e.g., absence of conflict—Dt 2:26; Jos 10:21; 1 Kgs 5:12; Ps 122:6-7), and the relationship of God and people (Ps 85:8; Jer 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>The presence of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> in any of these contexts was not considered ultimately as the outcome of human endeavor but as a gift or blessing of God (Lv 26:6; 1 Kgs 2:33; Jb 25:2; Pss 29:11; 85:8; Is 45:7). It is not surprising, therefore, to find “peace” tied closely to the OT notion of covenant. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalom<\/span> was the desired state of harmony and communion between the two covenant partners—God and his people (Nm 6:26; cf. Is 54:10). Its presence signified God’s blessing in the covenant relationship (Mal 2:5; cf. Nm 25:12), and its absence signified the breakdown of that relationship due to Israel’s disobedience and unrighteousness (Jer 16:5, 10-13; cf. Ps 85:9-11; Is 32:17).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalom<\/span> becomes a pivotal term in the prophetic writings. It was the “false” prophets who, forgetting the conditions for national well-being within the covenant relationship, assumed God’s loyalty to Israel (Ps 89) would guarantee political peace forever (Jer 6:14; 8:15; Ez 13:10, 16; Mi 3:5). Against such popular but false security, the preexilic prophets proclaimed the coming judgment precisely as a loss of this <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> due to Israel’s persistent disobedience and unrighteousness (Is 48:18; Jer 14:13-16; 16:5, 10-13; 28; Mi 3:4, 9-12).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets did, however, point beyond the crises of exile and subsequent setbacks to a time when <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> characterized by prosperity and well-being (Is 45:7; Ez 34:25-26), absence of conflict (Is 2:2-4; 32:15-20; Ez 34:28-31), right relations (Is 11:1-5; Mi 4:1-4; Zec 8:9-13), restoration of harmony in nature (Is 11:6-9; Ez 47:1-12), and salvation (Is 52:7; 60:17; Ez 34:30-31; 37:26-28) would again return. Often this eschatological (or end-time) expectation of peace in the OT was associated with a messianic figure, as in Isaiah 9:6, where the future Messiah is termed the “Prince of Peace.” Moreover, his reign would be one of “peace” not only for Israel but throughout the whole earth (Zec 9:9-10). The OT ends with this hope of peace still unrealized in its full sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The Greek term for “peace” used predominantly in the NT is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eirene<\/span><em>,<\/em> a word expanded from its classical Greek connotation of “rest” to include the various connotations of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> discussed above. As with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eirene<\/span> could be used as a greeting or farewell (as in “peace be with you”—Lk 10:5; Gal 6:16; Jas 2:16; cf. Jn 20:19), or could signify the cessation of conflict (national—Lk 14:32; Acts 12:20; or interpersonal—Rom 14:19; Eph 4:3), or the presence of domestic tranquillity (cf. 1 Cor 7:15).<\/p>\n<p>The chief issue concerns how Jesus incorporated the OT hope for the eschatological peace of God into his ministry. In the “benedictus” of Zechariah (Lk 1:67-79), the coming of Jesus as the Messiah is expected to “guide our feet into the way of peace” (v 79). So also the angelic testimony to the shepherds proclaims Jesus as the bringer of God’s peace to people (2:14). That is, Jesus as the Messiah would usher in God’s reign of peace. Jesus’ self-understanding as expressed in the fourth Gospel corresponds to this association. This long-expected peace of God is Jesus’ farewell gift to the disciples (Jn 14:27); it is given to them when he breathed his Spirit into them (20:19-22).<\/p>\n<p>The nature of this gift of peace brought by Jesus may be easier to explain by stating what it is not. It is not an end to tension or the absence of warfare. It is not domestic tranquillity nor anything like the worldly estimation of peace (Lk 12:51-53; Jn 14:27; 16:32-33). Its presence may, on the contrary, actually disturb existing relations, being a dividing “sword” in familial relations (Mt 10:34-37). Jesus’ gift of peace is, in reality, the character and mood of the new covenant of his blood that reconciles God to people (Rom 5:1; Col 1:20) and forms the basis of subsequent reconciliation between divergent people (Eph 2:14-22).<\/p>\n<p>The early church understood “peace” to be the final, end-time salvation of God given already through Jesus Christ (cf. Phil 4:7-9). This understanding of “peace” altered the content of the common greeting “go in peace” as it was taken up in the Christian community. In Paul’s common “grace and peace” greeting (1 Cor 1:3; 2 Cor 1:2; Gal 1:3; Eph 1:2, etc.; cf. also 1 Pt 1:2; 2 Jn 1:3; Jude 1:2; Rv 1:4), it is no longer a mere wish for peace that Paul extends to his readers but is a reminder of the messianic gifts available in the present time through Christ to the man of faith. In accord with this, Jesus is described as “peace” itself (Eph 2:14), while God, too, because of his act of reconciliation through Christ, is known as a “God of peace” (Phil 4:9; Col 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>This gift of peace or reconciliation with God, made available through Christ, places an ethical demand on the Christian; it calls for the exercises of “peace” (as reconciliation between persons) within the church. Peace, as a fruit of the Spirit (Gal 5:22), is to be the goal of the Christian’s dealings with others (Rom 12:18; 14:19; Heb 12:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PEACE<\/h3>\n<p>Total well-being, prosperity, and security associated with God’s presence among his people. Linked in the OT with the covenant, the presence of peace was conditional, based on Israel’s obedience. In the prophetic writings, true peace is part of the end-time hope of God’s salvation. In the NT, this longed-for peace is understood as having come in Christ and can be experienced by the believers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> the most prominent OT term for “peace,” held a wide range of connotations (wholeness, health, security, well-being, and salvation) and could apply to an equally wide range of contexts: the state of the individual (Ps 37:37; Prv 3:2; Is 32:17), the relationship of person to person (Gn 34:21; Jos 9:15) or nation to nation (e.g., absence of conflict—Dt 2:26; Jos 10:21; 1 Kgs 5:12; Ps 122:6-7), and the relationship of God and people (Ps 85:8; Jer 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>The presence of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> in any of these contexts was not considered ultimately as the outcome of human endeavor but as a gift or blessing of God (Lv 26:6; 1 Kgs 2:33; Jb 25:2; Pss 29:11; 85:8; Is 45:7). It is not surprising, therefore, to find “peace” tied closely to the OT notion of covenant. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalom<\/span> was the desired state of harmony and communion between the two covenant partners—God and his people (Nm 6:26; cf. Is 54:10). Its presence signified God’s blessing in the covenant relationship (Mal 2:5; cf. Nm 25:12), and its absence signified the breakdown of that relationship due to Israel’s disobedience and unrighteousness (Jer 16:5, 10-13; cf. Ps 85:9-11; Is 32:17).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalom<\/span> becomes a pivotal term in the prophetic writings. It was the “false” prophets who, forgetting the conditions for national well-being within the covenant relationship, assumed God’s loyalty to Israel (Ps 89) would guarantee political peace forever (Jer 6:14; 8:15; Ez 13:10, 16; Mi 3:5). Against such popular but false security, the preexilic prophets proclaimed the coming judgment precisely as a loss of this <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> due to Israel’s persistent disobedience and unrighteousness (Is 48:18; Jer 14:13-16; 16:5, 10-13; 28; Mi 3:4, 9-12).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets did, however, point beyond the crises of exile and subsequent setbacks to a time when <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> characterized by prosperity and well-being (Is 45:7; Ez 34:25-26), absence of conflict (Is 2:2-4; 32:15-20; Ez 34:28-31), right relations (Is 11:1-5; Mi 4:1-4; Zec 8:9-13), restoration of harmony in nature (Is 11:6-9; Ez 47:1-12), and salvation (Is 52:7; 60:17; Ez 34:30-31; 37:26-28) would again return. Often this eschatological (or end-time) expectation of peace in the OT was associated with a messianic figure, as in Isaiah 9:6, where the future Messiah is termed the “Prince of Peace.” Moreover, his reign would be one of “peace” not only for Israel but throughout the whole earth (Zec 9:9-10). The OT ends with this hope of peace still unrealized in its full sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The Greek term for “peace” used predominantly in the NT is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eirene<\/span><em>,<\/em> a word expanded from its classical Greek connotation of “rest” to include the various connotations of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> discussed above. As with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eirene<\/span> could be used as a greeting or farewell (as in “peace be with you”—Lk 10:5; Gal 6:16; Jas 2:16; cf. Jn 20:19), or could signify the cessation of conflict (national—Lk 14:32; Acts 12:20; or interpersonal—Rom 14:19; Eph 4:3), or the presence of domestic tranquillity (cf. 1 Cor 7:15).<\/p>\n<p>The chief issue concerns how Jesus incorporated the OT hope for the eschatological peace of God into his ministry. In the “benedictus” of Zechariah (Lk 1:67-79), the coming of Jesus as the Messiah is expected to “guide our feet into the way of peace” (v 79). So also the angelic testimony to the shepherds proclaims Jesus as the bringer of God’s peace to people (2:14). That is, Jesus as the Messiah would usher in God’s reign of peace. Jesus’ self-understanding as expressed in the fourth Gospel corresponds to this association. This long-expected peace of God is Jesus’ farewell gift to the disciples (Jn 14:27); it is given to them when he breathed his Spirit into them (20:19-22).<\/p>\n<p>The nature of this gift of peace brought by Jesus may be easier to explain by stating what it is not. It is not an end to tension or the absence of warfare. It is not domestic tranquillity nor anything like the worldly estimation of peace (Lk 12:51-53; Jn 14:27; 16:32-33). Its presence may, on the contrary, actually disturb existing relations, being a dividing “sword” in familial relations (Mt 10:34-37). Jesus’ gift of peace is, in reality, the character and mood of the new covenant of his blood that reconciles God to people (Rom 5:1; Col 1:20) and forms the basis of subsequent reconciliation between divergent people (Eph 2:14-22).<\/p>\n<p>The early church understood “peace” to be the final, end-time salvation of God given already through Jesus Christ (cf. Phil 4:7-9). This understanding of “peace” altered the content of the common greeting “go in peace” as it was taken up in the Christian community. In Paul’s common “grace and peace” greeting (1 Cor 1:3; 2 Cor 1:2; Gal 1:3; Eph 1:2, etc.; cf. also 1 Pt 1:2; 2 Jn 1:3; Jude 1:2; Rv 1:4), it is no longer a mere wish for peace that Paul extends to his readers but is a reminder of the messianic gifts available in the present time through Christ to the man of faith. In accord with this, Jesus is described as “peace” itself (Eph 2:14), while God, too, because of his act of reconciliation through Christ, is known as a “God of peace” (Phil 4:9; Col 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>This gift of peace or reconciliation with God, made available through Christ, places an ethical demand on the Christian; it calls for the exercises of “peace” (as reconciliation between persons) within the church. Peace, as a fruit of the Spirit (Gal 5:22), is to be the goal of the Christian’s dealings with others (Rom 12:18; 14:19; Heb 12:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PEACE Total well-being, prosperity, and security associated with God’s presence among his people. Linked in the OT with the covenant, the presence of peace was conditional, based on Israel’s obedience. In the prophetic writings, true peace is part of the end-time hope of God’s salvation. In the NT, this longed-for peace is understood as having come in Christ and can be experienced by the believers. In the Old Testament Shalom, the most prominent OT term for “peace,” held a wide range of conno...","summary_en":"PEACE Total well-being, prosperity, and security associated with God’s presence among his people. Linked in the OT with the covenant, the presence of peace was conditional, based on Israel’s obedience. In the prophetic writings, true peace is part of the end-time hope of God’s salvation. In the NT, this longed-for peace is understood as having come in Christ and can be experienced by the believers. In the Old Testament Shalom, the most prominent OT term for “peace,” held a wide range of conno...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57904,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3-5 Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.","summary_en":"1:3-5 Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57905,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>May God . . . give you grace and peace:<\/em> This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charis<\/span>), is similar to “greetings” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">chairein<\/span>); “peace” mirrors Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span>. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>May God . . . give you grace and peace:<\/em> This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charis<\/span>), is similar to “greetings” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">chairein<\/span>); “peace” mirrors Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span>. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3 May God . . . give you grace and peace: This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek charis), is similar to “greetings” (Greek chairein); “peace” mirrors Hebrew shalom. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).","summary_en":"1:3 May God . . . give you grace and peace: This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek charis), is similar to “greetings” (Greek chairein); “peace” mirrors Hebrew shalom. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85530,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3-5 Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.","summary_en":"1:3-5 Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85531,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>May God . . . give you grace and peace:<\/em> This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charis<\/span>), is similar to “greetings” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">chairein<\/span>); “peace” mirrors Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span>. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>May God . . . give you grace and peace:<\/em> This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charis<\/span>), is similar to “greetings” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">chairein<\/span>); “peace” mirrors Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span>. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3 May God . . . give you grace and peace: This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek charis), is similar to “greetings” (Greek chairein); “peace” mirrors Hebrew shalom. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).","summary_en":"1:3 May God . . . give you grace and peace: This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek charis), is similar to “greetings” (Greek chairein); “peace” mirrors Hebrew shalom. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113156,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3-5 Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.","summary_en":"1:3-5 Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113157,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>May God . . . give you grace and peace:<\/em> This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charis<\/span>), is similar to “greetings” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">chairein<\/span>); “peace” mirrors Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span>. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>May God . . . give you grace and peace:<\/em> This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charis<\/span>), is similar to “greetings” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">chairein<\/span>); “peace” mirrors Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span>. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3 May God . . . give you grace and peace: This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek charis), is similar to “greetings” (Greek chairein); “peace” mirrors Hebrew shalom. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).","summary_en":"1:3 May God . . . give you grace and peace: This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek charis), is similar to “greetings” (Greek chairein); “peace” mirrors Hebrew shalom. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140782,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3-5 Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.","summary_en":"1:3-5 Paul followed the usual practice for first-century letters, including this greeting and wish of well-being as well as introducing the main topic, the Good News.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140783,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>May God . . . give you grace and peace:<\/em> This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charis<\/span>), is similar to “greetings” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">chairein<\/span>); “peace” mirrors Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span>. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>May God . . . give you grace and peace:<\/em> This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charis<\/span>), is similar to “greetings” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">chairein<\/span>); “peace” mirrors Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span>. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3 May God . . . give you grace and peace: This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek charis), is similar to “greetings” (Greek chairein); “peace” mirrors Hebrew shalom. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).","summary_en":"1:3 May God . . . give you grace and peace: This typical greeting by Paul (see also study note on 1 Cor 1:3) uses elements of Greek and Hebrew greetings: “grace” (Greek charis), is similar to “greetings” (Greek chairein); “peace” mirrors Hebrew shalom. Thus Paul included both Jewish and Gentile Christians (cp. Gal 3:28). The Galatians were at risk of losing God’s grace and peace (3:1-4; 5:1-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":726,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Age","title_en":"Age","content_ro":"<h3>AGE<\/h3>\n<p>Long, but indefinite, period of time, past or future. The ages, past and future, make up the whole of time. God is spoken of as existing and planning “before the ages” (1 Cor 2:7, <span>rsv<\/span>). He is the King of ages (1 Tm 1:17) and has a purpose that embraces the ages (Eph 3:11). The Bible speaks of what God will do at the close or consummation of the age(s) (Mt 13:39-49).<\/p>\n<p>The NT, following on from earlier Jewish writings, speaks of the contrast between “the present age” (an “evil age,” Gal 1:4) and “the age(s) to come” when, in God’s judgment, wrongs will be righted, and his people will come into their full inheritance (Mk 10:30). There is a sense, however, in which it can be said that we are both living now in “the end of the ages” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>) and that we experience “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:5, <span>rsv<\/span>) and its life.<\/p>\n<p>Two other words are sometimes connected with the word “age.” One is “generation.” Colossians 1:26 speaks of the mystery hidden “for ages and generations” (<span>rsv<\/span>, cf. Eph 3:21), though there is no basis in the scriptural use of these words for dividing biblical times into dispensations, each involving some fresh development of the redemptive purpose of God. The other is the word “world.” Ephesians 2:2 speaks of unredeemed humanity as “following the course of this world” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Hebrews 1:2 and 11:3 speak of God’s creation of the world.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible often speaks of the age of men and women, reckoned in years or in other ways. Wisdom is seen as belonging especially to the aged (Jb 12:12), though not necessarily found there (Eccl 4:13). Age should be respected (Lv 19:32), and length of days is a blessing of God (Prv 16:31). At the same time, the frailty of old age is recognized (Eccl 12:1-6), and Psalm 90:10 speaks of 70 years as the allotted human span which, if it is extended to 80, may well be “trouble and sorrow.” <em>See<\/em> Eternity.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AGE<\/h3>\n<p>Long, but indefinite, period of time, past or future. The ages, past and future, make up the whole of time. God is spoken of as existing and planning “before the ages” (1 Cor 2:7, <span>rsv<\/span>). He is the King of ages (1 Tm 1:17) and has a purpose that embraces the ages (Eph 3:11). The Bible speaks of what God will do at the close or consummation of the age(s) (Mt 13:39-49).<\/p>\n<p>The NT, following on from earlier Jewish writings, speaks of the contrast between “the present age” (an “evil age,” Gal 1:4) and “the age(s) to come” when, in God’s judgment, wrongs will be righted, and his people will come into their full inheritance (Mk 10:30). There is a sense, however, in which it can be said that we are both living now in “the end of the ages” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>) and that we experience “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:5, <span>rsv<\/span>) and its life.<\/p>\n<p>Two other words are sometimes connected with the word “age.” One is “generation.” Colossians 1:26 speaks of the mystery hidden “for ages and generations” (<span>rsv<\/span>, cf. Eph 3:21), though there is no basis in the scriptural use of these words for dividing biblical times into dispensations, each involving some fresh development of the redemptive purpose of God. The other is the word “world.” Ephesians 2:2 speaks of unredeemed humanity as “following the course of this world” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Hebrews 1:2 and 11:3 speak of God’s creation of the world.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible often speaks of the age of men and women, reckoned in years or in other ways. Wisdom is seen as belonging especially to the aged (Jb 12:12), though not necessarily found there (Eccl 4:13). Age should be respected (Lv 19:32), and length of days is a blessing of God (Prv 16:31). At the same time, the frailty of old age is recognized (Eccl 12:1-6), and Psalm 90:10 speaks of 70 years as the allotted human span which, if it is extended to 80, may well be “trouble and sorrow.” <em>See<\/em> Eternity.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AGE Long, but indefinite, period of time, past or future. The ages, past and future, make up the whole of time. God is spoken of as existing and planning “before the ages” (1 Cor 2:7, rsv). He is the King of ages (1 Tm 1:17) and has a purpose that embraces the ages (Eph 3:11). The Bible speaks of what God will do at the close or consummation of the age(s) (Mt 13:39-49). The NT, following on from earlier Jewish writings, speaks of the contrast between “the present age” (an “evil age,” Gal 1:4)...","summary_en":"AGE Long, but indefinite, period of time, past or future. The ages, past and future, make up the whole of time. God is spoken of as existing and planning “before the ages” (1 Cor 2:7, rsv). He is the King of ages (1 Tm 1:17) and has a purpose that embraces the ages (Eph 3:11). The Bible speaks of what God will do at the close or consummation of the age(s) (Mt 13:39-49). The NT, following on from earlier Jewish writings, speaks of the contrast between “the present age” (an “evil age,” Gal 1:4)...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11230,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eternity","title_en":"Eternity","content_ro":"<h3>ETERNITY<\/h3>\n<p>Duration of time that cannot be measured.<\/p>\n<p>The OT does not have a single word corresponding to our English word “eternity.” The concept grows out of such expressions as “from generation to generation” and “from age to age.” The understanding of God as the Creator and controller of history led to the understanding of his endless life span. Thus, God himself is designated by the adjective “eternal” (cf. Gn 21:33; Is 26:4; 40:28). The Hebrews simply understood that God is the God of the past and the God who will always be—in stark contrast to humans whose days on earth are limited.<\/p>\n<p>The NT picked up these concepts from Judaism and the OT. In Greek the same root word is used to describe the ages of time and God’s agelessness. For example, the word “eternal” used in Romans 16:26 comes from the Greek root transliterated into English as “eon.” The God who rules the ages or eons is himself the ageless one who brings continuity and stability into the human life so severely bounded by this age. The clear understanding that time will come to an end, provided by NT revelation, added to the OT’s vivid understanding of creation, serves to underline and clarify the concept of an eternal God. God’s preexistence and postexistence is yet another way of expressing his eternal being.<\/p>\n<p>The NT regularly spoke of the temporal sequences of God’s revelation in Christ in much the same way as the OT spoke of God’s self-revelation to Israel. The NT usage of prepositions with “eon” is particularly instructive: for example (translated literally) “out of the age” (Jn 9:32), “from the age” (Lk 1:70; Acts 3:21), “into the age” (Jude 1:13), “into the ages” (Jn 4:14). The first two phrases reflect an indefinite time preceding the present moment, and the last two point to a future indefinable time (often translated as “forever”).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical concept of eternity stands in contrast to that of other cultures of the time, which often thought in cyclical terms. The Greek world particularly thought of time in the analogy of a circle—an ever-recurring sequence of events. Salvation was to find an exit from that vicious cycle, thus being freed from time in order to experience timelessness. The biblical concept pictures time as a line with beginning and end guaranteed by the eternal God. Thus, in the biblical view, salvation could not occur within a designated sequence; it only occurs in the experience of the individual and moves on to the historical consummation directed by the eternal God.<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between Greek and biblical ways of viewing time raises the question of the exact nature of eternity. Is it to be understood as merely unlimited time or, in direct contrast to present time, as timelessness? The biblical view seems to be that eternity is not timelessness and does not stand in contrast to present time as its opposite, since present time and eternity share basic qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The NT (following Judaism) uses “eon” or “age” to divide time into “this present eon” and “the eon that is about to be” or “the coming eon.” The contrast is not simply between time and timelessness, for the “eon that is about to be” is future and shares a specific and identifiable character. The biblical picture of the start of the “coming age” is dramatically painted with broad sequential brush strokes. The new age is not simply a restoration to the primitive and naive innocence of the earliest stage, but a consummation according to the purposes of him who is and who was and who is to come (Rv 1:4). Thus, it is designated as the new creation.<\/p>\n<p>The NT clearly teaches that the “age that is to be” has now begun in the life and ministry of Christ, although there is a definite overlap in the two ages. The frequency of such terms as “the firstfruits,” “the earnest of the Spirit,” and “the last days,” reflects this understanding (e.g., Heb 6:5: “and have tasted . . . the powers of the age to come”). The believer enjoys the blessings of the future age imported into the present through Christ’s redemptive work.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of eternity, then, does not stand in opposition and contrast to time as timelessness. Eternity is the unlimited and incalculable space of time bounded at its beginning by the introduction of the kingdom of God in Christ and stretching out into the unlimited future. Both time (“the present evil age,” Gal 1:4) and eternity are governed by God as the Lord of all time, the one who gives content and meaning to both.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Age; God, Being and Attributes of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ETERNITY<\/h3>\n<p>Duration of time that cannot be measured.<\/p>\n<p>The OT does not have a single word corresponding to our English word “eternity.” The concept grows out of such expressions as “from generation to generation” and “from age to age.” The understanding of God as the Creator and controller of history led to the understanding of his endless life span. Thus, God himself is designated by the adjective “eternal” (cf. Gn 21:33; Is 26:4; 40:28). The Hebrews simply understood that God is the God of the past and the God who will always be—in stark contrast to humans whose days on earth are limited.<\/p>\n<p>The NT picked up these concepts from Judaism and the OT. In Greek the same root word is used to describe the ages of time and God’s agelessness. For example, the word “eternal” used in Romans 16:26 comes from the Greek root transliterated into English as “eon.” The God who rules the ages or eons is himself the ageless one who brings continuity and stability into the human life so severely bounded by this age. The clear understanding that time will come to an end, provided by NT revelation, added to the OT’s vivid understanding of creation, serves to underline and clarify the concept of an eternal God. God’s preexistence and postexistence is yet another way of expressing his eternal being.<\/p>\n<p>The NT regularly spoke of the temporal sequences of God’s revelation in Christ in much the same way as the OT spoke of God’s self-revelation to Israel. The NT usage of prepositions with “eon” is particularly instructive: for example (translated literally) “out of the age” (Jn 9:32), “from the age” (Lk 1:70; Acts 3:21), “into the age” (Jude 1:13), “into the ages” (Jn 4:14). The first two phrases reflect an indefinite time preceding the present moment, and the last two point to a future indefinable time (often translated as “forever”).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical concept of eternity stands in contrast to that of other cultures of the time, which often thought in cyclical terms. The Greek world particularly thought of time in the analogy of a circle—an ever-recurring sequence of events. Salvation was to find an exit from that vicious cycle, thus being freed from time in order to experience timelessness. The biblical concept pictures time as a line with beginning and end guaranteed by the eternal God. Thus, in the biblical view, salvation could not occur within a designated sequence; it only occurs in the experience of the individual and moves on to the historical consummation directed by the eternal God.<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between Greek and biblical ways of viewing time raises the question of the exact nature of eternity. Is it to be understood as merely unlimited time or, in direct contrast to present time, as timelessness? The biblical view seems to be that eternity is not timelessness and does not stand in contrast to present time as its opposite, since present time and eternity share basic qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The NT (following Judaism) uses “eon” or “age” to divide time into “this present eon” and “the eon that is about to be” or “the coming eon.” The contrast is not simply between time and timelessness, for the “eon that is about to be” is future and shares a specific and identifiable character. The biblical picture of the start of the “coming age” is dramatically painted with broad sequential brush strokes. The new age is not simply a restoration to the primitive and naive innocence of the earliest stage, but a consummation according to the purposes of him who is and who was and who is to come (Rv 1:4). Thus, it is designated as the new creation.<\/p>\n<p>The NT clearly teaches that the “age that is to be” has now begun in the life and ministry of Christ, although there is a definite overlap in the two ages. The frequency of such terms as “the firstfruits,” “the earnest of the Spirit,” and “the last days,” reflects this understanding (e.g., Heb 6:5: “and have tasted . . . the powers of the age to come”). The believer enjoys the blessings of the future age imported into the present through Christ’s redemptive work.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of eternity, then, does not stand in opposition and contrast to time as timelessness. Eternity is the unlimited and incalculable space of time bounded at its beginning by the introduction of the kingdom of God in Christ and stretching out into the unlimited future. Both time (“the present evil age,” Gal 1:4) and eternity are governed by God as the Lord of all time, the one who gives content and meaning to both.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Age; God, Being and Attributes of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ETERNITY Duration of time that cannot be measured. The OT does not have a single word corresponding to our English word “eternity.” The concept grows out of such expressions as “from generation to generation” and “from age to age.” The understanding of God as the Creator and controller of history led to the understanding of his endless life span. Thus, God himself is designated by the adjective “eternal” (cf. Gn 21:33; Is 26:4; 40:28). The Hebrews simply understood that God is the God of the ...","summary_en":"ETERNITY Duration of time that cannot be measured. The OT does not have a single word corresponding to our English word “eternity.” The concept grows out of such expressions as “from generation to generation” and “from age to age.” The understanding of God as the Creator and controller of history led to the understanding of his endless life span. Thus, God himself is designated by the adjective “eternal” (cf. Gn 21:33; Is 26:4; 40:28). The Hebrews simply understood that God is the God of the ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21900,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","title_en":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","content_ro":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","summary_en":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57906,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4-5<\/strong> This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4-5<\/strong> This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4-5 This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.","summary_en":"1:4-5 This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57907,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> Because Jesus completely rescued us from <em>our sins<\/em><em>,<\/em> there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from <em>this evil world in which we live<\/em> (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> Because Jesus completely rescued us from <em>our sins<\/em><em>,<\/em> there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from <em>this evil world in which we live<\/em> (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4 Because Jesus completely rescued us from our sins, there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from this evil world in which we live (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).","summary_en":"1:4 Because Jesus completely rescued us from our sins, there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from this evil world in which we live (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85532,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4-5<\/strong> This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4-5<\/strong> This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4-5 This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.","summary_en":"1:4-5 This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85533,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> Because Jesus completely rescued us from <em>our sins<\/em><em>,<\/em> there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from <em>this evil world in which we live<\/em> (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> Because Jesus completely rescued us from <em>our sins<\/em><em>,<\/em> there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from <em>this evil world in which we live<\/em> (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4 Because Jesus completely rescued us from our sins, there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from this evil world in which we live (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).","summary_en":"1:4 Because Jesus completely rescued us from our sins, there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from this evil world in which we live (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113158,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4-5<\/strong> This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4-5<\/strong> This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4-5 This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.","summary_en":"1:4-5 This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113159,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> Because Jesus completely rescued us from <em>our sins<\/em><em>,<\/em> there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from <em>this evil world in which we live<\/em> (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> Because Jesus completely rescued us from <em>our sins<\/em><em>,<\/em> there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from <em>this evil world in which we live<\/em> (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4 Because Jesus completely rescued us from our sins, there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from this evil world in which we live (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).","summary_en":"1:4 Because Jesus completely rescued us from our sins, there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from this evil world in which we live (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140784,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4-5<\/strong> This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4-5<\/strong> This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4-5 This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.","summary_en":"1:4-5 This summary of the Good News is the basis for the rebuke that follows (1:6-10). This might be a creed or confession of faith that Paul used to remind the Galatians of the message they had earlier embraced.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140785,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> Because Jesus completely rescued us from <em>our sins<\/em><em>,<\/em> there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from <em>this evil world in which we live<\/em> (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> Because Jesus completely rescued us from <em>our sins<\/em><em>,<\/em> there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from <em>this evil world in which we live<\/em> (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4 Because Jesus completely rescued us from our sins, there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from this evil world in which we live (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).","summary_en":"1:4 Because Jesus completely rescued us from our sins, there is no place for efforts to save ourselves. • Christian faith rescues us from this evil world in which we live (see 4:8-12; 5:13-26).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":57908,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>All glory<\/em> must go <em>to God<\/em> for salvation, because it is his work alone.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>All glory<\/em> must go <em>to God<\/em> for salvation, because it is his work alone.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5 All glory must go to God for salvation, because it is his work alone.","summary_en":"1:5 All glory must go to God for salvation, because it is his work alone.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85534,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>All glory<\/em> must go <em>to God<\/em> for salvation, because it is his work alone.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>All glory<\/em> must go <em>to God<\/em> for salvation, because it is his work alone.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5 All glory must go to God for salvation, because it is his work alone.","summary_en":"1:5 All glory must go to God for salvation, because it is his work alone.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113160,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>All glory<\/em> must go <em>to God<\/em> for salvation, because it is his work alone.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>All glory<\/em> must go <em>to God<\/em> for salvation, because it is his work alone.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5 All glory must go to God for salvation, because it is his work alone.","summary_en":"1:5 All glory must go to God for salvation, because it is his work alone.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140786,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>All glory<\/em> must go <em>to God<\/em> for salvation, because it is his work alone.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>All glory<\/em> must go <em>to God<\/em> for salvation, because it is his work alone.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5 All glory must go to God for salvation, because it is his work alone.","summary_en":"1:5 All glory must go to God for salvation, because it is his work alone.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":6508,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","title_en":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","content_ro":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","summary_en":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6710,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13121,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Galatians","title_en":"Letter to the Galatians","content_ro":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","summary_en":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14607,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gospel","title_en":"Gospel","content_ro":"<h3>GOSPEL<\/h3>\n<p>Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon <em>godspell<\/em> denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.”<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelMessageofIsaiah\">The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p>Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his saving action except in his own nature. Israel’s deliverance is undeserved; she is no more worthy of the divine love now than when she went into captivity. In whatever measure she has paid the just due for her past sins (Is 40:2), she remains a sinful people (42:25; 46:12-13; 48:1). It is only by God’s grace that she is saved (55:1-7). By God’s design, Israel’s salvation depends not upon her own righteousness but upon his (41:10; 45:24; 46:13; 51:5-6). There being no righteousness to reward, the Lord acts to <em>create<\/em> righteousness in Israel (45:8; 61:3, 10-11). Yet as these references indicate, salvation is not accomplished at the expense of justice. The penalty for Israel’s sins is to be paid in full. God’s mercy is not hereby called into question. On the contrary, it is precisely here that his mercy is most poignantly expressed, for the penalty is exacted not from his people but from the Servant appointed to stand in their place (53:4-12). Through the Servant’s work, many shall be justified (53:11). The coming of the Evangelist—the preacher of the good news—is predicted in Isaiah 61. He is called the anointed One (v 1) who proclaims the year of the Lord’s favor (v 2). God will be glorified through his preaching (v 3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelintheNewTestament\">The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In only two places (Gal 3:8; Heb 4:2, 6) does the NT speak of the proclamation of the gospel prior to the Christian era. This is quite remarkable, given (1) the unmistakable presence of the gospel in the OT, (2) the extent of gospel terminology in the NT (in the Greek the noun appears 76 times; and the verb, 54), and (3) the fact that the NT presents Christ as the fulfillment of the OT and draws heavily on the OT to interpret his person and work. Not only is it remarkable; it is very significant. It indicates that the NT usage depends not only upon the <em>character<\/em> of the message (truth about salvation) but also upon <em>historical events.<\/em> Almost without exception, the NT restricts its application of gospel terminology to proclamations made during the time of fulfillment—the age in which the salvation promised in the OT is actually accomplished. The NT is preoccupied, not with promises of salvation, but with news of salvation. According to Mark 1:1-4, the gospel “begins” not in the OT but with John the Baptist, in whose work OT prophecy is fulfilled. In Romans 1:1-5 the gospel is represented as a blessing promised in the OT but not actually given until Jesus comes (see also Acts 13:32-33).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGoodNewsofChristsComing\">The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n<p>The promised birth of John the Baptist is good news (Lk 1:19), not only for his parents (vv 7, 24-25) but for all the people: John is sent to prepare them for Messiah’s coming (vv 14-17, 67-79). John’s own preaching is gospel (3:18) for the same reason. The Messiah would be coming to execute judgment, a process that involves both condemnation and salvation (vv 3-17). John’s message is gospel for sinners in that they are warned of impending doom and urged to repent before the ax falls (vv 7-9); it is gospel for the repentant in that they are promised forgiveness (v 3) and membership in Messiah’s community (v 17). The birth of the Savior himself is announced as good news bringing great joy (2:10-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelaccordingtoJesus\">The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Kingdom of God<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was authorized by God and anointed by the Spirit to proclaim the gospel (Mk 1:14; Lk 4:18). At the heart of his preaching stands the announcement “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel” (Mk 1:15). (For further references to this gospel, see Mt 4:23; 9:35; 24:14; 26:13; Mk 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; Lk 4:43; 8:1; 16:16.) The message is good news for several reasons: (1) The kingdom is coming. The God whom Jesus proclaims is sovereign over all he has made. Yet paradoxically his rule is incomplete: his will is not done on earth as it is in heaven; wrong, not right, prevails. But these conditions are not final, according to Jesus. With the coming of the kingdom, God’s rule will be completed; wrong will be judged, righteousness established, and his people blessed. (2) The kingdom is <em>now<\/em> being inaugurated. “The time is fulfilled,” declares Jesus (Mk 1:15a). The time appointed for the fulfillment of the OT promises has arrived. (3) The consummation of the kingdom is therefore no longer a distant prospect; the full realization of God’s rule is “at hand” (Mk 1:15b). (4) God is establishing his rule for a saving purpose. This is implied in Jesus’ call to repentance (Mk 1:15c). It is especially clear in the passages to which we now turn.<\/p>\n<h5>The Salvation of the Poor<\/h5>\n<p>Invited to read the Scripture in the synagogue at Nazareth, Jesus turns to Isaiah 61: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord” (Lk 4:18-19, <span>rsv<\/span>). Having read the prophecy, Jesus announces its fulfillment in his own ministry (v 21). Included among those whom Jesus has come to free are the physically infirm, such as the blind (v 18) and the leprous (v 27) (cf. the references to healing miracles in vv 23, 33-41; the close connection between evangelizing and healing in Mt 4:23; 9:35; 11:5; Lk 7:21-22; 9:6; and the description in Mt 12:22-29; Lk 13:11-16, of the physically afflicted as captives of Satan now liberated by Jesus). Also included are the materially poor—people like the widow helped by Elijah during the famine (Lk 4:25-26). It is the literally poor and hungry whom Jesus pronounces “blessed” in Luke 6:20-21. Yet it is primarily “spiritual” poverty that is in view. Still applying Isaiah 61, Jesus speaks in Matthew 5:3 of the “poor in spirit.” These are people broken and grieved by misery and poverty, oppression and injustice, suffering and death, national apostasy and personal sin—people who in their extremity turn to God and longingly wait for him to bring forth justice, bestow his mercy, and establish his kingdom. It is to just such people that Jesus brings good news (Mt 5:3-10). God sent him to usher in the kingdom, to rescue the lost, to liberate the enslaved, to cure the afflicted, to bind up hearts that are broken, and to forgive the guilty (Mk 2:5, 10, 17; 10:45; Lk 4:18-21; 7:48-49; 15:1-32; 19:10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gift of Grace<\/h5>\n<p>The coming of the kingdom is not the effect or the reward of human effort but God’s answer to the human predicament—the gift of his favor (Lk 12:32). Correspondingly, the explanation for the salvation of the poor lies nowhere but in God’s own character. As the prodigal himself recognized, he hardly deserved to be his father’s servant, much less his son. Nothing he did, not even his repentance, accounted for the father’s love (15:11-32). In the parable of Matthew 20:1-16, it is owing entirely to the goodness of the employer that the last workers to be hired receive a full day’s wages. The first debtor in the story of Matthew 18:23-35 earned nothing but the right to be sold into slavery; instead, the king canceled his enormous debt. The publican, who had nothing to offer God but a confession of sin and plea for mercy, went home justified (Lk 18:13-14). The same holds true for the more virtuous among the poor, such as the persons described in Matthew 5:7-10. Their virtue is real, not imagined. Yet in keeping God’s commands, they do not put him in their debt; they are simply doing their duty (Lk 17:7-10). Furthermore, even the most merciful need divine mercy (Mt 5:7). For even those most zealous to obey God’s law are unable to fulfill all its requirements (cf. 11:28-30). The first servant in Matthew 18:23-35 owes far more money than someone in such a situation could possibly pay—which serves to magnify the generosity of the king. Grace depends for its exercise upon the inability of its objects (Lk 14:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>The Call to Salvation<\/h5>\n<p>The Israelites are without exception a sinful people, all of them needing the salvation that Jesus brings (Mt 1:21; Lk 1:77). In demonstration of God’s grace, Jesus proclaimed his gospel to the entire nation (Mt 4:23; 9:35; 15:24; Lk 4:43; 9:6; 20:1). From the most respectable to the least, all are summoned to submit to God’s rule, all are invited to come and partake freely of the banquet he has spread (Lk 14:16-24). But the gift of salvation must be received if it is to be experienced (Mk 10:15). And while it is indeed a gift that costs nothing, it is also a priceless treasure for which a wise person will freely sacrifice everything else (Mt 13:44-46), a sacrifice exceeded only by the cost of rejecting the gospel (Mt 11:20-24; Mk 8:34-39; Lk 14:24, 33). “Repent and believe in the gospel,” Jesus commands (Mk 1:15). The self-righteous and the self-sufficient must be jolted out of their false sense of security and humbly recognize their need for God (Lk 6:24-26). Only then will Jesus’ message to the poor be seen as gospel. An announcement of liberation (4:18-19) is good news only to people who are enslaved and know they are. The command applies also to the destitute and the afflicted. Those among them who bemoan their lot must repent of their sins. But something further is needed for the response to be complete: a person cannot believe Jesus’ gospel without a commitment to the <em>Person<\/em> of Christ (Jn 3:16). Even those who are already “poor in spirit,” in the sense defined earlier, are not really “blessed” until they acknowledge the truth of Jesus’ claims (Mt 11:6) and commit themselves to a life of obedience on his terms (7:21-27). This prepares us for the next point.<\/p>\n<h5>Summary<\/h5>\n<p>Throughout Jesus’ earthly ministry, the theme of his gospel remains the dawning of God’s kingdom (Mt 4:23; 24:14; Lk 4:43; 16:16), a message that is preached almost exclusively to Jews (Mt 10:5-6; 15:24). Yet Jesus also provides glimpses into what the gospel was to become once his work on earth was accomplished: (1) In Mark 8:35 and 10:29 Jesus speaks of individuals who needed to make great sacrifices “for my sake and for the gospel.” While distinguished from each other, the person of Jesus and the gospel are here associated in the closest possible way. The time was approaching when the Proclaimer of the gospel would become the Proclaimed. (2) In Mark 13:10 and Matthew 24:14 (and the textually doubtful Mk 16:15) Jesus foretells the preaching of the gospel of the kingdom to the gentile nations. (3) In Mark 14, having interpreted a woman’s action (v 3) as an anointing of his body beforehand for burial (v 8), Jesus declares, “And truly, I say to you, wherever the gospel is preached in the whole world, what she has done will be told in memory of her” (v 9, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 26:13). This statement strongly implies that both the person of Jesus and the event of his death will figure prominently in the message that is to be proclaimed; otherwise, it is strange that the gospel and this particular act should be so solemnly bound together. Thus, here in the text already is an indication of how crucial Jesus’ death is both for the provision of the salvation announced in his gospel (cf. Mk 14:22-24) and for the launching of the evangelistic mission to the Gentiles (Mt 20:28 is vital for explaining the shift from Mt 15:24 to 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelafterJesusResurrection\">The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\n<p>After the resurrection of Jesus, the gospel was proclaimed by his eyewitnesses. The contents of this gospel are recorded in the book of Acts and in Paul’s letters. Of the 43 instances of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">euangelizomai<\/span> (“evangelize”) beyond the Gospels, 15 occur in Acts and 21 in Paul’s writings; of the 64 instances of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">euangelion<\/span> (“gospel”), 2 occur in Acts and no fewer than 60 in Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Having risen from the dead, Jesus Christ again evangelizes (Eph 2:16-17), doing so now through his appointed representatives (Rom 15:16-18; 1 Cor 1:17; 9:12-18; Gal 4:13-14; Eph 4:11; 2 Tm 1:9-11). More than that, Christ has become the central theme of the gospel; the Proclaimer is now the Proclaimed. This is repeatedly affirmed in Acts (5:42; 8:4-5, 35; 11:20; 17:18) and in Paul’s writings (Rom 1:1-4; 10:8-17; 15:19-20; 2 Cor 4:4-6; 11:4; Gal 1:16; Eph 3:8; Phil 1:15-18; 2 Tm 2:8). The NT always speaks of <em>the gospel<\/em>—never the gospels—of Christ. A second gospel is as inconceivable and as unnecessary as a second Christ. This is the one gospel that God authorizes (e.g., Rom 1:1-17) and proclaims (e.g., 2 Thes 2:13-14). Galatians 2:7-9 speaks not of two gospels but of two mission fields. Paul (the apostle to the uncircumcised) and Peter (the apostle to the circumcised) are both entrusted with “the gospel of Christ” (Gal 1:7; cf. 1 Cor 15:1-11), the message that God has ordained for the salvation of Jews and Gentiles alike (Rom 1:16). The “different gospel” that Paul denounces in Galatians 1:6-9 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is not another gospel about Jesus but a message about “another Jesus”—not the real one, but one who exists only in the minds and the messages of those who proclaim him. To preach the true Christ is to preach the true gospel, however questionable one’s motives (Phil 1:15-18, 27), and to respond rightly to the gospel is to turn to Christ (Acts 11:20-21; Rom 10:8-17; Gal 2:14-16).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Witness to Saving Events<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel bears witness to every aspect of Christ’s saving work, from his birth (Rom 1:3; 2 Tm 2:8) and public ministry (Mk 1:1; Acts 10:36-38) to his second coming (Col 1:5, 23; cf. 3:1-4; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and the last judgment (Rom 2:16). But it is the death and the resurrection of Christ that are most crucial for the accomplishment of salvation, and that are therefore most prominent in the gospel’s witness. These are the events with which Mark’s proclamation climaxes (chs 15–16), and for which everything else prepares (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34; 12:6-8); special stress is placed upon Jesus’ death as the means of salvation from sin (10:45; 14:3-9, 22-24). In Paul’s gospel, too, the death and resurrection of Jesus are central (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:1-4), with the cross occupying the very center (1 Cor 1:17–2:5). Had Christ not risen from the dead, Paul argues, the preaching of the cross would be a waste of time (1 Cor 15:14, 17; cf. Rom 6:3-11). However, now that Christ has risen, his death deserves special emphasis as the place where God provides atonement for sins (Rom 3:21-26; 5:6-11; 2 Cor 5:14-21; Eph 1:7). The gospel according to Acts proclaims Jesus’ death (Acts 8:25; 20:24, 28; cf. 10:36-43) and preeminently his resurrection, the event by which he conquered death and was exalted as Lord and coming Judge (10:36-43; 13:32-33; 17:18, 31). According to 1 Peter, the bearers of the gospel (1 Pt 1:12) concentrated, as had the OT prophets, on “the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory” (1:11; cf. 1:18-19; 2:21-24; 3:18-22).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Power for Salvation<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel is much more than a report of past events and an exposition of doctrine. Paul declares in 1 Corinthians 1:17-18 and again in Romans 1:16 that the gospel is “the power of God”—not merely a witness to his power but an <em>expression<\/em> of his power. Thus, it cannot be fettered (2 Tm 2:8-9). “Our gospel came to you not only in word, but also in power,” Paul writes in 1 Thessalonians 1:5. His point is not that the gospel was accompanied by mighty works (though this happened; cf. Rom 15:18-19), but that the gospel itself is a mighty work. God makes it so through his Holy Spirit (Rom 15:18-19; 1 Cor 2:1-5; 1 Thes 1:6). Furthermore, God’s singular purpose in exercising his power is to change people’s lives, to liberate them from sin and death, and to reconcile them to himself—in short, to save them. The gospel has power to effect the salvation it announces and to impart the life it promises (e.g., Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-18; 15:1-2; Eph 1:13; 2 Thes 2:13-14; 2 Tm 1:8-11; 1 Pt 1:23-25). If people are to experience salvation, they must hear and believe the gospel. It is precisely in and through this message that the saving power manifested in the person and work of Christ (especially in his death and resurrection) is conveyed to men and made effective in their lives. Similarly it is in association with the gospel, or as a direct result of the reception of the gospel, that the Holy Spirit is imparted to believers (Acts 10:36-44; 15:7-8; 2 Cor 11:4; Gal 3:1-2). In short, the gospel is the decisive place of encounter between the sinner and God the Savior.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Grace<\/h5>\n<p>According to Peter’s testimony at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:7-11), an essential part of the gospel—for Gentiles and Jews alike—is salvation “through the grace of the Lord Jesus.” Toward the close of his missionary career, Paul states that his basic concern has been “to testify to the gospel of the grace of God” (Acts 20:24, <span>rsv<\/span>). This statement can be understood only in relation to Paul’s concept of the righteousness of God, particularly as set forth in Romans. Paul is here not merely expounding a divine attribute. Rather, he is dramatizing a divine activity—the manifestation of God’s righteousness now, “in the present time” (Rom 3:26), in the new age inaugurated by the coming of Jesus. The manifestation is twofold. Viewing the two aspects together, and doing so in the light of the gospel declared by Isaiah and by Jesus (both of whom strongly influenced Paul), respectively, will help us to understand why Paul speaks of “the gospel of the grace of God.”<\/p>\n<p>First, the gospel is a <em>witness<\/em> to God’s grace. In offering his Son as a sacrifice for sins (Rom 3:25a), God demonstrates his righteousness (vv 25b-26). That is, in the death of Jesus sins formerly “passed over” (v 25c) become the object of God’s wrath (cf. 1:18) and judgment. Yet in the very place where God deals justly and decisively with sins, he shows his grace to sinners. For the judgment against sin is focused not upon the sinners themselves but upon the One appointed to act on their behalf and to stand in their place (Rom 4:25; 5:6, 11; cf. 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 3:13). On this basis, sinners are freely pardoned (Rom 3:24). “The grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11) toward the sinful is also in evidence, for he willingly bears their iniquities and suffers the consequences of their wrongdoing (Gal 2:20; cf. 2 Cor 8:9; Phil 2:6-8).<\/p>\n<p>Second, the gospel is a <em>channel<\/em> of God’s grace. “The righteousness of God is revealed” in the gospel, says Paul (Rom 1:17). By this he means, not that the gospel talks about the righteousness of God (though it does), but that God’s righteousness is actively at work in the gospel. This activity in turn explains how the gospel becomes “the power of God for salvation” (v 16). And just how does God demonstrate his righteousness at this stage? In short, by bestowing it as a free gift on sinful human beings. It remains the righteousness of God, but by God’s grace, it is a righteousness in which humans may share. Furthermore, partaking of God’s righteousness depends on being personally united with Jesus Christ. In Paul’s view the saved person is one who has been acquitted, justified, “declared righteous” by God the judge. The basis for the verdict is not that I in myself am righteous (God justifies the ungodly, Rom 4:5). Nor does God treat me as though I were righteous. According to Paul I am declared righteous because I really <em>am<\/em> righteous—not in myself but in Christ (1 Cor 1:30; 2 Cor 5:21; Phil 3:9). This union is established through the revelation—and the free offer—of God’s righteousness in the gospel (Rom 1:16-17).<\/p>\n<h5>Responding to the Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel calls for a threefold response:<\/p>\n<p>1. <em>Believing.<\/em> The gospel, says Paul, is “the power of God for salvation to every one who has faith” (Rom 1:16). For Paul, faith is the abandonment of all reliance upon “works of law” for justification (3:28) and utter dependence upon the grace of God as demonstrated in the work of Christ, especially his death (v 25). Accordingly, the “different gospel” of Galatians 1:6 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is spurious, for it preaches salvation by personal merit rather than (or together with) the work of Christ (cf. Gal 2:16). Ultimately faith rests upon God (Rom 4:24; 1 Thes 1:8-9) and upon Christ (Rom 3:22, 26; Gal 2:16, 20). Yet it is imperative that one believe the gospel also (Acts 8:12; 11:20-21; 15:7; Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-24; Phil 1:27; Heb 4:2), for it is just by this means that God’s salvation is made known and mediated. Moreover, believing the gospel entails repentance (Acts 14:15; 20:21, 24; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and obedience (Rom 1:5; 15:16-18; Heb 4:6). Those who refuse to obey the gospel are imperiling their lives (2 Thes 1:5-10; 1 Pt 4:17).<\/p>\n<p>2. <em>Growing.<\/em> The Gospel is more than a message to be received—it is also a place in which to stand (1 Cor 15:1-2). It is sustainer of life as well as giver of life. One grows as a Christian not by turning from the gospel to other things (to turn away from the gospel is to abandon God and Christ, Gal 1:6), but by going ever more deeply into the gospel. In Romans 1:15 Paul expresses his eagerness to proclaim the gospel to the Christians in Rome. In the following chapters, anticipating his visit, he offers one of his most profound expositions of the gospel—one whose truth has never been fathomed and whose power has never been exhausted.<\/p>\n<p>3. <em>Hoping.<\/em> “The hope of the gospel” (Col 1:23) includes not only the return of Christ and the glory of heaven (Col 1:5; 3:1-4; 2 Thes 2:14-16) but the final judgment as well. For those who embrace the gospel, the last judgment holds no terrors, because the Judge is the very one who rescues them from the wrath to come (1 Thes 1:10). Those who are united to him need not dread condemnation now or at the end (Rom 8:1). Instead, the last judgment will mark their final vindication (1 Cor 4:5; Gal 5:5). Accordingly, this theme is not just a corollary but an integral part of the Good News (Rom 2:16). Those who have died since believing the gospel (1 Pt 4:6) may seem to have suffered a fate common to all people, or even the condemnation reserved for the lawless; in fact, their response to the gospel assures them of approval by the coming Lord (4:5-6; 5:4) and of a share in the imperishable inheritance of heaven (1:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOSPEL<\/h3>\n<p>Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon <em>godspell<\/em> denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.”<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelMessageofIsaiah\">The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p>Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his saving action except in his own nature. Israel’s deliverance is undeserved; she is no more worthy of the divine love now than when she went into captivity. In whatever measure she has paid the just due for her past sins (Is 40:2), she remains a sinful people (42:25; 46:12-13; 48:1). It is only by God’s grace that she is saved (55:1-7). By God’s design, Israel’s salvation depends not upon her own righteousness but upon his (41:10; 45:24; 46:13; 51:5-6). There being no righteousness to reward, the Lord acts to <em>create<\/em> righteousness in Israel (45:8; 61:3, 10-11). Yet as these references indicate, salvation is not accomplished at the expense of justice. The penalty for Israel’s sins is to be paid in full. God’s mercy is not hereby called into question. On the contrary, it is precisely here that his mercy is most poignantly expressed, for the penalty is exacted not from his people but from the Servant appointed to stand in their place (53:4-12). Through the Servant’s work, many shall be justified (53:11). The coming of the Evangelist—the preacher of the good news—is predicted in Isaiah 61. He is called the anointed One (v 1) who proclaims the year of the Lord’s favor (v 2). God will be glorified through his preaching (v 3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelintheNewTestament\">The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In only two places (Gal 3:8; Heb 4:2, 6) does the NT speak of the proclamation of the gospel prior to the Christian era. This is quite remarkable, given (1) the unmistakable presence of the gospel in the OT, (2) the extent of gospel terminology in the NT (in the Greek the noun appears 76 times; and the verb, 54), and (3) the fact that the NT presents Christ as the fulfillment of the OT and draws heavily on the OT to interpret his person and work. Not only is it remarkable; it is very significant. It indicates that the NT usage depends not only upon the <em>character<\/em> of the message (truth about salvation) but also upon <em>historical events.<\/em> Almost without exception, the NT restricts its application of gospel terminology to proclamations made during the time of fulfillment—the age in which the salvation promised in the OT is actually accomplished. The NT is preoccupied, not with promises of salvation, but with news of salvation. According to Mark 1:1-4, the gospel “begins” not in the OT but with John the Baptist, in whose work OT prophecy is fulfilled. In Romans 1:1-5 the gospel is represented as a blessing promised in the OT but not actually given until Jesus comes (see also Acts 13:32-33).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGoodNewsofChristsComing\">The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n<p>The promised birth of John the Baptist is good news (Lk 1:19), not only for his parents (vv 7, 24-25) but for all the people: John is sent to prepare them for Messiah’s coming (vv 14-17, 67-79). John’s own preaching is gospel (3:18) for the same reason. The Messiah would be coming to execute judgment, a process that involves both condemnation and salvation (vv 3-17). John’s message is gospel for sinners in that they are warned of impending doom and urged to repent before the ax falls (vv 7-9); it is gospel for the repentant in that they are promised forgiveness (v 3) and membership in Messiah’s community (v 17). The birth of the Savior himself is announced as good news bringing great joy (2:10-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelaccordingtoJesus\">The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Kingdom of God<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was authorized by God and anointed by the Spirit to proclaim the gospel (Mk 1:14; Lk 4:18). At the heart of his preaching stands the announcement “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel” (Mk 1:15). (For further references to this gospel, see Mt 4:23; 9:35; 24:14; 26:13; Mk 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; Lk 4:43; 8:1; 16:16.) The message is good news for several reasons: (1) The kingdom is coming. The God whom Jesus proclaims is sovereign over all he has made. Yet paradoxically his rule is incomplete: his will is not done on earth as it is in heaven; wrong, not right, prevails. But these conditions are not final, according to Jesus. With the coming of the kingdom, God’s rule will be completed; wrong will be judged, righteousness established, and his people blessed. (2) The kingdom is <em>now<\/em> being inaugurated. “The time is fulfilled,” declares Jesus (Mk 1:15a). The time appointed for the fulfillment of the OT promises has arrived. (3) The consummation of the kingdom is therefore no longer a distant prospect; the full realization of God’s rule is “at hand” (Mk 1:15b). (4) God is establishing his rule for a saving purpose. This is implied in Jesus’ call to repentance (Mk 1:15c). It is especially clear in the passages to which we now turn.<\/p>\n<h5>The Salvation of the Poor<\/h5>\n<p>Invited to read the Scripture in the synagogue at Nazareth, Jesus turns to Isaiah 61: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord” (Lk 4:18-19, <span>rsv<\/span>). Having read the prophecy, Jesus announces its fulfillment in his own ministry (v 21). Included among those whom Jesus has come to free are the physically infirm, such as the blind (v 18) and the leprous (v 27) (cf. the references to healing miracles in vv 23, 33-41; the close connection between evangelizing and healing in Mt 4:23; 9:35; 11:5; Lk 7:21-22; 9:6; and the description in Mt 12:22-29; Lk 13:11-16, of the physically afflicted as captives of Satan now liberated by Jesus). Also included are the materially poor—people like the widow helped by Elijah during the famine (Lk 4:25-26). It is the literally poor and hungry whom Jesus pronounces “blessed” in Luke 6:20-21. Yet it is primarily “spiritual” poverty that is in view. Still applying Isaiah 61, Jesus speaks in Matthew 5:3 of the “poor in spirit.” These are people broken and grieved by misery and poverty, oppression and injustice, suffering and death, national apostasy and personal sin—people who in their extremity turn to God and longingly wait for him to bring forth justice, bestow his mercy, and establish his kingdom. It is to just such people that Jesus brings good news (Mt 5:3-10). God sent him to usher in the kingdom, to rescue the lost, to liberate the enslaved, to cure the afflicted, to bind up hearts that are broken, and to forgive the guilty (Mk 2:5, 10, 17; 10:45; Lk 4:18-21; 7:48-49; 15:1-32; 19:10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gift of Grace<\/h5>\n<p>The coming of the kingdom is not the effect or the reward of human effort but God’s answer to the human predicament—the gift of his favor (Lk 12:32). Correspondingly, the explanation for the salvation of the poor lies nowhere but in God’s own character. As the prodigal himself recognized, he hardly deserved to be his father’s servant, much less his son. Nothing he did, not even his repentance, accounted for the father’s love (15:11-32). In the parable of Matthew 20:1-16, it is owing entirely to the goodness of the employer that the last workers to be hired receive a full day’s wages. The first debtor in the story of Matthew 18:23-35 earned nothing but the right to be sold into slavery; instead, the king canceled his enormous debt. The publican, who had nothing to offer God but a confession of sin and plea for mercy, went home justified (Lk 18:13-14). The same holds true for the more virtuous among the poor, such as the persons described in Matthew 5:7-10. Their virtue is real, not imagined. Yet in keeping God’s commands, they do not put him in their debt; they are simply doing their duty (Lk 17:7-10). Furthermore, even the most merciful need divine mercy (Mt 5:7). For even those most zealous to obey God’s law are unable to fulfill all its requirements (cf. 11:28-30). The first servant in Matthew 18:23-35 owes far more money than someone in such a situation could possibly pay—which serves to magnify the generosity of the king. Grace depends for its exercise upon the inability of its objects (Lk 14:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>The Call to Salvation<\/h5>\n<p>The Israelites are without exception a sinful people, all of them needing the salvation that Jesus brings (Mt 1:21; Lk 1:77). In demonstration of God’s grace, Jesus proclaimed his gospel to the entire nation (Mt 4:23; 9:35; 15:24; Lk 4:43; 9:6; 20:1). From the most respectable to the least, all are summoned to submit to God’s rule, all are invited to come and partake freely of the banquet he has spread (Lk 14:16-24). But the gift of salvation must be received if it is to be experienced (Mk 10:15). And while it is indeed a gift that costs nothing, it is also a priceless treasure for which a wise person will freely sacrifice everything else (Mt 13:44-46), a sacrifice exceeded only by the cost of rejecting the gospel (Mt 11:20-24; Mk 8:34-39; Lk 14:24, 33). “Repent and believe in the gospel,” Jesus commands (Mk 1:15). The self-righteous and the self-sufficient must be jolted out of their false sense of security and humbly recognize their need for God (Lk 6:24-26). Only then will Jesus’ message to the poor be seen as gospel. An announcement of liberation (4:18-19) is good news only to people who are enslaved and know they are. The command applies also to the destitute and the afflicted. Those among them who bemoan their lot must repent of their sins. But something further is needed for the response to be complete: a person cannot believe Jesus’ gospel without a commitment to the <em>Person<\/em> of Christ (Jn 3:16). Even those who are already “poor in spirit,” in the sense defined earlier, are not really “blessed” until they acknowledge the truth of Jesus’ claims (Mt 11:6) and commit themselves to a life of obedience on his terms (7:21-27). This prepares us for the next point.<\/p>\n<h5>Summary<\/h5>\n<p>Throughout Jesus’ earthly ministry, the theme of his gospel remains the dawning of God’s kingdom (Mt 4:23; 24:14; Lk 4:43; 16:16), a message that is preached almost exclusively to Jews (Mt 10:5-6; 15:24). Yet Jesus also provides glimpses into what the gospel was to become once his work on earth was accomplished: (1) In Mark 8:35 and 10:29 Jesus speaks of individuals who needed to make great sacrifices “for my sake and for the gospel.” While distinguished from each other, the person of Jesus and the gospel are here associated in the closest possible way. The time was approaching when the Proclaimer of the gospel would become the Proclaimed. (2) In Mark 13:10 and Matthew 24:14 (and the textually doubtful Mk 16:15) Jesus foretells the preaching of the gospel of the kingdom to the gentile nations. (3) In Mark 14, having interpreted a woman’s action (v 3) as an anointing of his body beforehand for burial (v 8), Jesus declares, “And truly, I say to you, wherever the gospel is preached in the whole world, what she has done will be told in memory of her” (v 9, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 26:13). This statement strongly implies that both the person of Jesus and the event of his death will figure prominently in the message that is to be proclaimed; otherwise, it is strange that the gospel and this particular act should be so solemnly bound together. Thus, here in the text already is an indication of how crucial Jesus’ death is both for the provision of the salvation announced in his gospel (cf. Mk 14:22-24) and for the launching of the evangelistic mission to the Gentiles (Mt 20:28 is vital for explaining the shift from Mt 15:24 to 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelafterJesusResurrection\">The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\n<p>After the resurrection of Jesus, the gospel was proclaimed by his eyewitnesses. The contents of this gospel are recorded in the book of Acts and in Paul’s letters. Of the 43 instances of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">euangelizomai<\/span> (“evangelize”) beyond the Gospels, 15 occur in Acts and 21 in Paul’s writings; of the 64 instances of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">euangelion<\/span> (“gospel”), 2 occur in Acts and no fewer than 60 in Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Having risen from the dead, Jesus Christ again evangelizes (Eph 2:16-17), doing so now through his appointed representatives (Rom 15:16-18; 1 Cor 1:17; 9:12-18; Gal 4:13-14; Eph 4:11; 2 Tm 1:9-11). More than that, Christ has become the central theme of the gospel; the Proclaimer is now the Proclaimed. This is repeatedly affirmed in Acts (5:42; 8:4-5, 35; 11:20; 17:18) and in Paul’s writings (Rom 1:1-4; 10:8-17; 15:19-20; 2 Cor 4:4-6; 11:4; Gal 1:16; Eph 3:8; Phil 1:15-18; 2 Tm 2:8). The NT always speaks of <em>the gospel<\/em>—never the gospels—of Christ. A second gospel is as inconceivable and as unnecessary as a second Christ. This is the one gospel that God authorizes (e.g., Rom 1:1-17) and proclaims (e.g., 2 Thes 2:13-14). Galatians 2:7-9 speaks not of two gospels but of two mission fields. Paul (the apostle to the uncircumcised) and Peter (the apostle to the circumcised) are both entrusted with “the gospel of Christ” (Gal 1:7; cf. 1 Cor 15:1-11), the message that God has ordained for the salvation of Jews and Gentiles alike (Rom 1:16). The “different gospel” that Paul denounces in Galatians 1:6-9 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is not another gospel about Jesus but a message about “another Jesus”—not the real one, but one who exists only in the minds and the messages of those who proclaim him. To preach the true Christ is to preach the true gospel, however questionable one’s motives (Phil 1:15-18, 27), and to respond rightly to the gospel is to turn to Christ (Acts 11:20-21; Rom 10:8-17; Gal 2:14-16).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Witness to Saving Events<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel bears witness to every aspect of Christ’s saving work, from his birth (Rom 1:3; 2 Tm 2:8) and public ministry (Mk 1:1; Acts 10:36-38) to his second coming (Col 1:5, 23; cf. 3:1-4; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and the last judgment (Rom 2:16). But it is the death and the resurrection of Christ that are most crucial for the accomplishment of salvation, and that are therefore most prominent in the gospel’s witness. These are the events with which Mark’s proclamation climaxes (chs 15–16), and for which everything else prepares (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34; 12:6-8); special stress is placed upon Jesus’ death as the means of salvation from sin (10:45; 14:3-9, 22-24). In Paul’s gospel, too, the death and resurrection of Jesus are central (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:1-4), with the cross occupying the very center (1 Cor 1:17–2:5). Had Christ not risen from the dead, Paul argues, the preaching of the cross would be a waste of time (1 Cor 15:14, 17; cf. Rom 6:3-11). However, now that Christ has risen, his death deserves special emphasis as the place where God provides atonement for sins (Rom 3:21-26; 5:6-11; 2 Cor 5:14-21; Eph 1:7). The gospel according to Acts proclaims Jesus’ death (Acts 8:25; 20:24, 28; cf. 10:36-43) and preeminently his resurrection, the event by which he conquered death and was exalted as Lord and coming Judge (10:36-43; 13:32-33; 17:18, 31). According to 1 Peter, the bearers of the gospel (1 Pt 1:12) concentrated, as had the OT prophets, on “the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory” (1:11; cf. 1:18-19; 2:21-24; 3:18-22).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Power for Salvation<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel is much more than a report of past events and an exposition of doctrine. Paul declares in 1 Corinthians 1:17-18 and again in Romans 1:16 that the gospel is “the power of God”—not merely a witness to his power but an <em>expression<\/em> of his power. Thus, it cannot be fettered (2 Tm 2:8-9). “Our gospel came to you not only in word, but also in power,” Paul writes in 1 Thessalonians 1:5. His point is not that the gospel was accompanied by mighty works (though this happened; cf. Rom 15:18-19), but that the gospel itself is a mighty work. God makes it so through his Holy Spirit (Rom 15:18-19; 1 Cor 2:1-5; 1 Thes 1:6). Furthermore, God’s singular purpose in exercising his power is to change people’s lives, to liberate them from sin and death, and to reconcile them to himself—in short, to save them. The gospel has power to effect the salvation it announces and to impart the life it promises (e.g., Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-18; 15:1-2; Eph 1:13; 2 Thes 2:13-14; 2 Tm 1:8-11; 1 Pt 1:23-25). If people are to experience salvation, they must hear and believe the gospel. It is precisely in and through this message that the saving power manifested in the person and work of Christ (especially in his death and resurrection) is conveyed to men and made effective in their lives. Similarly it is in association with the gospel, or as a direct result of the reception of the gospel, that the Holy Spirit is imparted to believers (Acts 10:36-44; 15:7-8; 2 Cor 11:4; Gal 3:1-2). In short, the gospel is the decisive place of encounter between the sinner and God the Savior.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Grace<\/h5>\n<p>According to Peter’s testimony at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:7-11), an essential part of the gospel—for Gentiles and Jews alike—is salvation “through the grace of the Lord Jesus.” Toward the close of his missionary career, Paul states that his basic concern has been “to testify to the gospel of the grace of God” (Acts 20:24, <span>rsv<\/span>). This statement can be understood only in relation to Paul’s concept of the righteousness of God, particularly as set forth in Romans. Paul is here not merely expounding a divine attribute. Rather, he is dramatizing a divine activity—the manifestation of God’s righteousness now, “in the present time” (Rom 3:26), in the new age inaugurated by the coming of Jesus. The manifestation is twofold. Viewing the two aspects together, and doing so in the light of the gospel declared by Isaiah and by Jesus (both of whom strongly influenced Paul), respectively, will help us to understand why Paul speaks of “the gospel of the grace of God.”<\/p>\n<p>First, the gospel is a <em>witness<\/em> to God’s grace. In offering his Son as a sacrifice for sins (Rom 3:25a), God demonstrates his righteousness (vv 25b-26). That is, in the death of Jesus sins formerly “passed over” (v 25c) become the object of God’s wrath (cf. 1:18) and judgment. Yet in the very place where God deals justly and decisively with sins, he shows his grace to sinners. For the judgment against sin is focused not upon the sinners themselves but upon the One appointed to act on their behalf and to stand in their place (Rom 4:25; 5:6, 11; cf. 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 3:13). On this basis, sinners are freely pardoned (Rom 3:24). “The grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11) toward the sinful is also in evidence, for he willingly bears their iniquities and suffers the consequences of their wrongdoing (Gal 2:20; cf. 2 Cor 8:9; Phil 2:6-8).<\/p>\n<p>Second, the gospel is a <em>channel<\/em> of God’s grace. “The righteousness of God is revealed” in the gospel, says Paul (Rom 1:17). By this he means, not that the gospel talks about the righteousness of God (though it does), but that God’s righteousness is actively at work in the gospel. This activity in turn explains how the gospel becomes “the power of God for salvation” (v 16). And just how does God demonstrate his righteousness at this stage? In short, by bestowing it as a free gift on sinful human beings. It remains the righteousness of God, but by God’s grace, it is a righteousness in which humans may share. Furthermore, partaking of God’s righteousness depends on being personally united with Jesus Christ. In Paul’s view the saved person is one who has been acquitted, justified, “declared righteous” by God the judge. The basis for the verdict is not that I in myself am righteous (God justifies the ungodly, Rom 4:5). Nor does God treat me as though I were righteous. According to Paul I am declared righteous because I really <em>am<\/em> righteous—not in myself but in Christ (1 Cor 1:30; 2 Cor 5:21; Phil 3:9). This union is established through the revelation—and the free offer—of God’s righteousness in the gospel (Rom 1:16-17).<\/p>\n<h5>Responding to the Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel calls for a threefold response:<\/p>\n<p>1. <em>Believing.<\/em> The gospel, says Paul, is “the power of God for salvation to every one who has faith” (Rom 1:16). For Paul, faith is the abandonment of all reliance upon “works of law” for justification (3:28) and utter dependence upon the grace of God as demonstrated in the work of Christ, especially his death (v 25). Accordingly, the “different gospel” of Galatians 1:6 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is spurious, for it preaches salvation by personal merit rather than (or together with) the work of Christ (cf. Gal 2:16). Ultimately faith rests upon God (Rom 4:24; 1 Thes 1:8-9) and upon Christ (Rom 3:22, 26; Gal 2:16, 20). Yet it is imperative that one believe the gospel also (Acts 8:12; 11:20-21; 15:7; Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-24; Phil 1:27; Heb 4:2), for it is just by this means that God’s salvation is made known and mediated. Moreover, believing the gospel entails repentance (Acts 14:15; 20:21, 24; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and obedience (Rom 1:5; 15:16-18; Heb 4:6). Those who refuse to obey the gospel are imperiling their lives (2 Thes 1:5-10; 1 Pt 4:17).<\/p>\n<p>2. <em>Growing.<\/em> The Gospel is more than a message to be received—it is also a place in which to stand (1 Cor 15:1-2). It is sustainer of life as well as giver of life. One grows as a Christian not by turning from the gospel to other things (to turn away from the gospel is to abandon God and Christ, Gal 1:6), but by going ever more deeply into the gospel. In Romans 1:15 Paul expresses his eagerness to proclaim the gospel to the Christians in Rome. In the following chapters, anticipating his visit, he offers one of his most profound expositions of the gospel—one whose truth has never been fathomed and whose power has never been exhausted.<\/p>\n<p>3. <em>Hoping.<\/em> “The hope of the gospel” (Col 1:23) includes not only the return of Christ and the glory of heaven (Col 1:5; 3:1-4; 2 Thes 2:14-16) but the final judgment as well. For those who embrace the gospel, the last judgment holds no terrors, because the Judge is the very one who rescues them from the wrath to come (1 Thes 1:10). Those who are united to him need not dread condemnation now or at the end (Rom 8:1). Instead, the last judgment will mark their final vindication (1 Cor 4:5; Gal 5:5). Accordingly, this theme is not just a corollary but an integral part of the Good News (Rom 2:16). Those who have died since believing the gospel (1 Pt 4:6) may seem to have suffered a fate common to all people, or even the condemnation reserved for the lawless; in fact, their response to the gospel assures them of approval by the coming Lord (4:5-6; 5:4) and of a share in the imperishable inheritance of heaven (1:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOSPEL Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.” Preview • The Gospel Message of Isaiah • The Gospel in the New Testament • The Good News of Christ’s Coming • The Gospel according to Jesus • The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection The Gospel Message of Isaiah Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his...","summary_en":"GOSPEL Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.” Preview • The Gospel Message of Isaiah • The Gospel in the New Testament • The Good News of Christ’s Coming • The Gospel according to Jesus • The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection The Gospel Message of Isaiah Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21442,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Justification*, Justified","title_en":"Justification*, Justified","content_ro":"<h3>JUSTIFICATION*, JUSTIFIED<\/h3>\n<p>The act of God in bringing sinners into a new covenant relationship with himself through the forgiveness of sins. It is a declarative act of God by which he establishes persons as righteous—that is, in right and true relationship to himself.<\/p>\n<p>Since the time of the Reformation, when Martin Luther reestablished the doctrine of justification by faith alone as the cornerstone for theological understanding, this term has had special significance in the history of theology. To Luther it represented a rediscovery of the writings of Paul and a fundamental counterthrust to medieval Catholicism with its theology of works and indulgences. The doctrine of justification by faith alone affirms the thoroughgoing sinfulness of all persons, their total inability to deal effectively with their own sin, and the gracious provision through the death of Jesus Christ of a complete atonement for sin, to which persons respond in simple trust without any special claims or merit of their own.<\/p>\n<p>The noun “justification” and the verb “to justify” are not used often in Scripture. In the <span>kjv<\/span>, for example, the verb is found only in the OT, and there fewer than 25 times. In the NT both terms are used only 40 times. The more frequent and more important terms that translate the same Hebrew and Greek words are “righteousness” and “to declare (or make) righteous.” Any understanding of justification, therefore, directly involves a biblical understanding of righteousness.<\/p>\n<p>In common Greek, “justification” and “justify” are frequently forensic terms; that is, they relate to the law court and the act of acquitting or vindicating someone. It has to do with the innocence or virtue of a person. But more broadly it has to do with the norm of any relationship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the OT righteousness has to do with relationship and the obligations of that relationship. At times one is referred to as righteous because he or she stands in right relationship to another. At other times one is righteous because he or she fulfills certain obligations in a relationship (Gn 38:26). But more important, these terms are used with reference to God, who is viewed as just. He governs with justice (18:25), and his judgments are true and righteous (Ps 19:9). Both the innocent and the guilty know well the justice of God; the former know they will be vindicated and the latter know his law prevails.<\/p>\n<p>Justification and righteousness have technical significance because of their close association with the saving activity of God on behalf of his covenant people. The righteousness of God is bound up not so much with justice as with his intervention on behalf of his people under the covenant. The righteousness of God or the act of justification is, therefore, to be viewed not primarily in terms of law but in terms of covenant. The most important expression of this is the example of Abraham, who was reckoned righteous, that is, brought into personal relationship by virtue of his response of faith to the covenant offered by God (Gn 15:6). Abraham could not justify himself, but on the basis of the covenant, God established him as righteous. All persons share the helplessness of Abraham. In the sight of God no one shall stand justified (Ps 143:2). The hope of humanity is that God will remember his covenant. Righteousness is hence a product of the mercy or grace of God, who deals with his people according to his lovingkindness (Is 63:7). Justification is thus derived from the nature of God; it is primarily a religious term, and only secondly ethical.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Almost all discussion of justification in the NT is found in the letters of Paul, primarily in those to the Romans and Galatians. In these two letters it is one of the fundamental terms by which Paul seeks to set forth the consequences of the work of Christ for sinful humanity. Justification by faith is set primarily against the background of Jewish legalism and its attempts to make the law the basis of salvation. Paul regards this as an alien message requiring the strongest condemnation (Gal 1:6-9). The word and work of Christ, embedded in the message that Paul proclaimed, was a reminder that righteousness or justification is the gift of God through the blood (<em>covenant<\/em> blood, Heb 13:20) of Jesus Christ. All this is entirely apart from the law (Rom 3:21). The law, in fact, is not capable of leading one to righteousness, nor was it given to bring about righteousness.<\/p>\n<p>Galatians 3:15-25 is especially instructive in understanding the function of the law, which came 430 years after the covenant by which Abraham was brought into a living, personal relationship with the holy God. Whatever purpose the law had, it was not given as a means of righteousness. “For if a law had been given which could make alive, then righteousness would indeed be by the law” (Gal 3:21, <span>rsv<\/span>). The atoning work of Christ for the justification of people is to be seen in terms of covenant rather than law. This is the essential argument of Paul in this section of Galatians, namely, that justification, from the time of Abraham, has been through faith in the God who keeps covenant and has never come by the law. “Righteousness” is therefore a relational term and is affirmed by one who by faith has been brought into right relationship with God. The law brings judgment; it confronts one with his incapacity to cope with sin (Acts 13:39; Rom 8:3). Justification, then, has its forensic (judicial) dimensions in that it copes with, and represents salvation to, the problem of sin and guilt. The believer is set free from condemnation (Rom 8:1). Yet the fundamental understanding of justification is to be gained in moving away from the law and judgment to the covenant and grace. The appeal to Abraham in both Romans and Galatians is to show that the covenant has always been the only hope of humanity. God keeps his covenant, even though his covenant people violate it daily.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s formulation of the gospel, God is both just and the one who justifies. Sin demands judgment and must be dealt with. God’s pattern of bringing people into personal relationship now stands manifest apart from the law in the ministry and death of Christ, whom God put forth as the atoning agent (Rom 3:21-26). Sin is dealt with directly in the death of the sinless one who became sin for us so that we might in him become the righteousness of God (2 Cor 5:21). In his substitutionary death he bears the guilt of all humanity so that by responding in trust mankind might know God in true relationship.<\/p>\n\n<p>For Paul, then, justification in view of human sinfulness is rooted in the nature of God who alone is able to take initiative in the healing and redeeming of humanity. Justification is by grace alone. Rooted in the nature of God, it is also made available through the work of Christ as God’s gift. Thus, we have the often repeated confession that Christ died “for us” (Rom 5:8; 1 Thes 5:10), or “for our sins” (1 Cor 15:3). The means of appropriation is by faith and faith alone (Rom 3:22; 5:1). This faith is a simple trust in the sufficiency of the work of Christ, a trust by which one freely and wholeheartedly identifies with Christ, loves and embraces his Word, and gives himself to the value system expressed in the kingdom of God. The basic self-consciousness of the justified person is that his right relationship with the living God has nothing to do with merit or achievement. It is from beginning to end a gift of infinite love. His own powerlessness is resolved in the power of the gospel in which God’s saving work is revealed (1:17).<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospels justification appears in the parable of the Pharisee and the tax collector who went into the temple to pray. The former drew attention to his pious works and moral superiority. The latter, humbled by a deep sense of sin and unworthiness, could only cry for mercy. This man, according to Jesus, went down to his house justified (Lk 18:14). Though this is the only instance of the terminology of justification by faith, the entire ministry of Jesus was among people preoccupied with their own piety and the task of justifying themselves before God, people who set themselves over against sinners and undesirables, people who were so involved in their own works that they were offended by the language of grace and the full pardon of sinners (7:36-50). Jesus spoke to the same issue that later plagued Paul. Only the humble before God will be exalted (Mt 18:4; 23:12). Only the sinner hears the word of grace (Lk 5:32; 15:7, 10; 19:7). The unworthy find healing (Mt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p>Justification (or righteousness) by faith is always to be reaffirmed, for within each person there is the almost inevitable and natural desire to establish personal righteousness, to be able to stand before God on the basis of personal character and piety. But the revival and well-being of the church (note that both Luther and Wesley turned from works to faith upon their study of Romans) is rooted in the understanding that the just live by faith (Rom 1:17; Heb 10:38; 11:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adoption; Faith; Law, Biblical Concept of; Sanctification.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUSTIFICATION*, JUSTIFIED<\/h3>\n<p>The act of God in bringing sinners into a new covenant relationship with himself through the forgiveness of sins. It is a declarative act of God by which he establishes persons as righteous—that is, in right and true relationship to himself.<\/p>\n<p>Since the time of the Reformation, when Martin Luther reestablished the doctrine of justification by faith alone as the cornerstone for theological understanding, this term has had special significance in the history of theology. To Luther it represented a rediscovery of the writings of Paul and a fundamental counterthrust to medieval Catholicism with its theology of works and indulgences. The doctrine of justification by faith alone affirms the thoroughgoing sinfulness of all persons, their total inability to deal effectively with their own sin, and the gracious provision through the death of Jesus Christ of a complete atonement for sin, to which persons respond in simple trust without any special claims or merit of their own.<\/p>\n<p>The noun “justification” and the verb “to justify” are not used often in Scripture. In the <span>kjv<\/span>, for example, the verb is found only in the OT, and there fewer than 25 times. In the NT both terms are used only 40 times. The more frequent and more important terms that translate the same Hebrew and Greek words are “righteousness” and “to declare (or make) righteous.” Any understanding of justification, therefore, directly involves a biblical understanding of righteousness.<\/p>\n<p>In common Greek, “justification” and “justify” are frequently forensic terms; that is, they relate to the law court and the act of acquitting or vindicating someone. It has to do with the innocence or virtue of a person. But more broadly it has to do with the norm of any relationship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the OT righteousness has to do with relationship and the obligations of that relationship. At times one is referred to as righteous because he or she stands in right relationship to another. At other times one is righteous because he or she fulfills certain obligations in a relationship (Gn 38:26). But more important, these terms are used with reference to God, who is viewed as just. He governs with justice (18:25), and his judgments are true and righteous (Ps 19:9). Both the innocent and the guilty know well the justice of God; the former know they will be vindicated and the latter know his law prevails.<\/p>\n<p>Justification and righteousness have technical significance because of their close association with the saving activity of God on behalf of his covenant people. The righteousness of God is bound up not so much with justice as with his intervention on behalf of his people under the covenant. The righteousness of God or the act of justification is, therefore, to be viewed not primarily in terms of law but in terms of covenant. The most important expression of this is the example of Abraham, who was reckoned righteous, that is, brought into personal relationship by virtue of his response of faith to the covenant offered by God (Gn 15:6). Abraham could not justify himself, but on the basis of the covenant, God established him as righteous. All persons share the helplessness of Abraham. In the sight of God no one shall stand justified (Ps 143:2). The hope of humanity is that God will remember his covenant. Righteousness is hence a product of the mercy or grace of God, who deals with his people according to his lovingkindness (Is 63:7). Justification is thus derived from the nature of God; it is primarily a religious term, and only secondly ethical.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Almost all discussion of justification in the NT is found in the letters of Paul, primarily in those to the Romans and Galatians. In these two letters it is one of the fundamental terms by which Paul seeks to set forth the consequences of the work of Christ for sinful humanity. Justification by faith is set primarily against the background of Jewish legalism and its attempts to make the law the basis of salvation. Paul regards this as an alien message requiring the strongest condemnation (Gal 1:6-9). The word and work of Christ, embedded in the message that Paul proclaimed, was a reminder that righteousness or justification is the gift of God through the blood (<em>covenant<\/em> blood, Heb 13:20) of Jesus Christ. All this is entirely apart from the law (Rom 3:21). The law, in fact, is not capable of leading one to righteousness, nor was it given to bring about righteousness.<\/p>\n<p>Galatians 3:15-25 is especially instructive in understanding the function of the law, which came 430 years after the covenant by which Abraham was brought into a living, personal relationship with the holy God. Whatever purpose the law had, it was not given as a means of righteousness. “For if a law had been given which could make alive, then righteousness would indeed be by the law” (Gal 3:21, <span>rsv<\/span>). The atoning work of Christ for the justification of people is to be seen in terms of covenant rather than law. This is the essential argument of Paul in this section of Galatians, namely, that justification, from the time of Abraham, has been through faith in the God who keeps covenant and has never come by the law. “Righteousness” is therefore a relational term and is affirmed by one who by faith has been brought into right relationship with God. The law brings judgment; it confronts one with his incapacity to cope with sin (Acts 13:39; Rom 8:3). Justification, then, has its forensic (judicial) dimensions in that it copes with, and represents salvation to, the problem of sin and guilt. The believer is set free from condemnation (Rom 8:1). Yet the fundamental understanding of justification is to be gained in moving away from the law and judgment to the covenant and grace. The appeal to Abraham in both Romans and Galatians is to show that the covenant has always been the only hope of humanity. God keeps his covenant, even though his covenant people violate it daily.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s formulation of the gospel, God is both just and the one who justifies. Sin demands judgment and must be dealt with. God’s pattern of bringing people into personal relationship now stands manifest apart from the law in the ministry and death of Christ, whom God put forth as the atoning agent (Rom 3:21-26). Sin is dealt with directly in the death of the sinless one who became sin for us so that we might in him become the righteousness of God (2 Cor 5:21). In his substitutionary death he bears the guilt of all humanity so that by responding in trust mankind might know God in true relationship.<\/p>\n\n<p>For Paul, then, justification in view of human sinfulness is rooted in the nature of God who alone is able to take initiative in the healing and redeeming of humanity. Justification is by grace alone. Rooted in the nature of God, it is also made available through the work of Christ as God’s gift. Thus, we have the often repeated confession that Christ died “for us” (Rom 5:8; 1 Thes 5:10), or “for our sins” (1 Cor 15:3). The means of appropriation is by faith and faith alone (Rom 3:22; 5:1). This faith is a simple trust in the sufficiency of the work of Christ, a trust by which one freely and wholeheartedly identifies with Christ, loves and embraces his Word, and gives himself to the value system expressed in the kingdom of God. The basic self-consciousness of the justified person is that his right relationship with the living God has nothing to do with merit or achievement. It is from beginning to end a gift of infinite love. His own powerlessness is resolved in the power of the gospel in which God’s saving work is revealed (1:17).<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospels justification appears in the parable of the Pharisee and the tax collector who went into the temple to pray. The former drew attention to his pious works and moral superiority. The latter, humbled by a deep sense of sin and unworthiness, could only cry for mercy. This man, according to Jesus, went down to his house justified (Lk 18:14). Though this is the only instance of the terminology of justification by faith, the entire ministry of Jesus was among people preoccupied with their own piety and the task of justifying themselves before God, people who set themselves over against sinners and undesirables, people who were so involved in their own works that they were offended by the language of grace and the full pardon of sinners (7:36-50). Jesus spoke to the same issue that later plagued Paul. Only the humble before God will be exalted (Mt 18:4; 23:12). Only the sinner hears the word of grace (Lk 5:32; 15:7, 10; 19:7). The unworthy find healing (Mt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p>Justification (or righteousness) by faith is always to be reaffirmed, for within each person there is the almost inevitable and natural desire to establish personal righteousness, to be able to stand before God on the basis of personal character and piety. But the revival and well-being of the church (note that both Luther and Wesley turned from works to faith upon their study of Romans) is rooted in the understanding that the just live by faith (Rom 1:17; Heb 10:38; 11:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adoption; Faith; Law, Biblical Concept of; Sanctification.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUSTIFICATION*, JUSTIFIED The act of God in bringing sinners into a new covenant relationship with himself through the forgiveness of sins. It is a declarative act of God by which he establishes persons as righteous—that is, in right and true relationship to himself. Since the time of the Reformation, when Martin Luther reestablished the doctrine of justification by faith alone as the cornerstone for theological understanding, this term has had special significance in the history of theology....","summary_en":"JUSTIFICATION*, JUSTIFIED The act of God in bringing sinners into a new covenant relationship with himself through the forgiveness of sins. It is a declarative act of God by which he establishes persons as righteous—that is, in right and true relationship to himself. Since the time of the Reformation, when Martin Luther reestablished the doctrine of justification by faith alone as the cornerstone for theological understanding, this term has had special significance in the history of theology....","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29176,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40269,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"The Concept of Backsliding in the New Testament","title_en":"The Concept of Backsliding in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>The Concept of Backsliding in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>In the NT, the term “backsliding” does not appear, but the concept is present in a number of ways. It is usually viewed from an individual more than from a group perspective. In a conversation on the Mt of Olives, Jesus observed that toward the end of the age, evil would abound and most people’s love would grow cold (Mt 24:12). Steadfastness and perseverance were the only reliable antidotes to backsliding. Paul likewise warned believers of the dangers of falling away. Israel’s idolatry in the wilderness and God’s judgment upon their waywardness should serve as a stern warning (1 Cor 10:1-11). Paul instructed his converts in Galatia against forsaking their freedom in Christ and an enslaving religion of works. He marveled that the new believers had so quickly been deceived (Gal 3:1) and were abandoning the gospel of Christ (1:6). The new Christians who had begun so well were failing to obey the truth (5:7). In correspondence with Timothy, Paul was grieved to learn that some believers had already turned aside after Satan (1 Tm 5:15). Love of money and philosophical speculation had precipitated their downfall (6:10, 20-21). A Christian by the name of Demas turned back from serving God because he loved the world more than Christ (2 Tm 4:10). Finally, in Revelation, the risen Christ reproached the churches for the spiritual indifference and coldness of their backsliding (Rv 2:4; 3:16).<\/p><\/blockquote>","content_en":"<h3>The Concept of Backsliding in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>In the NT, the term “backsliding” does not appear, but the concept is present in a number of ways. It is usually viewed from an individual more than from a group perspective. In a conversation on the Mt of Olives, Jesus observed that toward the end of the age, evil would abound and most people’s love would grow cold (Mt 24:12). Steadfastness and perseverance were the only reliable antidotes to backsliding. Paul likewise warned believers of the dangers of falling away. Israel’s idolatry in the wilderness and God’s judgment upon their waywardness should serve as a stern warning (1 Cor 10:1-11). Paul instructed his converts in Galatia against forsaking their freedom in Christ and an enslaving religion of works. He marveled that the new believers had so quickly been deceived (Gal 3:1) and were abandoning the gospel of Christ (1:6). The new Christians who had begun so well were failing to obey the truth (5:7). In correspondence with Timothy, Paul was grieved to learn that some believers had already turned aside after Satan (1 Tm 5:15). Love of money and philosophical speculation had precipitated their downfall (6:10, 20-21). A Christian by the name of Demas turned back from serving God because he loved the world more than Christ (2 Tm 4:10). Finally, in Revelation, the risen Christ reproached the churches for the spiritual indifference and coldness of their backsliding (Rv 2:4; 3:16).<\/p><\/blockquote>","summary_ro":"The Concept of Backsliding in the New Testament In the NT, the term “backsliding” does not appear, but the concept is present in a number of ways. It is usually viewed from an individual more than from a group perspective. In a conversation on the Mt of Olives, Jesus observed that toward the end of the age, evil would abound and most people’s love would grow cold (Mt 24:12). Steadfastness and perseverance were the only reliable antidotes to backsliding. Paul likewise warned believers of the d...","summary_en":"The Concept of Backsliding in the New Testament In the NT, the term “backsliding” does not appear, but the concept is present in a number of ways. It is usually viewed from an individual more than from a group perspective. In a conversation on the Mt of Olives, Jesus observed that toward the end of the age, evil would abound and most people’s love would grow cold (Mt 24:12). Steadfastness and perseverance were the only reliable antidotes to backsliding. Paul likewise warned believers of the d...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57909,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6-10<\/strong> <em>I am shocked:<\/em> In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6-10<\/strong> <em>I am shocked:<\/em> In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6-10 I am shocked: In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.","summary_en":"1:6-10 I am shocked: In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57910,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Galatians were <em>turning away . . . from God<\/em> by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God <em>called<\/em> them to himself <em>through the loving mercy of Christ,<\/em> not through the law (2:16). • <em>God, who called you:<\/em> Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • <em>a different way that pretends to be the Good News:<\/em> Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Galatians were <em>turning away . . . from God<\/em> by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God <em>called<\/em> them to himself <em>through the loving mercy of Christ,<\/em> not through the law (2:16). • <em>God, who called you:<\/em> Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • <em>a different way that pretends to be the Good News:<\/em> Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6 The Galatians were turning away . . . from God by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God called them to himself through the loving mercy of Christ, not through the law (2:16). • God, who called you: Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • a different way that pretends to be the Good News: Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:...","summary_en":"1:6 The Galatians were turning away . . . from God by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God called them to himself through the loving mercy of Christ, not through the law (2:16). • God, who called you: Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • a different way that pretends to be the Good News: Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85535,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6-10<\/strong> <em>I am shocked:<\/em> In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6-10<\/strong> <em>I am shocked:<\/em> In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6-10 I am shocked: In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.","summary_en":"1:6-10 I am shocked: In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85536,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Galatians were <em>turning away . . . from God<\/em> by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God <em>called<\/em> them to himself <em>through the loving mercy of Christ,<\/em> not through the law (2:16). • <em>God, who called you:<\/em> Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • <em>a different way that pretends to be the Good News:<\/em> Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Galatians were <em>turning away . . . from God<\/em> by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God <em>called<\/em> them to himself <em>through the loving mercy of Christ,<\/em> not through the law (2:16). • <em>God, who called you:<\/em> Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • <em>a different way that pretends to be the Good News:<\/em> Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6 The Galatians were turning away . . . from God by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God called them to himself through the loving mercy of Christ, not through the law (2:16). • God, who called you: Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • a different way that pretends to be the Good News: Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:...","summary_en":"1:6 The Galatians were turning away . . . from God by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God called them to himself through the loving mercy of Christ, not through the law (2:16). • God, who called you: Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • a different way that pretends to be the Good News: Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113161,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6-10<\/strong> <em>I am shocked:<\/em> In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6-10<\/strong> <em>I am shocked:<\/em> In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6-10 I am shocked: In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.","summary_en":"1:6-10 I am shocked: In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113162,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Galatians were <em>turning away . . . from God<\/em> by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God <em>called<\/em> them to himself <em>through the loving mercy of Christ,<\/em> not through the law (2:16). • <em>God, who called you:<\/em> Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • <em>a different way that pretends to be the Good News:<\/em> Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Galatians were <em>turning away . . . from God<\/em> by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God <em>called<\/em> them to himself <em>through the loving mercy of Christ,<\/em> not through the law (2:16). • <em>God, who called you:<\/em> Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • <em>a different way that pretends to be the Good News:<\/em> Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6 The Galatians were turning away . . . from God by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God called them to himself through the loving mercy of Christ, not through the law (2:16). • God, who called you: Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • a different way that pretends to be the Good News: Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:...","summary_en":"1:6 The Galatians were turning away . . . from God by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God called them to himself through the loving mercy of Christ, not through the law (2:16). • God, who called you: Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • a different way that pretends to be the Good News: Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140787,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6-10<\/strong> <em>I am shocked:<\/em> In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6-10<\/strong> <em>I am shocked:<\/em> In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6-10 I am shocked: In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.","summary_en":"1:6-10 I am shocked: In most of his letters, Paul followed his greeting with gratitude for his readers and a prayer for them (e.g., Rom 1:8-10; 1 Cor 1:4-5; Phil 1:3-6; Col 1:3-5; 2 Thes 1:3-12), but he found nothing to praise in the Galatian church.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140788,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Galatians were <em>turning away . . . from God<\/em> by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God <em>called<\/em> them to himself <em>through the loving mercy of Christ,<\/em> not through the law (2:16). • <em>God, who called you:<\/em> Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • <em>a different way that pretends to be the Good News:<\/em> Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Galatians were <em>turning away . . . from God<\/em> by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God <em>called<\/em> them to himself <em>through the loving mercy of Christ,<\/em> not through the law (2:16). • <em>God, who called you:<\/em> Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • <em>a different way that pretends to be the Good News:<\/em> Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6 The Galatians were turning away . . . from God by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God called them to himself through the loving mercy of Christ, not through the law (2:16). • God, who called you: Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • a different way that pretends to be the Good News: Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:...","summary_en":"1:6 The Galatians were turning away . . . from God by rejecting the Good News Paul proclaimed and looking instead to the law. God called them to himself through the loving mercy of Christ, not through the law (2:16). • God, who called you: Cp. 1:15; Rom 8:30; 9:24; 11:29. • a different way that pretends to be the Good News: Some were teaching that Gentile Christians had to be circumcised to be considered members of God’s family. Paul rejected any requirement besides faith in Jesus (cp. Gal 5:...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66917,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Tolerance","title_en":"Tolerance","content_ro":"<h3>Tolerance<\/h3>\n<p>Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">adiaphora<\/span> (“non-essentials”) to describe beliefs or practices that are neither required nor prohibited by Scripture. On such issues, Christians must accommodate a variety of opinions. And sometimes, believers may feel free to participate in certain activities, but to do so would cause problems for others. In such cases, Paul instructs believers to take into account the needs of others before their own (see 1 Cor 8:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>Paul takes a very different approach regarding tolerance when the Good News itself is at stake. In Galatians, for example, Paul confronts false teaching about the Good News by severely castigating the false teachers (Gal 1:6-9) and by warning readers that adopting false teaching will alienate them from Christ (Gal 5:4).<\/p>\n<p>In our day, we need to be careful about what we tolerate and accommodate, and we need to be equally careful about what we decide is worthy of confrontation. Believers need to consider carefully the different issues they confront in their associations with other believers. If the basic truth of the Good News is not violated, we should not quarrel or be divided over such issues. Other issues, however, strike at the heart of the message of Good News. In these cases, Christians need to take a stand and be faithful to the Good News and to Christ. In some cases, it is challenging to discern whether a particular issue is a central, core issue or whether it is a peripheral matter that is important to discuss but not essential for Christian fellowship. The way Paul himself dealt with a variety of issues in his own time can serve as a guide for dealing with conflicts and controversies in our time.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 133:1-3; Rom 12:9-21; 14:1–15:13; 1 Cor 1:10; 6:1-20; 8:1-13; 10:1–11:1; 12:12-27; 13:1-8; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Col 3:12-15; 2 Tim 2:23-26<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Tolerance<\/h3>\n<p>Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">adiaphora<\/span> (“non-essentials”) to describe beliefs or practices that are neither required nor prohibited by Scripture. On such issues, Christians must accommodate a variety of opinions. And sometimes, believers may feel free to participate in certain activities, but to do so would cause problems for others. In such cases, Paul instructs believers to take into account the needs of others before their own (see 1 Cor 8:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>Paul takes a very different approach regarding tolerance when the Good News itself is at stake. In Galatians, for example, Paul confronts false teaching about the Good News by severely castigating the false teachers (Gal 1:6-9) and by warning readers that adopting false teaching will alienate them from Christ (Gal 5:4).<\/p>\n<p>In our day, we need to be careful about what we tolerate and accommodate, and we need to be equally careful about what we decide is worthy of confrontation. Believers need to consider carefully the different issues they confront in their associations with other believers. If the basic truth of the Good News is not violated, we should not quarrel or be divided over such issues. Other issues, however, strike at the heart of the message of Good News. In these cases, Christians need to take a stand and be faithful to the Good News and to Christ. In some cases, it is challenging to discern whether a particular issue is a central, core issue or whether it is a peripheral matter that is important to discuss but not essential for Christian fellowship. The way Paul himself dealt with a variety of issues in his own time can serve as a guide for dealing with conflicts and controversies in our time.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 133:1-3; Rom 12:9-21; 14:1–15:13; 1 Cor 1:10; 6:1-20; 8:1-13; 10:1–11:1; 12:12-27; 13:1-8; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Col 3:12-15; 2 Tim 2:23-26<\/p>","summary_ro":"Tolerance Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6). Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used t...","summary_en":"Tolerance Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6). Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67607,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Apostasy","title_en":"Apostasy","content_ro":"<h3>Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible as a whole is clear that disobeying God has severe consequences (see, e.g., Gen 9:5-6; Num 35:16-21; Lev 20:10; Zech 5:4). Those who oppose God’s will and rule will ultimately be excluded from his life-giving presence (Isa 66:14-24). In this vein, several passages in Hebrews warn that those who fail to take God’s word seriously are in deep spiritual trouble and will face the judgment of God (see Heb 2:1-4; 4:12-13; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 12:25-29).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have understood the nature of the <em>apostasy<\/em> (falling away) and judgment described in the “warning passages” of Hebrews in various ways: (1) Some have understood the warnings to be hypothetical, suggesting that the harshness serves simply to shock the hearers out of spiritual lethargy, with no impending judgment in view. (2) A second position holds that those with whom the author was concerned were Jewish and had not yet converted to Christianity. Thus they were under God’s judgment because they were not yet a part of the new covenant. (3) A third view argues that the “apostates” in view were Christians who, because of their spiritual condition, faced some measure of God’s judgment as believers, but were in no danger of actually losing their salvation. (4) A fourth view suggests that the apostates had been full members of the Christian community and had experienced the full reality of the Christian faith but had now turned their backs on Christ and the church. (5) A fifth view is that, rather than having been true believers, the apostates showed that they never really knew Christ in the first place.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, warnings of judgment are an expression of God’s grace, seeking to turn the rebellious person to the ways of God. Taking the consequences of apostasy seriously can help us build resolve in faithfully following Jesus.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 16:1-50; Deut 13:1-18; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8:1-18; Matt 24:10-13; Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; Heb 2:1-4; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible as a whole is clear that disobeying God has severe consequences (see, e.g., Gen 9:5-6; Num 35:16-21; Lev 20:10; Zech 5:4). Those who oppose God’s will and rule will ultimately be excluded from his life-giving presence (Isa 66:14-24). In this vein, several passages in Hebrews warn that those who fail to take God’s word seriously are in deep spiritual trouble and will face the judgment of God (see Heb 2:1-4; 4:12-13; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 12:25-29).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have understood the nature of the <em>apostasy<\/em> (falling away) and judgment described in the “warning passages” of Hebrews in various ways: (1) Some have understood the warnings to be hypothetical, suggesting that the harshness serves simply to shock the hearers out of spiritual lethargy, with no impending judgment in view. (2) A second position holds that those with whom the author was concerned were Jewish and had not yet converted to Christianity. Thus they were under God’s judgment because they were not yet a part of the new covenant. (3) A third view argues that the “apostates” in view were Christians who, because of their spiritual condition, faced some measure of God’s judgment as believers, but were in no danger of actually losing their salvation. (4) A fourth view suggests that the apostates had been full members of the Christian community and had experienced the full reality of the Christian faith but had now turned their backs on Christ and the church. (5) A fifth view is that, rather than having been true believers, the apostates showed that they never really knew Christ in the first place.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, warnings of judgment are an expression of God’s grace, seeking to turn the rebellious person to the ways of God. Taking the consequences of apostasy seriously can help us build resolve in faithfully following Jesus.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 16:1-50; Deut 13:1-18; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8:1-18; Matt 24:10-13; Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; Heb 2:1-4; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Apostasy Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 P...","summary_en":"Apostasy Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94543,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Tolerance","title_en":"Tolerance","content_ro":"<h3>Tolerance<\/h3>\n<p>Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">adiaphora<\/span> (“non-essentials”) to describe beliefs or practices that are neither required nor prohibited by Scripture. On such issues, Christians must accommodate a variety of opinions. And sometimes, believers may feel free to participate in certain activities, but to do so would cause problems for others. In such cases, Paul instructs believers to take into account the needs of others before their own (see 1 Cor 8:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>Paul takes a very different approach regarding tolerance when the Good News itself is at stake. In Galatians, for example, Paul confronts false teaching about the Good News by severely castigating the false teachers (Gal 1:6-9) and by warning readers that adopting false teaching will alienate them from Christ (Gal 5:4).<\/p>\n<p>In our day, we need to be careful about what we tolerate and accommodate, and we need to be equally careful about what we decide is worthy of confrontation. Believers need to consider carefully the different issues they confront in their associations with other believers. If the basic truth of the Good News is not violated, we should not quarrel or be divided over such issues. Other issues, however, strike at the heart of the message of Good News. In these cases, Christians need to take a stand and be faithful to the Good News and to Christ. In some cases, it is challenging to discern whether a particular issue is a central, core issue or whether it is a peripheral matter that is important to discuss but not essential for Christian fellowship. The way Paul himself dealt with a variety of issues in his own time can serve as a guide for dealing with conflicts and controversies in our time.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 133:1-3; Rom 12:9-21; 14:1–15:13; 1 Cor 1:10; 6:1-20; 8:1-13; 10:1–11:1; 12:12-27; 13:1-8; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Col 3:12-15; 2 Tim 2:23-26<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Tolerance<\/h3>\n<p>Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">adiaphora<\/span> (“non-essentials”) to describe beliefs or practices that are neither required nor prohibited by Scripture. On such issues, Christians must accommodate a variety of opinions. And sometimes, believers may feel free to participate in certain activities, but to do so would cause problems for others. In such cases, Paul instructs believers to take into account the needs of others before their own (see 1 Cor 8:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>Paul takes a very different approach regarding tolerance when the Good News itself is at stake. In Galatians, for example, Paul confronts false teaching about the Good News by severely castigating the false teachers (Gal 1:6-9) and by warning readers that adopting false teaching will alienate them from Christ (Gal 5:4).<\/p>\n<p>In our day, we need to be careful about what we tolerate and accommodate, and we need to be equally careful about what we decide is worthy of confrontation. Believers need to consider carefully the different issues they confront in their associations with other believers. If the basic truth of the Good News is not violated, we should not quarrel or be divided over such issues. Other issues, however, strike at the heart of the message of Good News. In these cases, Christians need to take a stand and be faithful to the Good News and to Christ. In some cases, it is challenging to discern whether a particular issue is a central, core issue or whether it is a peripheral matter that is important to discuss but not essential for Christian fellowship. The way Paul himself dealt with a variety of issues in his own time can serve as a guide for dealing with conflicts and controversies in our time.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 133:1-3; Rom 12:9-21; 14:1–15:13; 1 Cor 1:10; 6:1-20; 8:1-13; 10:1–11:1; 12:12-27; 13:1-8; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Col 3:12-15; 2 Tim 2:23-26<\/p>","summary_ro":"Tolerance Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6). Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used t...","summary_en":"Tolerance Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6). Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95233,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Apostasy","title_en":"Apostasy","content_ro":"<h3>Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible as a whole is clear that disobeying God has severe consequences (see, e.g., Gen 9:5-6; Num 35:16-21; Lev 20:10; Zech 5:4). Those who oppose God’s will and rule will ultimately be excluded from his life-giving presence (Isa 66:14-24). In this vein, several passages in Hebrews warn that those who fail to take God’s word seriously are in deep spiritual trouble and will face the judgment of God (see Heb 2:1-4; 4:12-13; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 12:25-29).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have understood the nature of the <em>apostasy<\/em> (falling away) and judgment described in the “warning passages” of Hebrews in various ways: (1) Some have understood the warnings to be hypothetical, suggesting that the harshness serves simply to shock the hearers out of spiritual lethargy, with no impending judgment in view. (2) A second position holds that those with whom the author was concerned were Jewish and had not yet converted to Christianity. Thus they were under God’s judgment because they were not yet a part of the new covenant. (3) A third view argues that the “apostates” in view were Christians who, because of their spiritual condition, faced some measure of God’s judgment as believers, but were in no danger of actually losing their salvation. (4) A fourth view suggests that the apostates had been full members of the Christian community and had experienced the full reality of the Christian faith but had now turned their backs on Christ and the church. (5) A fifth view is that, rather than having been true believers, the apostates showed that they never really knew Christ in the first place.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, warnings of judgment are an expression of God’s grace, seeking to turn the rebellious person to the ways of God. Taking the consequences of apostasy seriously can help us build resolve in faithfully following Jesus.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 16:1-50; Deut 13:1-18; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8:1-18; Matt 24:10-13; Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; Heb 2:1-4; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible as a whole is clear that disobeying God has severe consequences (see, e.g., Gen 9:5-6; Num 35:16-21; Lev 20:10; Zech 5:4). Those who oppose God’s will and rule will ultimately be excluded from his life-giving presence (Isa 66:14-24). In this vein, several passages in Hebrews warn that those who fail to take God’s word seriously are in deep spiritual trouble and will face the judgment of God (see Heb 2:1-4; 4:12-13; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 12:25-29).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have understood the nature of the <em>apostasy<\/em> (falling away) and judgment described in the “warning passages” of Hebrews in various ways: (1) Some have understood the warnings to be hypothetical, suggesting that the harshness serves simply to shock the hearers out of spiritual lethargy, with no impending judgment in view. (2) A second position holds that those with whom the author was concerned were Jewish and had not yet converted to Christianity. Thus they were under God’s judgment because they were not yet a part of the new covenant. (3) A third view argues that the “apostates” in view were Christians who, because of their spiritual condition, faced some measure of God’s judgment as believers, but were in no danger of actually losing their salvation. (4) A fourth view suggests that the apostates had been full members of the Christian community and had experienced the full reality of the Christian faith but had now turned their backs on Christ and the church. (5) A fifth view is that, rather than having been true believers, the apostates showed that they never really knew Christ in the first place.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, warnings of judgment are an expression of God’s grace, seeking to turn the rebellious person to the ways of God. Taking the consequences of apostasy seriously can help us build resolve in faithfully following Jesus.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 16:1-50; Deut 13:1-18; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8:1-18; Matt 24:10-13; Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; Heb 2:1-4; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Apostasy Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 P...","summary_en":"Apostasy Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122169,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Tolerance","title_en":"Tolerance","content_ro":"<h3>Tolerance<\/h3>\n<p>Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">adiaphora<\/span> (“non-essentials”) to describe beliefs or practices that are neither required nor prohibited by Scripture. On such issues, Christians must accommodate a variety of opinions. And sometimes, believers may feel free to participate in certain activities, but to do so would cause problems for others. In such cases, Paul instructs believers to take into account the needs of others before their own (see 1 Cor 8:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>Paul takes a very different approach regarding tolerance when the Good News itself is at stake. In Galatians, for example, Paul confronts false teaching about the Good News by severely castigating the false teachers (Gal 1:6-9) and by warning readers that adopting false teaching will alienate them from Christ (Gal 5:4).<\/p>\n<p>In our day, we need to be careful about what we tolerate and accommodate, and we need to be equally careful about what we decide is worthy of confrontation. Believers need to consider carefully the different issues they confront in their associations with other believers. If the basic truth of the Good News is not violated, we should not quarrel or be divided over such issues. Other issues, however, strike at the heart of the message of Good News. In these cases, Christians need to take a stand and be faithful to the Good News and to Christ. In some cases, it is challenging to discern whether a particular issue is a central, core issue or whether it is a peripheral matter that is important to discuss but not essential for Christian fellowship. The way Paul himself dealt with a variety of issues in his own time can serve as a guide for dealing with conflicts and controversies in our time.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 133:1-3; Rom 12:9-21; 14:1–15:13; 1 Cor 1:10; 6:1-20; 8:1-13; 10:1–11:1; 12:12-27; 13:1-8; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Col 3:12-15; 2 Tim 2:23-26<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Tolerance<\/h3>\n<p>Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">adiaphora<\/span> (“non-essentials”) to describe beliefs or practices that are neither required nor prohibited by Scripture. On such issues, Christians must accommodate a variety of opinions. And sometimes, believers may feel free to participate in certain activities, but to do so would cause problems for others. In such cases, Paul instructs believers to take into account the needs of others before their own (see 1 Cor 8:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>Paul takes a very different approach regarding tolerance when the Good News itself is at stake. In Galatians, for example, Paul confronts false teaching about the Good News by severely castigating the false teachers (Gal 1:6-9) and by warning readers that adopting false teaching will alienate them from Christ (Gal 5:4).<\/p>\n<p>In our day, we need to be careful about what we tolerate and accommodate, and we need to be equally careful about what we decide is worthy of confrontation. Believers need to consider carefully the different issues they confront in their associations with other believers. If the basic truth of the Good News is not violated, we should not quarrel or be divided over such issues. Other issues, however, strike at the heart of the message of Good News. In these cases, Christians need to take a stand and be faithful to the Good News and to Christ. In some cases, it is challenging to discern whether a particular issue is a central, core issue or whether it is a peripheral matter that is important to discuss but not essential for Christian fellowship. The way Paul himself dealt with a variety of issues in his own time can serve as a guide for dealing with conflicts and controversies in our time.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 133:1-3; Rom 12:9-21; 14:1–15:13; 1 Cor 1:10; 6:1-20; 8:1-13; 10:1–11:1; 12:12-27; 13:1-8; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Col 3:12-15; 2 Tim 2:23-26<\/p>","summary_ro":"Tolerance Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6). Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used t...","summary_en":"Tolerance Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6). Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122859,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Apostasy","title_en":"Apostasy","content_ro":"<h3>Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible as a whole is clear that disobeying God has severe consequences (see, e.g., Gen 9:5-6; Num 35:16-21; Lev 20:10; Zech 5:4). Those who oppose God’s will and rule will ultimately be excluded from his life-giving presence (Isa 66:14-24). In this vein, several passages in Hebrews warn that those who fail to take God’s word seriously are in deep spiritual trouble and will face the judgment of God (see Heb 2:1-4; 4:12-13; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 12:25-29).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have understood the nature of the <em>apostasy<\/em> (falling away) and judgment described in the “warning passages” of Hebrews in various ways: (1) Some have understood the warnings to be hypothetical, suggesting that the harshness serves simply to shock the hearers out of spiritual lethargy, with no impending judgment in view. (2) A second position holds that those with whom the author was concerned were Jewish and had not yet converted to Christianity. Thus they were under God’s judgment because they were not yet a part of the new covenant. (3) A third view argues that the “apostates” in view were Christians who, because of their spiritual condition, faced some measure of God’s judgment as believers, but were in no danger of actually losing their salvation. (4) A fourth view suggests that the apostates had been full members of the Christian community and had experienced the full reality of the Christian faith but had now turned their backs on Christ and the church. (5) A fifth view is that, rather than having been true believers, the apostates showed that they never really knew Christ in the first place.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, warnings of judgment are an expression of God’s grace, seeking to turn the rebellious person to the ways of God. Taking the consequences of apostasy seriously can help us build resolve in faithfully following Jesus.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 16:1-50; Deut 13:1-18; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8:1-18; Matt 24:10-13; Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; Heb 2:1-4; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible as a whole is clear that disobeying God has severe consequences (see, e.g., Gen 9:5-6; Num 35:16-21; Lev 20:10; Zech 5:4). Those who oppose God’s will and rule will ultimately be excluded from his life-giving presence (Isa 66:14-24). In this vein, several passages in Hebrews warn that those who fail to take God’s word seriously are in deep spiritual trouble and will face the judgment of God (see Heb 2:1-4; 4:12-13; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 12:25-29).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have understood the nature of the <em>apostasy<\/em> (falling away) and judgment described in the “warning passages” of Hebrews in various ways: (1) Some have understood the warnings to be hypothetical, suggesting that the harshness serves simply to shock the hearers out of spiritual lethargy, with no impending judgment in view. (2) A second position holds that those with whom the author was concerned were Jewish and had not yet converted to Christianity. Thus they were under God’s judgment because they were not yet a part of the new covenant. (3) A third view argues that the “apostates” in view were Christians who, because of their spiritual condition, faced some measure of God’s judgment as believers, but were in no danger of actually losing their salvation. (4) A fourth view suggests that the apostates had been full members of the Christian community and had experienced the full reality of the Christian faith but had now turned their backs on Christ and the church. (5) A fifth view is that, rather than having been true believers, the apostates showed that they never really knew Christ in the first place.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, warnings of judgment are an expression of God’s grace, seeking to turn the rebellious person to the ways of God. Taking the consequences of apostasy seriously can help us build resolve in faithfully following Jesus.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 16:1-50; Deut 13:1-18; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8:1-18; Matt 24:10-13; Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; Heb 2:1-4; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Apostasy Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 P...","summary_en":"Apostasy Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149795,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Tolerance","title_en":"Tolerance","content_ro":"<h3>Tolerance<\/h3>\n<p>Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">adiaphora<\/span> (“non-essentials”) to describe beliefs or practices that are neither required nor prohibited by Scripture. On such issues, Christians must accommodate a variety of opinions. And sometimes, believers may feel free to participate in certain activities, but to do so would cause problems for others. In such cases, Paul instructs believers to take into account the needs of others before their own (see 1 Cor 8:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>Paul takes a very different approach regarding tolerance when the Good News itself is at stake. In Galatians, for example, Paul confronts false teaching about the Good News by severely castigating the false teachers (Gal 1:6-9) and by warning readers that adopting false teaching will alienate them from Christ (Gal 5:4).<\/p>\n<p>In our day, we need to be careful about what we tolerate and accommodate, and we need to be equally careful about what we decide is worthy of confrontation. Believers need to consider carefully the different issues they confront in their associations with other believers. If the basic truth of the Good News is not violated, we should not quarrel or be divided over such issues. Other issues, however, strike at the heart of the message of Good News. In these cases, Christians need to take a stand and be faithful to the Good News and to Christ. In some cases, it is challenging to discern whether a particular issue is a central, core issue or whether it is a peripheral matter that is important to discuss but not essential for Christian fellowship. The way Paul himself dealt with a variety of issues in his own time can serve as a guide for dealing with conflicts and controversies in our time.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 133:1-3; Rom 12:9-21; 14:1–15:13; 1 Cor 1:10; 6:1-20; 8:1-13; 10:1–11:1; 12:12-27; 13:1-8; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Col 3:12-15; 2 Tim 2:23-26<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Tolerance<\/h3>\n<p>Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">adiaphora<\/span> (“non-essentials”) to describe beliefs or practices that are neither required nor prohibited by Scripture. On such issues, Christians must accommodate a variety of opinions. And sometimes, believers may feel free to participate in certain activities, but to do so would cause problems for others. In such cases, Paul instructs believers to take into account the needs of others before their own (see 1 Cor 8:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>Paul takes a very different approach regarding tolerance when the Good News itself is at stake. In Galatians, for example, Paul confronts false teaching about the Good News by severely castigating the false teachers (Gal 1:6-9) and by warning readers that adopting false teaching will alienate them from Christ (Gal 5:4).<\/p>\n<p>In our day, we need to be careful about what we tolerate and accommodate, and we need to be equally careful about what we decide is worthy of confrontation. Believers need to consider carefully the different issues they confront in their associations with other believers. If the basic truth of the Good News is not violated, we should not quarrel or be divided over such issues. Other issues, however, strike at the heart of the message of Good News. In these cases, Christians need to take a stand and be faithful to the Good News and to Christ. In some cases, it is challenging to discern whether a particular issue is a central, core issue or whether it is a peripheral matter that is important to discuss but not essential for Christian fellowship. The way Paul himself dealt with a variety of issues in his own time can serve as a guide for dealing with conflicts and controversies in our time.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 133:1-3; Rom 12:9-21; 14:1–15:13; 1 Cor 1:10; 6:1-20; 8:1-13; 10:1–11:1; 12:12-27; 13:1-8; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1; Col 3:12-15; 2 Tim 2:23-26<\/p>","summary_ro":"Tolerance Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6). Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used t...","summary_en":"Tolerance Paul pleads for tolerance between those who are weak in faith and those who are strong in faith, and he teaches that believers need to accept each other (Rom 14:1; 15:7). He instructs them to stop condemning and belittling each other. Rather, they should learn to worship God with a united voice and spirit (Rom 15:6). Paul is addressing the specific issue of whether believers need to practice certain requirements of the Old Testament law and of Jewish worship. Theologians have used t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150485,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Apostasy","title_en":"Apostasy","content_ro":"<h3>Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible as a whole is clear that disobeying God has severe consequences (see, e.g., Gen 9:5-6; Num 35:16-21; Lev 20:10; Zech 5:4). Those who oppose God’s will and rule will ultimately be excluded from his life-giving presence (Isa 66:14-24). In this vein, several passages in Hebrews warn that those who fail to take God’s word seriously are in deep spiritual trouble and will face the judgment of God (see Heb 2:1-4; 4:12-13; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 12:25-29).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have understood the nature of the <em>apostasy<\/em> (falling away) and judgment described in the “warning passages” of Hebrews in various ways: (1) Some have understood the warnings to be hypothetical, suggesting that the harshness serves simply to shock the hearers out of spiritual lethargy, with no impending judgment in view. (2) A second position holds that those with whom the author was concerned were Jewish and had not yet converted to Christianity. Thus they were under God’s judgment because they were not yet a part of the new covenant. (3) A third view argues that the “apostates” in view were Christians who, because of their spiritual condition, faced some measure of God’s judgment as believers, but were in no danger of actually losing their salvation. (4) A fourth view suggests that the apostates had been full members of the Christian community and had experienced the full reality of the Christian faith but had now turned their backs on Christ and the church. (5) A fifth view is that, rather than having been true believers, the apostates showed that they never really knew Christ in the first place.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, warnings of judgment are an expression of God’s grace, seeking to turn the rebellious person to the ways of God. Taking the consequences of apostasy seriously can help us build resolve in faithfully following Jesus.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 16:1-50; Deut 13:1-18; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8:1-18; Matt 24:10-13; Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; Heb 2:1-4; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible as a whole is clear that disobeying God has severe consequences (see, e.g., Gen 9:5-6; Num 35:16-21; Lev 20:10; Zech 5:4). Those who oppose God’s will and rule will ultimately be excluded from his life-giving presence (Isa 66:14-24). In this vein, several passages in Hebrews warn that those who fail to take God’s word seriously are in deep spiritual trouble and will face the judgment of God (see Heb 2:1-4; 4:12-13; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 12:25-29).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have understood the nature of the <em>apostasy<\/em> (falling away) and judgment described in the “warning passages” of Hebrews in various ways: (1) Some have understood the warnings to be hypothetical, suggesting that the harshness serves simply to shock the hearers out of spiritual lethargy, with no impending judgment in view. (2) A second position holds that those with whom the author was concerned were Jewish and had not yet converted to Christianity. Thus they were under God’s judgment because they were not yet a part of the new covenant. (3) A third view argues that the “apostates” in view were Christians who, because of their spiritual condition, faced some measure of God’s judgment as believers, but were in no danger of actually losing their salvation. (4) A fourth view suggests that the apostates had been full members of the Christian community and had experienced the full reality of the Christian faith but had now turned their backs on Christ and the church. (5) A fifth view is that, rather than having been true believers, the apostates showed that they never really knew Christ in the first place.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, warnings of judgment are an expression of God’s grace, seeking to turn the rebellious person to the ways of God. Taking the consequences of apostasy seriously can help us build resolve in faithfully following Jesus.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 16:1-50; Deut 13:1-18; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8:1-18; Matt 24:10-13; Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; Heb 2:1-4; 6:4-8; 10:26-31; 2 Pet 2:1-22; 1 Jn 2:18-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Apostasy Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 P...","summary_en":"Apostasy Sadly, opposition to God is not limited to those outside the community of faith; the Bible tells of many people who seemed to know God but turned away (see Num 16; Deut 13; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; Ezek 8). God brings just consequences to those who turn away from him (Job 11:20; Prov 1:24-31; Jer 11:11). Jesus spoke of those who fall away and the judgment they will receive (Matt 16:27; 23:13; 24:10-13; 25:41-46), and the writers of the New Testament follow his lead (Gal 1:6-9; 2 Tim 3:1-9; 2 P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":14604,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gospel","title_en":"Gospel","content_ro":"<h3>GOSPEL<\/h3>\n<p>Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon <em>godspell<\/em> denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.”<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelMessageofIsaiah\">The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p>Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his saving action except in his own nature. Israel’s deliverance is undeserved; she is no more worthy of the divine love now than when she went into captivity. In whatever measure she has paid the just due for her past sins (Is 40:2), she remains a sinful people (42:25; 46:12-13; 48:1). It is only by God’s grace that she is saved (55:1-7). By God’s design, Israel’s salvation depends not upon her own righteousness but upon his (41:10; 45:24; 46:13; 51:5-6). There being no righteousness to reward, the Lord acts to <em>create<\/em> righteousness in Israel (45:8; 61:3, 10-11). Yet as these references indicate, salvation is not accomplished at the expense of justice. The penalty for Israel’s sins is to be paid in full. God’s mercy is not hereby called into question. On the contrary, it is precisely here that his mercy is most poignantly expressed, for the penalty is exacted not from his people but from the Servant appointed to stand in their place (53:4-12). Through the Servant’s work, many shall be justified (53:11). The coming of the Evangelist—the preacher of the good news—is predicted in Isaiah 61. He is called the anointed One (v 1) who proclaims the year of the Lord’s favor (v 2). God will be glorified through his preaching (v 3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelintheNewTestament\">The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In only two places (Gal 3:8; Heb 4:2, 6) does the NT speak of the proclamation of the gospel prior to the Christian era. This is quite remarkable, given (1) the unmistakable presence of the gospel in the OT, (2) the extent of gospel terminology in the NT (in the Greek the noun appears 76 times; and the verb, 54), and (3) the fact that the NT presents Christ as the fulfillment of the OT and draws heavily on the OT to interpret his person and work. Not only is it remarkable; it is very significant. It indicates that the NT usage depends not only upon the <em>character<\/em> of the message (truth about salvation) but also upon <em>historical events.<\/em> Almost without exception, the NT restricts its application of gospel terminology to proclamations made during the time of fulfillment—the age in which the salvation promised in the OT is actually accomplished. The NT is preoccupied, not with promises of salvation, but with news of salvation. According to Mark 1:1-4, the gospel “begins” not in the OT but with John the Baptist, in whose work OT prophecy is fulfilled. In Romans 1:1-5 the gospel is represented as a blessing promised in the OT but not actually given until Jesus comes (see also Acts 13:32-33).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGoodNewsofChristsComing\">The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n<p>The promised birth of John the Baptist is good news (Lk 1:19), not only for his parents (vv 7, 24-25) but for all the people: John is sent to prepare them for Messiah’s coming (vv 14-17, 67-79). John’s own preaching is gospel (3:18) for the same reason. The Messiah would be coming to execute judgment, a process that involves both condemnation and salvation (vv 3-17). John’s message is gospel for sinners in that they are warned of impending doom and urged to repent before the ax falls (vv 7-9); it is gospel for the repentant in that they are promised forgiveness (v 3) and membership in Messiah’s community (v 17). The birth of the Savior himself is announced as good news bringing great joy (2:10-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelaccordingtoJesus\">The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Kingdom of God<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was authorized by God and anointed by the Spirit to proclaim the gospel (Mk 1:14; Lk 4:18). At the heart of his preaching stands the announcement “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel” (Mk 1:15). (For further references to this gospel, see Mt 4:23; 9:35; 24:14; 26:13; Mk 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; Lk 4:43; 8:1; 16:16.) The message is good news for several reasons: (1) The kingdom is coming. The God whom Jesus proclaims is sovereign over all he has made. Yet paradoxically his rule is incomplete: his will is not done on earth as it is in heaven; wrong, not right, prevails. But these conditions are not final, according to Jesus. With the coming of the kingdom, God’s rule will be completed; wrong will be judged, righteousness established, and his people blessed. (2) The kingdom is <em>now<\/em> being inaugurated. “The time is fulfilled,” declares Jesus (Mk 1:15a). The time appointed for the fulfillment of the OT promises has arrived. (3) The consummation of the kingdom is therefore no longer a distant prospect; the full realization of God’s rule is “at hand” (Mk 1:15b). (4) God is establishing his rule for a saving purpose. This is implied in Jesus’ call to repentance (Mk 1:15c). It is especially clear in the passages to which we now turn.<\/p>\n<h5>The Salvation of the Poor<\/h5>\n<p>Invited to read the Scripture in the synagogue at Nazareth, Jesus turns to Isaiah 61: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord” (Lk 4:18-19, <span>rsv<\/span>). Having read the prophecy, Jesus announces its fulfillment in his own ministry (v 21). Included among those whom Jesus has come to free are the physically infirm, such as the blind (v 18) and the leprous (v 27) (cf. the references to healing miracles in vv 23, 33-41; the close connection between evangelizing and healing in Mt 4:23; 9:35; 11:5; Lk 7:21-22; 9:6; and the description in Mt 12:22-29; Lk 13:11-16, of the physically afflicted as captives of Satan now liberated by Jesus). Also included are the materially poor—people like the widow helped by Elijah during the famine (Lk 4:25-26). It is the literally poor and hungry whom Jesus pronounces “blessed” in Luke 6:20-21. Yet it is primarily “spiritual” poverty that is in view. Still applying Isaiah 61, Jesus speaks in Matthew 5:3 of the “poor in spirit.” These are people broken and grieved by misery and poverty, oppression and injustice, suffering and death, national apostasy and personal sin—people who in their extremity turn to God and longingly wait for him to bring forth justice, bestow his mercy, and establish his kingdom. It is to just such people that Jesus brings good news (Mt 5:3-10). God sent him to usher in the kingdom, to rescue the lost, to liberate the enslaved, to cure the afflicted, to bind up hearts that are broken, and to forgive the guilty (Mk 2:5, 10, 17; 10:45; Lk 4:18-21; 7:48-49; 15:1-32; 19:10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gift of Grace<\/h5>\n<p>The coming of the kingdom is not the effect or the reward of human effort but God’s answer to the human predicament—the gift of his favor (Lk 12:32). Correspondingly, the explanation for the salvation of the poor lies nowhere but in God’s own character. As the prodigal himself recognized, he hardly deserved to be his father’s servant, much less his son. Nothing he did, not even his repentance, accounted for the father’s love (15:11-32). In the parable of Matthew 20:1-16, it is owing entirely to the goodness of the employer that the last workers to be hired receive a full day’s wages. The first debtor in the story of Matthew 18:23-35 earned nothing but the right to be sold into slavery; instead, the king canceled his enormous debt. The publican, who had nothing to offer God but a confession of sin and plea for mercy, went home justified (Lk 18:13-14). The same holds true for the more virtuous among the poor, such as the persons described in Matthew 5:7-10. Their virtue is real, not imagined. Yet in keeping God’s commands, they do not put him in their debt; they are simply doing their duty (Lk 17:7-10). Furthermore, even the most merciful need divine mercy (Mt 5:7). For even those most zealous to obey God’s law are unable to fulfill all its requirements (cf. 11:28-30). The first servant in Matthew 18:23-35 owes far more money than someone in such a situation could possibly pay—which serves to magnify the generosity of the king. Grace depends for its exercise upon the inability of its objects (Lk 14:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>The Call to Salvation<\/h5>\n<p>The Israelites are without exception a sinful people, all of them needing the salvation that Jesus brings (Mt 1:21; Lk 1:77). In demonstration of God’s grace, Jesus proclaimed his gospel to the entire nation (Mt 4:23; 9:35; 15:24; Lk 4:43; 9:6; 20:1). From the most respectable to the least, all are summoned to submit to God’s rule, all are invited to come and partake freely of the banquet he has spread (Lk 14:16-24). But the gift of salvation must be received if it is to be experienced (Mk 10:15). And while it is indeed a gift that costs nothing, it is also a priceless treasure for which a wise person will freely sacrifice everything else (Mt 13:44-46), a sacrifice exceeded only by the cost of rejecting the gospel (Mt 11:20-24; Mk 8:34-39; Lk 14:24, 33). “Repent and believe in the gospel,” Jesus commands (Mk 1:15). The self-righteous and the self-sufficient must be jolted out of their false sense of security and humbly recognize their need for God (Lk 6:24-26). Only then will Jesus’ message to the poor be seen as gospel. An announcement of liberation (4:18-19) is good news only to people who are enslaved and know they are. The command applies also to the destitute and the afflicted. Those among them who bemoan their lot must repent of their sins. But something further is needed for the response to be complete: a person cannot believe Jesus’ gospel without a commitment to the <em>Person<\/em> of Christ (Jn 3:16). Even those who are already “poor in spirit,” in the sense defined earlier, are not really “blessed” until they acknowledge the truth of Jesus’ claims (Mt 11:6) and commit themselves to a life of obedience on his terms (7:21-27). This prepares us for the next point.<\/p>\n<h5>Summary<\/h5>\n<p>Throughout Jesus’ earthly ministry, the theme of his gospel remains the dawning of God’s kingdom (Mt 4:23; 24:14; Lk 4:43; 16:16), a message that is preached almost exclusively to Jews (Mt 10:5-6; 15:24). Yet Jesus also provides glimpses into what the gospel was to become once his work on earth was accomplished: (1) In Mark 8:35 and 10:29 Jesus speaks of individuals who needed to make great sacrifices “for my sake and for the gospel.” While distinguished from each other, the person of Jesus and the gospel are here associated in the closest possible way. The time was approaching when the Proclaimer of the gospel would become the Proclaimed. (2) In Mark 13:10 and Matthew 24:14 (and the textually doubtful Mk 16:15) Jesus foretells the preaching of the gospel of the kingdom to the gentile nations. (3) In Mark 14, having interpreted a woman’s action (v 3) as an anointing of his body beforehand for burial (v 8), Jesus declares, “And truly, I say to you, wherever the gospel is preached in the whole world, what she has done will be told in memory of her” (v 9, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 26:13). This statement strongly implies that both the person of Jesus and the event of his death will figure prominently in the message that is to be proclaimed; otherwise, it is strange that the gospel and this particular act should be so solemnly bound together. Thus, here in the text already is an indication of how crucial Jesus’ death is both for the provision of the salvation announced in his gospel (cf. Mk 14:22-24) and for the launching of the evangelistic mission to the Gentiles (Mt 20:28 is vital for explaining the shift from Mt 15:24 to 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelafterJesusResurrection\">The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\n<p>After the resurrection of Jesus, the gospel was proclaimed by his eyewitnesses. The contents of this gospel are recorded in the book of Acts and in Paul’s letters. Of the 43 instances of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">euangelizomai<\/span> (“evangelize”) beyond the Gospels, 15 occur in Acts and 21 in Paul’s writings; of the 64 instances of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">euangelion<\/span> (“gospel”), 2 occur in Acts and no fewer than 60 in Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Having risen from the dead, Jesus Christ again evangelizes (Eph 2:16-17), doing so now through his appointed representatives (Rom 15:16-18; 1 Cor 1:17; 9:12-18; Gal 4:13-14; Eph 4:11; 2 Tm 1:9-11). More than that, Christ has become the central theme of the gospel; the Proclaimer is now the Proclaimed. This is repeatedly affirmed in Acts (5:42; 8:4-5, 35; 11:20; 17:18) and in Paul’s writings (Rom 1:1-4; 10:8-17; 15:19-20; 2 Cor 4:4-6; 11:4; Gal 1:16; Eph 3:8; Phil 1:15-18; 2 Tm 2:8). The NT always speaks of <em>the gospel<\/em>—never the gospels—of Christ. A second gospel is as inconceivable and as unnecessary as a second Christ. This is the one gospel that God authorizes (e.g., Rom 1:1-17) and proclaims (e.g., 2 Thes 2:13-14). Galatians 2:7-9 speaks not of two gospels but of two mission fields. Paul (the apostle to the uncircumcised) and Peter (the apostle to the circumcised) are both entrusted with “the gospel of Christ” (Gal 1:7; cf. 1 Cor 15:1-11), the message that God has ordained for the salvation of Jews and Gentiles alike (Rom 1:16). The “different gospel” that Paul denounces in Galatians 1:6-9 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is not another gospel about Jesus but a message about “another Jesus”—not the real one, but one who exists only in the minds and the messages of those who proclaim him. To preach the true Christ is to preach the true gospel, however questionable one’s motives (Phil 1:15-18, 27), and to respond rightly to the gospel is to turn to Christ (Acts 11:20-21; Rom 10:8-17; Gal 2:14-16).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Witness to Saving Events<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel bears witness to every aspect of Christ’s saving work, from his birth (Rom 1:3; 2 Tm 2:8) and public ministry (Mk 1:1; Acts 10:36-38) to his second coming (Col 1:5, 23; cf. 3:1-4; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and the last judgment (Rom 2:16). But it is the death and the resurrection of Christ that are most crucial for the accomplishment of salvation, and that are therefore most prominent in the gospel’s witness. These are the events with which Mark’s proclamation climaxes (chs 15–16), and for which everything else prepares (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34; 12:6-8); special stress is placed upon Jesus’ death as the means of salvation from sin (10:45; 14:3-9, 22-24). In Paul’s gospel, too, the death and resurrection of Jesus are central (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:1-4), with the cross occupying the very center (1 Cor 1:17–2:5). Had Christ not risen from the dead, Paul argues, the preaching of the cross would be a waste of time (1 Cor 15:14, 17; cf. Rom 6:3-11). However, now that Christ has risen, his death deserves special emphasis as the place where God provides atonement for sins (Rom 3:21-26; 5:6-11; 2 Cor 5:14-21; Eph 1:7). The gospel according to Acts proclaims Jesus’ death (Acts 8:25; 20:24, 28; cf. 10:36-43) and preeminently his resurrection, the event by which he conquered death and was exalted as Lord and coming Judge (10:36-43; 13:32-33; 17:18, 31). According to 1 Peter, the bearers of the gospel (1 Pt 1:12) concentrated, as had the OT prophets, on “the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory” (1:11; cf. 1:18-19; 2:21-24; 3:18-22).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Power for Salvation<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel is much more than a report of past events and an exposition of doctrine. Paul declares in 1 Corinthians 1:17-18 and again in Romans 1:16 that the gospel is “the power of God”—not merely a witness to his power but an <em>expression<\/em> of his power. Thus, it cannot be fettered (2 Tm 2:8-9). “Our gospel came to you not only in word, but also in power,” Paul writes in 1 Thessalonians 1:5. His point is not that the gospel was accompanied by mighty works (though this happened; cf. Rom 15:18-19), but that the gospel itself is a mighty work. God makes it so through his Holy Spirit (Rom 15:18-19; 1 Cor 2:1-5; 1 Thes 1:6). Furthermore, God’s singular purpose in exercising his power is to change people’s lives, to liberate them from sin and death, and to reconcile them to himself—in short, to save them. The gospel has power to effect the salvation it announces and to impart the life it promises (e.g., Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-18; 15:1-2; Eph 1:13; 2 Thes 2:13-14; 2 Tm 1:8-11; 1 Pt 1:23-25). If people are to experience salvation, they must hear and believe the gospel. It is precisely in and through this message that the saving power manifested in the person and work of Christ (especially in his death and resurrection) is conveyed to men and made effective in their lives. Similarly it is in association with the gospel, or as a direct result of the reception of the gospel, that the Holy Spirit is imparted to believers (Acts 10:36-44; 15:7-8; 2 Cor 11:4; Gal 3:1-2). In short, the gospel is the decisive place of encounter between the sinner and God the Savior.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Grace<\/h5>\n<p>According to Peter’s testimony at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:7-11), an essential part of the gospel—for Gentiles and Jews alike—is salvation “through the grace of the Lord Jesus.” Toward the close of his missionary career, Paul states that his basic concern has been “to testify to the gospel of the grace of God” (Acts 20:24, <span>rsv<\/span>). This statement can be understood only in relation to Paul’s concept of the righteousness of God, particularly as set forth in Romans. Paul is here not merely expounding a divine attribute. Rather, he is dramatizing a divine activity—the manifestation of God’s righteousness now, “in the present time” (Rom 3:26), in the new age inaugurated by the coming of Jesus. The manifestation is twofold. Viewing the two aspects together, and doing so in the light of the gospel declared by Isaiah and by Jesus (both of whom strongly influenced Paul), respectively, will help us to understand why Paul speaks of “the gospel of the grace of God.”<\/p>\n<p>First, the gospel is a <em>witness<\/em> to God’s grace. In offering his Son as a sacrifice for sins (Rom 3:25a), God demonstrates his righteousness (vv 25b-26). That is, in the death of Jesus sins formerly “passed over” (v 25c) become the object of God’s wrath (cf. 1:18) and judgment. Yet in the very place where God deals justly and decisively with sins, he shows his grace to sinners. For the judgment against sin is focused not upon the sinners themselves but upon the One appointed to act on their behalf and to stand in their place (Rom 4:25; 5:6, 11; cf. 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 3:13). On this basis, sinners are freely pardoned (Rom 3:24). “The grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11) toward the sinful is also in evidence, for he willingly bears their iniquities and suffers the consequences of their wrongdoing (Gal 2:20; cf. 2 Cor 8:9; Phil 2:6-8).<\/p>\n<p>Second, the gospel is a <em>channel<\/em> of God’s grace. “The righteousness of God is revealed” in the gospel, says Paul (Rom 1:17). By this he means, not that the gospel talks about the righteousness of God (though it does), but that God’s righteousness is actively at work in the gospel. This activity in turn explains how the gospel becomes “the power of God for salvation” (v 16). And just how does God demonstrate his righteousness at this stage? In short, by bestowing it as a free gift on sinful human beings. It remains the righteousness of God, but by God’s grace, it is a righteousness in which humans may share. Furthermore, partaking of God’s righteousness depends on being personally united with Jesus Christ. In Paul’s view the saved person is one who has been acquitted, justified, “declared righteous” by God the judge. The basis for the verdict is not that I in myself am righteous (God justifies the ungodly, Rom 4:5). Nor does God treat me as though I were righteous. According to Paul I am declared righteous because I really <em>am<\/em> righteous—not in myself but in Christ (1 Cor 1:30; 2 Cor 5:21; Phil 3:9). This union is established through the revelation—and the free offer—of God’s righteousness in the gospel (Rom 1:16-17).<\/p>\n<h5>Responding to the Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel calls for a threefold response:<\/p>\n<p>1. <em>Believing.<\/em> The gospel, says Paul, is “the power of God for salvation to every one who has faith” (Rom 1:16). For Paul, faith is the abandonment of all reliance upon “works of law” for justification (3:28) and utter dependence upon the grace of God as demonstrated in the work of Christ, especially his death (v 25). Accordingly, the “different gospel” of Galatians 1:6 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is spurious, for it preaches salvation by personal merit rather than (or together with) the work of Christ (cf. Gal 2:16). Ultimately faith rests upon God (Rom 4:24; 1 Thes 1:8-9) and upon Christ (Rom 3:22, 26; Gal 2:16, 20). Yet it is imperative that one believe the gospel also (Acts 8:12; 11:20-21; 15:7; Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-24; Phil 1:27; Heb 4:2), for it is just by this means that God’s salvation is made known and mediated. Moreover, believing the gospel entails repentance (Acts 14:15; 20:21, 24; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and obedience (Rom 1:5; 15:16-18; Heb 4:6). Those who refuse to obey the gospel are imperiling their lives (2 Thes 1:5-10; 1 Pt 4:17).<\/p>\n<p>2. <em>Growing.<\/em> The Gospel is more than a message to be received—it is also a place in which to stand (1 Cor 15:1-2). It is sustainer of life as well as giver of life. One grows as a Christian not by turning from the gospel to other things (to turn away from the gospel is to abandon God and Christ, Gal 1:6), but by going ever more deeply into the gospel. In Romans 1:15 Paul expresses his eagerness to proclaim the gospel to the Christians in Rome. In the following chapters, anticipating his visit, he offers one of his most profound expositions of the gospel—one whose truth has never been fathomed and whose power has never been exhausted.<\/p>\n<p>3. <em>Hoping.<\/em> “The hope of the gospel” (Col 1:23) includes not only the return of Christ and the glory of heaven (Col 1:5; 3:1-4; 2 Thes 2:14-16) but the final judgment as well. For those who embrace the gospel, the last judgment holds no terrors, because the Judge is the very one who rescues them from the wrath to come (1 Thes 1:10). Those who are united to him need not dread condemnation now or at the end (Rom 8:1). Instead, the last judgment will mark their final vindication (1 Cor 4:5; Gal 5:5). Accordingly, this theme is not just a corollary but an integral part of the Good News (Rom 2:16). Those who have died since believing the gospel (1 Pt 4:6) may seem to have suffered a fate common to all people, or even the condemnation reserved for the lawless; in fact, their response to the gospel assures them of approval by the coming Lord (4:5-6; 5:4) and of a share in the imperishable inheritance of heaven (1:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOSPEL<\/h3>\n<p>Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon <em>godspell<\/em> denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.”<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelMessageofIsaiah\">The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p>Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his saving action except in his own nature. Israel’s deliverance is undeserved; she is no more worthy of the divine love now than when she went into captivity. In whatever measure she has paid the just due for her past sins (Is 40:2), she remains a sinful people (42:25; 46:12-13; 48:1). It is only by God’s grace that she is saved (55:1-7). By God’s design, Israel’s salvation depends not upon her own righteousness but upon his (41:10; 45:24; 46:13; 51:5-6). There being no righteousness to reward, the Lord acts to <em>create<\/em> righteousness in Israel (45:8; 61:3, 10-11). Yet as these references indicate, salvation is not accomplished at the expense of justice. The penalty for Israel’s sins is to be paid in full. God’s mercy is not hereby called into question. On the contrary, it is precisely here that his mercy is most poignantly expressed, for the penalty is exacted not from his people but from the Servant appointed to stand in their place (53:4-12). Through the Servant’s work, many shall be justified (53:11). The coming of the Evangelist—the preacher of the good news—is predicted in Isaiah 61. He is called the anointed One (v 1) who proclaims the year of the Lord’s favor (v 2). God will be glorified through his preaching (v 3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelintheNewTestament\">The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In only two places (Gal 3:8; Heb 4:2, 6) does the NT speak of the proclamation of the gospel prior to the Christian era. This is quite remarkable, given (1) the unmistakable presence of the gospel in the OT, (2) the extent of gospel terminology in the NT (in the Greek the noun appears 76 times; and the verb, 54), and (3) the fact that the NT presents Christ as the fulfillment of the OT and draws heavily on the OT to interpret his person and work. Not only is it remarkable; it is very significant. It indicates that the NT usage depends not only upon the <em>character<\/em> of the message (truth about salvation) but also upon <em>historical events.<\/em> Almost without exception, the NT restricts its application of gospel terminology to proclamations made during the time of fulfillment—the age in which the salvation promised in the OT is actually accomplished. The NT is preoccupied, not with promises of salvation, but with news of salvation. According to Mark 1:1-4, the gospel “begins” not in the OT but with John the Baptist, in whose work OT prophecy is fulfilled. In Romans 1:1-5 the gospel is represented as a blessing promised in the OT but not actually given until Jesus comes (see also Acts 13:32-33).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGoodNewsofChristsComing\">The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n<p>The promised birth of John the Baptist is good news (Lk 1:19), not only for his parents (vv 7, 24-25) but for all the people: John is sent to prepare them for Messiah’s coming (vv 14-17, 67-79). John’s own preaching is gospel (3:18) for the same reason. The Messiah would be coming to execute judgment, a process that involves both condemnation and salvation (vv 3-17). John’s message is gospel for sinners in that they are warned of impending doom and urged to repent before the ax falls (vv 7-9); it is gospel for the repentant in that they are promised forgiveness (v 3) and membership in Messiah’s community (v 17). The birth of the Savior himself is announced as good news bringing great joy (2:10-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelaccordingtoJesus\">The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Kingdom of God<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was authorized by God and anointed by the Spirit to proclaim the gospel (Mk 1:14; Lk 4:18). At the heart of his preaching stands the announcement “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel” (Mk 1:15). (For further references to this gospel, see Mt 4:23; 9:35; 24:14; 26:13; Mk 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; Lk 4:43; 8:1; 16:16.) The message is good news for several reasons: (1) The kingdom is coming. The God whom Jesus proclaims is sovereign over all he has made. Yet paradoxically his rule is incomplete: his will is not done on earth as it is in heaven; wrong, not right, prevails. But these conditions are not final, according to Jesus. With the coming of the kingdom, God’s rule will be completed; wrong will be judged, righteousness established, and his people blessed. (2) The kingdom is <em>now<\/em> being inaugurated. “The time is fulfilled,” declares Jesus (Mk 1:15a). The time appointed for the fulfillment of the OT promises has arrived. (3) The consummation of the kingdom is therefore no longer a distant prospect; the full realization of God’s rule is “at hand” (Mk 1:15b). (4) God is establishing his rule for a saving purpose. This is implied in Jesus’ call to repentance (Mk 1:15c). It is especially clear in the passages to which we now turn.<\/p>\n<h5>The Salvation of the Poor<\/h5>\n<p>Invited to read the Scripture in the synagogue at Nazareth, Jesus turns to Isaiah 61: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord” (Lk 4:18-19, <span>rsv<\/span>). Having read the prophecy, Jesus announces its fulfillment in his own ministry (v 21). Included among those whom Jesus has come to free are the physically infirm, such as the blind (v 18) and the leprous (v 27) (cf. the references to healing miracles in vv 23, 33-41; the close connection between evangelizing and healing in Mt 4:23; 9:35; 11:5; Lk 7:21-22; 9:6; and the description in Mt 12:22-29; Lk 13:11-16, of the physically afflicted as captives of Satan now liberated by Jesus). Also included are the materially poor—people like the widow helped by Elijah during the famine (Lk 4:25-26). It is the literally poor and hungry whom Jesus pronounces “blessed” in Luke 6:20-21. Yet it is primarily “spiritual” poverty that is in view. Still applying Isaiah 61, Jesus speaks in Matthew 5:3 of the “poor in spirit.” These are people broken and grieved by misery and poverty, oppression and injustice, suffering and death, national apostasy and personal sin—people who in their extremity turn to God and longingly wait for him to bring forth justice, bestow his mercy, and establish his kingdom. It is to just such people that Jesus brings good news (Mt 5:3-10). God sent him to usher in the kingdom, to rescue the lost, to liberate the enslaved, to cure the afflicted, to bind up hearts that are broken, and to forgive the guilty (Mk 2:5, 10, 17; 10:45; Lk 4:18-21; 7:48-49; 15:1-32; 19:10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gift of Grace<\/h5>\n<p>The coming of the kingdom is not the effect or the reward of human effort but God’s answer to the human predicament—the gift of his favor (Lk 12:32). Correspondingly, the explanation for the salvation of the poor lies nowhere but in God’s own character. As the prodigal himself recognized, he hardly deserved to be his father’s servant, much less his son. Nothing he did, not even his repentance, accounted for the father’s love (15:11-32). In the parable of Matthew 20:1-16, it is owing entirely to the goodness of the employer that the last workers to be hired receive a full day’s wages. The first debtor in the story of Matthew 18:23-35 earned nothing but the right to be sold into slavery; instead, the king canceled his enormous debt. The publican, who had nothing to offer God but a confession of sin and plea for mercy, went home justified (Lk 18:13-14). The same holds true for the more virtuous among the poor, such as the persons described in Matthew 5:7-10. Their virtue is real, not imagined. Yet in keeping God’s commands, they do not put him in their debt; they are simply doing their duty (Lk 17:7-10). Furthermore, even the most merciful need divine mercy (Mt 5:7). For even those most zealous to obey God’s law are unable to fulfill all its requirements (cf. 11:28-30). The first servant in Matthew 18:23-35 owes far more money than someone in such a situation could possibly pay—which serves to magnify the generosity of the king. Grace depends for its exercise upon the inability of its objects (Lk 14:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>The Call to Salvation<\/h5>\n<p>The Israelites are without exception a sinful people, all of them needing the salvation that Jesus brings (Mt 1:21; Lk 1:77). In demonstration of God’s grace, Jesus proclaimed his gospel to the entire nation (Mt 4:23; 9:35; 15:24; Lk 4:43; 9:6; 20:1). From the most respectable to the least, all are summoned to submit to God’s rule, all are invited to come and partake freely of the banquet he has spread (Lk 14:16-24). But the gift of salvation must be received if it is to be experienced (Mk 10:15). And while it is indeed a gift that costs nothing, it is also a priceless treasure for which a wise person will freely sacrifice everything else (Mt 13:44-46), a sacrifice exceeded only by the cost of rejecting the gospel (Mt 11:20-24; Mk 8:34-39; Lk 14:24, 33). “Repent and believe in the gospel,” Jesus commands (Mk 1:15). The self-righteous and the self-sufficient must be jolted out of their false sense of security and humbly recognize their need for God (Lk 6:24-26). Only then will Jesus’ message to the poor be seen as gospel. An announcement of liberation (4:18-19) is good news only to people who are enslaved and know they are. The command applies also to the destitute and the afflicted. Those among them who bemoan their lot must repent of their sins. But something further is needed for the response to be complete: a person cannot believe Jesus’ gospel without a commitment to the <em>Person<\/em> of Christ (Jn 3:16). Even those who are already “poor in spirit,” in the sense defined earlier, are not really “blessed” until they acknowledge the truth of Jesus’ claims (Mt 11:6) and commit themselves to a life of obedience on his terms (7:21-27). This prepares us for the next point.<\/p>\n<h5>Summary<\/h5>\n<p>Throughout Jesus’ earthly ministry, the theme of his gospel remains the dawning of God’s kingdom (Mt 4:23; 24:14; Lk 4:43; 16:16), a message that is preached almost exclusively to Jews (Mt 10:5-6; 15:24). Yet Jesus also provides glimpses into what the gospel was to become once his work on earth was accomplished: (1) In Mark 8:35 and 10:29 Jesus speaks of individuals who needed to make great sacrifices “for my sake and for the gospel.” While distinguished from each other, the person of Jesus and the gospel are here associated in the closest possible way. The time was approaching when the Proclaimer of the gospel would become the Proclaimed. (2) In Mark 13:10 and Matthew 24:14 (and the textually doubtful Mk 16:15) Jesus foretells the preaching of the gospel of the kingdom to the gentile nations. (3) In Mark 14, having interpreted a woman’s action (v 3) as an anointing of his body beforehand for burial (v 8), Jesus declares, “And truly, I say to you, wherever the gospel is preached in the whole world, what she has done will be told in memory of her” (v 9, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 26:13). This statement strongly implies that both the person of Jesus and the event of his death will figure prominently in the message that is to be proclaimed; otherwise, it is strange that the gospel and this particular act should be so solemnly bound together. Thus, here in the text already is an indication of how crucial Jesus’ death is both for the provision of the salvation announced in his gospel (cf. Mk 14:22-24) and for the launching of the evangelistic mission to the Gentiles (Mt 20:28 is vital for explaining the shift from Mt 15:24 to 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelafterJesusResurrection\">The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\n<p>After the resurrection of Jesus, the gospel was proclaimed by his eyewitnesses. The contents of this gospel are recorded in the book of Acts and in Paul’s letters. Of the 43 instances of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">euangelizomai<\/span> (“evangelize”) beyond the Gospels, 15 occur in Acts and 21 in Paul’s writings; of the 64 instances of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">euangelion<\/span> (“gospel”), 2 occur in Acts and no fewer than 60 in Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Having risen from the dead, Jesus Christ again evangelizes (Eph 2:16-17), doing so now through his appointed representatives (Rom 15:16-18; 1 Cor 1:17; 9:12-18; Gal 4:13-14; Eph 4:11; 2 Tm 1:9-11). More than that, Christ has become the central theme of the gospel; the Proclaimer is now the Proclaimed. This is repeatedly affirmed in Acts (5:42; 8:4-5, 35; 11:20; 17:18) and in Paul’s writings (Rom 1:1-4; 10:8-17; 15:19-20; 2 Cor 4:4-6; 11:4; Gal 1:16; Eph 3:8; Phil 1:15-18; 2 Tm 2:8). The NT always speaks of <em>the gospel<\/em>—never the gospels—of Christ. A second gospel is as inconceivable and as unnecessary as a second Christ. This is the one gospel that God authorizes (e.g., Rom 1:1-17) and proclaims (e.g., 2 Thes 2:13-14). Galatians 2:7-9 speaks not of two gospels but of two mission fields. Paul (the apostle to the uncircumcised) and Peter (the apostle to the circumcised) are both entrusted with “the gospel of Christ” (Gal 1:7; cf. 1 Cor 15:1-11), the message that God has ordained for the salvation of Jews and Gentiles alike (Rom 1:16). The “different gospel” that Paul denounces in Galatians 1:6-9 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is not another gospel about Jesus but a message about “another Jesus”—not the real one, but one who exists only in the minds and the messages of those who proclaim him. To preach the true Christ is to preach the true gospel, however questionable one’s motives (Phil 1:15-18, 27), and to respond rightly to the gospel is to turn to Christ (Acts 11:20-21; Rom 10:8-17; Gal 2:14-16).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Witness to Saving Events<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel bears witness to every aspect of Christ’s saving work, from his birth (Rom 1:3; 2 Tm 2:8) and public ministry (Mk 1:1; Acts 10:36-38) to his second coming (Col 1:5, 23; cf. 3:1-4; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and the last judgment (Rom 2:16). But it is the death and the resurrection of Christ that are most crucial for the accomplishment of salvation, and that are therefore most prominent in the gospel’s witness. These are the events with which Mark’s proclamation climaxes (chs 15–16), and for which everything else prepares (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34; 12:6-8); special stress is placed upon Jesus’ death as the means of salvation from sin (10:45; 14:3-9, 22-24). In Paul’s gospel, too, the death and resurrection of Jesus are central (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:1-4), with the cross occupying the very center (1 Cor 1:17–2:5). Had Christ not risen from the dead, Paul argues, the preaching of the cross would be a waste of time (1 Cor 15:14, 17; cf. Rom 6:3-11). However, now that Christ has risen, his death deserves special emphasis as the place where God provides atonement for sins (Rom 3:21-26; 5:6-11; 2 Cor 5:14-21; Eph 1:7). The gospel according to Acts proclaims Jesus’ death (Acts 8:25; 20:24, 28; cf. 10:36-43) and preeminently his resurrection, the event by which he conquered death and was exalted as Lord and coming Judge (10:36-43; 13:32-33; 17:18, 31). According to 1 Peter, the bearers of the gospel (1 Pt 1:12) concentrated, as had the OT prophets, on “the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory” (1:11; cf. 1:18-19; 2:21-24; 3:18-22).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Power for Salvation<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel is much more than a report of past events and an exposition of doctrine. Paul declares in 1 Corinthians 1:17-18 and again in Romans 1:16 that the gospel is “the power of God”—not merely a witness to his power but an <em>expression<\/em> of his power. Thus, it cannot be fettered (2 Tm 2:8-9). “Our gospel came to you not only in word, but also in power,” Paul writes in 1 Thessalonians 1:5. His point is not that the gospel was accompanied by mighty works (though this happened; cf. Rom 15:18-19), but that the gospel itself is a mighty work. God makes it so through his Holy Spirit (Rom 15:18-19; 1 Cor 2:1-5; 1 Thes 1:6). Furthermore, God’s singular purpose in exercising his power is to change people’s lives, to liberate them from sin and death, and to reconcile them to himself—in short, to save them. The gospel has power to effect the salvation it announces and to impart the life it promises (e.g., Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-18; 15:1-2; Eph 1:13; 2 Thes 2:13-14; 2 Tm 1:8-11; 1 Pt 1:23-25). If people are to experience salvation, they must hear and believe the gospel. It is precisely in and through this message that the saving power manifested in the person and work of Christ (especially in his death and resurrection) is conveyed to men and made effective in their lives. Similarly it is in association with the gospel, or as a direct result of the reception of the gospel, that the Holy Spirit is imparted to believers (Acts 10:36-44; 15:7-8; 2 Cor 11:4; Gal 3:1-2). In short, the gospel is the decisive place of encounter between the sinner and God the Savior.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Grace<\/h5>\n<p>According to Peter’s testimony at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:7-11), an essential part of the gospel—for Gentiles and Jews alike—is salvation “through the grace of the Lord Jesus.” Toward the close of his missionary career, Paul states that his basic concern has been “to testify to the gospel of the grace of God” (Acts 20:24, <span>rsv<\/span>). This statement can be understood only in relation to Paul’s concept of the righteousness of God, particularly as set forth in Romans. Paul is here not merely expounding a divine attribute. Rather, he is dramatizing a divine activity—the manifestation of God’s righteousness now, “in the present time” (Rom 3:26), in the new age inaugurated by the coming of Jesus. The manifestation is twofold. Viewing the two aspects together, and doing so in the light of the gospel declared by Isaiah and by Jesus (both of whom strongly influenced Paul), respectively, will help us to understand why Paul speaks of “the gospel of the grace of God.”<\/p>\n<p>First, the gospel is a <em>witness<\/em> to God’s grace. In offering his Son as a sacrifice for sins (Rom 3:25a), God demonstrates his righteousness (vv 25b-26). That is, in the death of Jesus sins formerly “passed over” (v 25c) become the object of God’s wrath (cf. 1:18) and judgment. Yet in the very place where God deals justly and decisively with sins, he shows his grace to sinners. For the judgment against sin is focused not upon the sinners themselves but upon the One appointed to act on their behalf and to stand in their place (Rom 4:25; 5:6, 11; cf. 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 3:13). On this basis, sinners are freely pardoned (Rom 3:24). “The grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11) toward the sinful is also in evidence, for he willingly bears their iniquities and suffers the consequences of their wrongdoing (Gal 2:20; cf. 2 Cor 8:9; Phil 2:6-8).<\/p>\n<p>Second, the gospel is a <em>channel<\/em> of God’s grace. “The righteousness of God is revealed” in the gospel, says Paul (Rom 1:17). By this he means, not that the gospel talks about the righteousness of God (though it does), but that God’s righteousness is actively at work in the gospel. This activity in turn explains how the gospel becomes “the power of God for salvation” (v 16). And just how does God demonstrate his righteousness at this stage? In short, by bestowing it as a free gift on sinful human beings. It remains the righteousness of God, but by God’s grace, it is a righteousness in which humans may share. Furthermore, partaking of God’s righteousness depends on being personally united with Jesus Christ. In Paul’s view the saved person is one who has been acquitted, justified, “declared righteous” by God the judge. The basis for the verdict is not that I in myself am righteous (God justifies the ungodly, Rom 4:5). Nor does God treat me as though I were righteous. According to Paul I am declared righteous because I really <em>am<\/em> righteous—not in myself but in Christ (1 Cor 1:30; 2 Cor 5:21; Phil 3:9). This union is established through the revelation—and the free offer—of God’s righteousness in the gospel (Rom 1:16-17).<\/p>\n<h5>Responding to the Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel calls for a threefold response:<\/p>\n<p>1. <em>Believing.<\/em> The gospel, says Paul, is “the power of God for salvation to every one who has faith” (Rom 1:16). For Paul, faith is the abandonment of all reliance upon “works of law” for justification (3:28) and utter dependence upon the grace of God as demonstrated in the work of Christ, especially his death (v 25). Accordingly, the “different gospel” of Galatians 1:6 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is spurious, for it preaches salvation by personal merit rather than (or together with) the work of Christ (cf. Gal 2:16). Ultimately faith rests upon God (Rom 4:24; 1 Thes 1:8-9) and upon Christ (Rom 3:22, 26; Gal 2:16, 20). Yet it is imperative that one believe the gospel also (Acts 8:12; 11:20-21; 15:7; Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-24; Phil 1:27; Heb 4:2), for it is just by this means that God’s salvation is made known and mediated. Moreover, believing the gospel entails repentance (Acts 14:15; 20:21, 24; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and obedience (Rom 1:5; 15:16-18; Heb 4:6). Those who refuse to obey the gospel are imperiling their lives (2 Thes 1:5-10; 1 Pt 4:17).<\/p>\n<p>2. <em>Growing.<\/em> The Gospel is more than a message to be received—it is also a place in which to stand (1 Cor 15:1-2). It is sustainer of life as well as giver of life. One grows as a Christian not by turning from the gospel to other things (to turn away from the gospel is to abandon God and Christ, Gal 1:6), but by going ever more deeply into the gospel. In Romans 1:15 Paul expresses his eagerness to proclaim the gospel to the Christians in Rome. In the following chapters, anticipating his visit, he offers one of his most profound expositions of the gospel—one whose truth has never been fathomed and whose power has never been exhausted.<\/p>\n<p>3. <em>Hoping.<\/em> “The hope of the gospel” (Col 1:23) includes not only the return of Christ and the glory of heaven (Col 1:5; 3:1-4; 2 Thes 2:14-16) but the final judgment as well. For those who embrace the gospel, the last judgment holds no terrors, because the Judge is the very one who rescues them from the wrath to come (1 Thes 1:10). Those who are united to him need not dread condemnation now or at the end (Rom 8:1). Instead, the last judgment will mark their final vindication (1 Cor 4:5; Gal 5:5). Accordingly, this theme is not just a corollary but an integral part of the Good News (Rom 2:16). Those who have died since believing the gospel (1 Pt 4:6) may seem to have suffered a fate common to all people, or even the condemnation reserved for the lawless; in fact, their response to the gospel assures them of approval by the coming Lord (4:5-6; 5:4) and of a share in the imperishable inheritance of heaven (1:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOSPEL Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.” Preview • The Gospel Message of Isaiah • The Gospel in the New Testament • The Good News of Christ’s Coming • The Gospel according to Jesus • The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection The Gospel Message of Isaiah Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his...","summary_en":"GOSPEL Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.” Preview • The Gospel Message of Isaiah • The Gospel in the New Testament • The Good News of Christ’s Coming • The Gospel according to Jesus • The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection The Gospel Message of Isaiah Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57911,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:7","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, <em>not the Good News<\/em> of salvation <em>at all<\/em>. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • <em>those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ:<\/em> The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, <em>not the Good News<\/em> of salvation <em>at all<\/em>. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • <em>those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ:<\/em> The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:7 The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, not the Good News of salvation at all. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ: The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.","summary_en":"1:7 The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, not the Good News of salvation at all. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ: The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85537,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:7","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, <em>not the Good News<\/em> of salvation <em>at all<\/em>. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • <em>those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ:<\/em> The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, <em>not the Good News<\/em> of salvation <em>at all<\/em>. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • <em>those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ:<\/em> The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:7 The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, not the Good News of salvation at all. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ: The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.","summary_en":"1:7 The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, not the Good News of salvation at all. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ: The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113163,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:7","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, <em>not the Good News<\/em> of salvation <em>at all<\/em>. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • <em>those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ:<\/em> The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, <em>not the Good News<\/em> of salvation <em>at all<\/em>. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • <em>those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ:<\/em> The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:7 The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, not the Good News of salvation at all. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ: The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.","summary_en":"1:7 The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, not the Good News of salvation at all. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ: The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140789,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:7","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, <em>not the Good News<\/em> of salvation <em>at all<\/em>. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • <em>those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ:<\/em> The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, <em>not the Good News<\/em> of salvation <em>at all<\/em>. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • <em>those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ:<\/em> The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:7 The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, not the Good News of salvation at all. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ: The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.","summary_en":"1:7 The “different way” (1:6) was a distortion, not the Good News of salvation at all. The only way to be saved is by faith in Christ. Adding any requirements makes the message no longer the Good News. • those who deliberately twist the truth concerning Christ: The Judaizers knew they were changing the Good News to fit their views.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":8387,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Cursed Curse","title_en":"Cursed Curse","content_ro":"<h3>CURSE, CURSED<\/h3>\n<p>Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PaganBeliefs\">Pagan Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work calamity on one’s enemies. In some pagan cultures, curses were written on clay jars that were then smashed, symbolically initiating or effecting the intended curse.<\/p>\n<p>Tombs were protected against would-be desecrators by means of curses. Royal inscriptions were protected by maledictions aimed at anyone who might alter, destroy, or defy the written decree (Ezr 6:11-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinOldTestamentTimes\">Curses in Old Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Among the Hebrews a curse, valid only within a covenant framework overseen by God, was spoken for the sake of justice. In the OT the curse was an integral part of a covenant relationship—between God and the community, between God and an individual, or among members of the community. To break the terms of a covenant was to merit the covenant curse or curses. A curse invoked under other conditions was powerless. “Like a sparrow in its flitting, like a swallow in its flying, a curse that is causeless does not alight” (Prv 26:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). A curse could be retracted by pronouncing a blessing (Ex 12:32; Jgs 17:1-2; 2 Sm 21:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law forbade the cursing of parents (Ex 21:17; cf. Prv 20:20; Mt 15:4), the ruler (Ex 22:28), and the deaf (Lv 19:14). A man who suspected his wife of unfaithfulness could require that she submit to a test administered by the priest that would result in a curse upon her if she was guilty (Nm 5:11-31). Individuals might pronounce a curse upon themselves to show the truthfulness of their assertions or promises (Nm 5:19-22; Jb 31:7-10, 16-22; Ps 137:5-6). In the NT the apostle Peter followed the OT practice when he used a curse to deny that he knew Jesus (Mk 14:71). Certain men who wished to kill the apostle Paul proved their sincerity by such a solemn curse (Acts 23:12, 14, 21). Cursing God was punishable by death (Lv 24:10-16; cf. Ex 22:28; Is 8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Curses in Bible history include God’s curse on the serpent, Adam, and Eve (Gn 3:14-19); on Cain (4:11-12); on those who might curse the patriarch Abraham and his descendants (12:3); and on those who put their trust in human strength instead of in the Lord (Jer 17:5). When the people of Israel passed through Moab on their way to the Promised Land, Moab’s king, Balak, hired Balaam to curse the Israelites; he and Balaam learned, however, that they could not curse those whom God had blessed (Nm 22–24). Joshua cursed anyone who might try to rebuild Jericho (Jos 6:26; fulfilled in 1 Kgs 16:34). King Saul made a curse that almost cost his son Jonathan’s life (1 Sm 14:24, 43-45). Many other curses are mentioned in the OT (see, e.g., Gn 9:25; 49:5-7; Jos 9:22-23; Jgs 9:7-21, 57; 2 Sm 16:5-13; 1 Kgs 21:17-24; 2 Kgs 2:24; Mal 2:2; 4:6). The pronouncement of “woe” (<span>nlt<\/span> “destruction”) is also the language of curse (Is 5:8-23; cf. Mt 23:13-33, where “alas” and “woe” can be used synonymously and may be either an exclamation of sorrow or of impending doom and calamity).<\/p>\n<p>Psalm 109 contains a lengthy imprecation against the psalmist’s enemies, evidently because they had spoken some words against him falsely (see also Pss 58:6-11; 69:19-28; 143:12). The prophet Jeremiah was not averse to calling on God to punish his tormentors (Jer 11:20; 12:3; 15:15; 17:18; 18:21-22; 20:11-12) or asking God not to forgive them (18:23). Such imprecations against one’s enemies are difficult for Christians today to understand because they contrast sharply with the NT commands to “bless those who curse you” (Lk 6:28; cf. Rom 12:14). Jesus’ injunction to “love your enemies” (Mt 5:44) may be intended to point beyond the cursing practiced in the OT to a fuller understanding of God’s command to love one’s neighbor as oneself.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Curses<\/h5>\n<p>Protection of a contract or treaty by invoking a curse on the violator was common in OT times. Sometimes a covenant was sealed by cutting up an animal and having the covenanting individuals walk between the severed pieces; the slain animal symbolized the curse to befall the violator. God agreed to submit to such a curse on himself if he broke the covenant he made with the patriarch Abraham (Gn 15:7-21). Later, God accused the leaders and people of Israel of breaking their covenant with him and warned them of the consequences to follow (Jer 34:18-19). An essential part of the covenant God made with Israel at Mt Sinai was the promise of blessings for keeping the covenant and curses for breaking it (Dt 11:26-28; 27:15-26; 28:15-68; 30:19; cf. Lv 26:3-39). Israel suffered those curses in the time of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel; the covenant breakers, including the king, were threatened with a curse (Jer 11:3; Ez 17:11-21).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ban on “Devoted Things”<\/h5>\n<p>A special kind of curse was the ban or anathema. Strictly speaking, it was a vow to devote persons, animals, or objects under such a curse to God. In some cases the priests could use objects that had fallen under the ban (Nm 18:14; Ez 44:29), but that provision did not apply to living beings. All persons or animals under the ban were sacrificed or destroyed (Lv 27:28-29). The ban was commonly used in Israel’s wars against its pagan neighbors. Sometimes everything was declared anathema (Jos 6:17-19), but normally only persons and heathen images were destroyed (Dt 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 25-26—not even the melted gold of images was to be kept). To violate the ban by preserving any part of the cursed things was to come under the ban oneself. Because Achan did not respect the ban placed upon Jericho, the terms of that curse came upon all Israel until Achan confessed and was executed (Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the Jews did not practice the anathema (or ban) by putting people to death; people who violated a curse were excommunicated and put out of the congregation of Israel (Ezr 10:8). That meant that the person was no longer part of God’s people and was considered “dead.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinNewTestamentTimes\">Curses in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Jewish synagogues practiced excommunication, or anathema, in the NT period (Lk 6:22; Jn 9:22; 12:42; 16:2). Later, Christians excommunicated persons by declaring them outside of the redeemed community (Mt 18:17) or “delivered to Satan” (1 Cor 5:5; 1 Tm 1:20). Both practices stemmed from the OT ban. Unlike that curse, however, the excommunication could be removed as soon as the person repented.<\/p>\n<p>Since the anathema branded a person as “rejected” or “cursed by God,” Saul of Tarsus, before his conversion, tried to compel Christians to renounce Christ by calling him accursed (cf. Acts 26:11). Later, as an apostle, Paul (Saul) warned that no one speaking by the Spirit of God could call Jesus accursed (1 Cor 12:3). Paul pronounced anathema (destined for judgment and perdition) upon anyone who preached another gospel than the one he and the other apostles preached (Gal 1:8-9). Paul said he wished he could be accursed, cut off from salvation and the people of God, if that could lead to the salvation of his fellow Israelites (Rom 9:3). His desire reflected the love of Christ, who accepted the “curse of the law” upon himself in submitting to suffering and death on the cross in order to redeem human beings from that curse (Gal 3:8-14; cf. Dt 21:22-23). The NT promises that a time will come when “there shall no longer be any curse” (Rv 22:3, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> War, Holy.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CURSE, CURSED<\/h3>\n<p>Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PaganBeliefs\">Pagan Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work calamity on one’s enemies. In some pagan cultures, curses were written on clay jars that were then smashed, symbolically initiating or effecting the intended curse.<\/p>\n<p>Tombs were protected against would-be desecrators by means of curses. Royal inscriptions were protected by maledictions aimed at anyone who might alter, destroy, or defy the written decree (Ezr 6:11-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinOldTestamentTimes\">Curses in Old Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Among the Hebrews a curse, valid only within a covenant framework overseen by God, was spoken for the sake of justice. In the OT the curse was an integral part of a covenant relationship—between God and the community, between God and an individual, or among members of the community. To break the terms of a covenant was to merit the covenant curse or curses. A curse invoked under other conditions was powerless. “Like a sparrow in its flitting, like a swallow in its flying, a curse that is causeless does not alight” (Prv 26:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). A curse could be retracted by pronouncing a blessing (Ex 12:32; Jgs 17:1-2; 2 Sm 21:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law forbade the cursing of parents (Ex 21:17; cf. Prv 20:20; Mt 15:4), the ruler (Ex 22:28), and the deaf (Lv 19:14). A man who suspected his wife of unfaithfulness could require that she submit to a test administered by the priest that would result in a curse upon her if she was guilty (Nm 5:11-31). Individuals might pronounce a curse upon themselves to show the truthfulness of their assertions or promises (Nm 5:19-22; Jb 31:7-10, 16-22; Ps 137:5-6). In the NT the apostle Peter followed the OT practice when he used a curse to deny that he knew Jesus (Mk 14:71). Certain men who wished to kill the apostle Paul proved their sincerity by such a solemn curse (Acts 23:12, 14, 21). Cursing God was punishable by death (Lv 24:10-16; cf. Ex 22:28; Is 8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Curses in Bible history include God’s curse on the serpent, Adam, and Eve (Gn 3:14-19); on Cain (4:11-12); on those who might curse the patriarch Abraham and his descendants (12:3); and on those who put their trust in human strength instead of in the Lord (Jer 17:5). When the people of Israel passed through Moab on their way to the Promised Land, Moab’s king, Balak, hired Balaam to curse the Israelites; he and Balaam learned, however, that they could not curse those whom God had blessed (Nm 22–24). Joshua cursed anyone who might try to rebuild Jericho (Jos 6:26; fulfilled in 1 Kgs 16:34). King Saul made a curse that almost cost his son Jonathan’s life (1 Sm 14:24, 43-45). Many other curses are mentioned in the OT (see, e.g., Gn 9:25; 49:5-7; Jos 9:22-23; Jgs 9:7-21, 57; 2 Sm 16:5-13; 1 Kgs 21:17-24; 2 Kgs 2:24; Mal 2:2; 4:6). The pronouncement of “woe” (<span>nlt<\/span> “destruction”) is also the language of curse (Is 5:8-23; cf. Mt 23:13-33, where “alas” and “woe” can be used synonymously and may be either an exclamation of sorrow or of impending doom and calamity).<\/p>\n<p>Psalm 109 contains a lengthy imprecation against the psalmist’s enemies, evidently because they had spoken some words against him falsely (see also Pss 58:6-11; 69:19-28; 143:12). The prophet Jeremiah was not averse to calling on God to punish his tormentors (Jer 11:20; 12:3; 15:15; 17:18; 18:21-22; 20:11-12) or asking God not to forgive them (18:23). Such imprecations against one’s enemies are difficult for Christians today to understand because they contrast sharply with the NT commands to “bless those who curse you” (Lk 6:28; cf. Rom 12:14). Jesus’ injunction to “love your enemies” (Mt 5:44) may be intended to point beyond the cursing practiced in the OT to a fuller understanding of God’s command to love one’s neighbor as oneself.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Curses<\/h5>\n<p>Protection of a contract or treaty by invoking a curse on the violator was common in OT times. Sometimes a covenant was sealed by cutting up an animal and having the covenanting individuals walk between the severed pieces; the slain animal symbolized the curse to befall the violator. God agreed to submit to such a curse on himself if he broke the covenant he made with the patriarch Abraham (Gn 15:7-21). Later, God accused the leaders and people of Israel of breaking their covenant with him and warned them of the consequences to follow (Jer 34:18-19). An essential part of the covenant God made with Israel at Mt Sinai was the promise of blessings for keeping the covenant and curses for breaking it (Dt 11:26-28; 27:15-26; 28:15-68; 30:19; cf. Lv 26:3-39). Israel suffered those curses in the time of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel; the covenant breakers, including the king, were threatened with a curse (Jer 11:3; Ez 17:11-21).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ban on “Devoted Things”<\/h5>\n<p>A special kind of curse was the ban or anathema. Strictly speaking, it was a vow to devote persons, animals, or objects under such a curse to God. In some cases the priests could use objects that had fallen under the ban (Nm 18:14; Ez 44:29), but that provision did not apply to living beings. All persons or animals under the ban were sacrificed or destroyed (Lv 27:28-29). The ban was commonly used in Israel’s wars against its pagan neighbors. Sometimes everything was declared anathema (Jos 6:17-19), but normally only persons and heathen images were destroyed (Dt 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 25-26—not even the melted gold of images was to be kept). To violate the ban by preserving any part of the cursed things was to come under the ban oneself. Because Achan did not respect the ban placed upon Jericho, the terms of that curse came upon all Israel until Achan confessed and was executed (Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the Jews did not practice the anathema (or ban) by putting people to death; people who violated a curse were excommunicated and put out of the congregation of Israel (Ezr 10:8). That meant that the person was no longer part of God’s people and was considered “dead.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinNewTestamentTimes\">Curses in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Jewish synagogues practiced excommunication, or anathema, in the NT period (Lk 6:22; Jn 9:22; 12:42; 16:2). Later, Christians excommunicated persons by declaring them outside of the redeemed community (Mt 18:17) or “delivered to Satan” (1 Cor 5:5; 1 Tm 1:20). Both practices stemmed from the OT ban. Unlike that curse, however, the excommunication could be removed as soon as the person repented.<\/p>\n<p>Since the anathema branded a person as “rejected” or “cursed by God,” Saul of Tarsus, before his conversion, tried to compel Christians to renounce Christ by calling him accursed (cf. Acts 26:11). Later, as an apostle, Paul (Saul) warned that no one speaking by the Spirit of God could call Jesus accursed (1 Cor 12:3). Paul pronounced anathema (destined for judgment and perdition) upon anyone who preached another gospel than the one he and the other apostles preached (Gal 1:8-9). Paul said he wished he could be accursed, cut off from salvation and the people of God, if that could lead to the salvation of his fellow Israelites (Rom 9:3). His desire reflected the love of Christ, who accepted the “curse of the law” upon himself in submitting to suffering and death on the cross in order to redeem human beings from that curse (Gal 3:8-14; cf. Dt 21:22-23). The NT promises that a time will come when “there shall no longer be any curse” (Rv 22:3, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> War, Holy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CURSE, CURSED Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense. Pagan Beliefs Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work ca...","summary_en":"CURSE, CURSED Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense. Pagan Beliefs Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work ca...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57912,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:8","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:8-9<\/strong> <em>Let God’s curse fall on anyone<\/em> (literally <em>Let that person be anathema<\/em>): The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> was often used to translate the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • <em>including us or even an angel from heaven:<\/em> No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:8-9<\/strong> <em>Let God’s curse fall on anyone<\/em> (literally <em>Let that person be anathema<\/em>): The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> was often used to translate the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • <em>including us or even an angel from heaven:<\/em> No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:8-9 Let God’s curse fall on anyone (literally Let that person be anathema): The Greek word anathema was often used to translate the Hebrew kherem, which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • including us or even an angel from heaven: No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).","summary_en":"1:8-9 Let God’s curse fall on anyone (literally Let that person be anathema): The Greek word anathema was often used to translate the Hebrew kherem, which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • including us or even an angel from heaven: No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85538,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:8","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:8-9<\/strong> <em>Let God’s curse fall on anyone<\/em> (literally <em>Let that person be anathema<\/em>): The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> was often used to translate the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • <em>including us or even an angel from heaven:<\/em> No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:8-9<\/strong> <em>Let God’s curse fall on anyone<\/em> (literally <em>Let that person be anathema<\/em>): The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> was often used to translate the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • <em>including us or even an angel from heaven:<\/em> No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:8-9 Let God’s curse fall on anyone (literally Let that person be anathema): The Greek word anathema was often used to translate the Hebrew kherem, which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • including us or even an angel from heaven: No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).","summary_en":"1:8-9 Let God’s curse fall on anyone (literally Let that person be anathema): The Greek word anathema was often used to translate the Hebrew kherem, which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • including us or even an angel from heaven: No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113164,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:8","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:8-9<\/strong> <em>Let God’s curse fall on anyone<\/em> (literally <em>Let that person be anathema<\/em>): The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> was often used to translate the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • <em>including us or even an angel from heaven:<\/em> No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:8-9<\/strong> <em>Let God’s curse fall on anyone<\/em> (literally <em>Let that person be anathema<\/em>): The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> was often used to translate the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • <em>including us or even an angel from heaven:<\/em> No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:8-9 Let God’s curse fall on anyone (literally Let that person be anathema): The Greek word anathema was often used to translate the Hebrew kherem, which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • including us or even an angel from heaven: No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).","summary_en":"1:8-9 Let God’s curse fall on anyone (literally Let that person be anathema): The Greek word anathema was often used to translate the Hebrew kherem, which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • including us or even an angel from heaven: No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140790,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:8","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:8-9<\/strong> <em>Let God’s curse fall on anyone<\/em> (literally <em>Let that person be anathema<\/em>): The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> was often used to translate the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • <em>including us or even an angel from heaven:<\/em> No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:8-9<\/strong> <em>Let God’s curse fall on anyone<\/em> (literally <em>Let that person be anathema<\/em>): The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> was often used to translate the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • <em>including us or even an angel from heaven:<\/em> No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:8-9 Let God’s curse fall on anyone (literally Let that person be anathema): The Greek word anathema was often used to translate the Hebrew kherem, which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • including us or even an angel from heaven: No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).","summary_en":"1:8-9 Let God’s curse fall on anyone (literally Let that person be anathema): The Greek word anathema was often used to translate the Hebrew kherem, which in the Old Testament means something dedicated to God for total destruction (see Lev 27:28-29; cp. Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 12:3; 16:22). Paul was invoking God’s strongest wrath on those who distort the Good News (Gal 1:7). • including us or even an angel from heaven: No one is authorized to change the Good News (cp. 2:6-10, 11-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59777,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Retribution","title_en":"Retribution","content_ro":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","summary_en":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60543,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complete Dedication","title_en":"Complete Dedication","content_ro":"<h3>Complete Dedication<\/h3>\n<p>The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also Josh 6:19, 24). The concept of being “specially set apart” was also applied to Israel’s enemies when they and their property were destroyed (Josh 6:17-19; 1 Sam 15:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Leviticus 27:21, 28, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> indicates an acceptable vow devoting something to the Lord for use in the sanctuary (see Num 18:14). This made the item, land, or person holy. The thing or person could not be bought back; it remained in the Lord’s service permanently.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of complete dedication through total destruction underlies several passages in the apostle Paul’s writings. In Romans 9:3, Paul was even willing to be declared <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> (the Greek equivalent of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span>) if it would bring about the salvation of his fellow Jews. In Galatians 1:8-9, the same Greek word indicates an appropriate end for those who preach a false gospel. In 1 Corinthians 12:3, Paul warns that no one speaking in the Spirit can call Jesus <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span><em>,<\/em> that is, no one who has God’s Spirit will interpret Jesus’ crucifixion as a sign of God’s rejection of him, as the Jews of Paul’s day did. Instead, they will recognize it as an act of atonement for sinful humanity.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:20; Lev 27:28-29; Num 18:8-14; 21:2-3; Deut 7:1-6, 26; 13:12-18; Josh 6:17-19, 24; 7:11-15; 1 Sam 15:2-3; 1 Kgs 20:42; Isa 43:26-28; Mal 4:5-6; Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complete Dedication<\/h3>\n<p>The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also Josh 6:19, 24). The concept of being “specially set apart” was also applied to Israel’s enemies when they and their property were destroyed (Josh 6:17-19; 1 Sam 15:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Leviticus 27:21, 28, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> indicates an acceptable vow devoting something to the Lord for use in the sanctuary (see Num 18:14). This made the item, land, or person holy. The thing or person could not be bought back; it remained in the Lord’s service permanently.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of complete dedication through total destruction underlies several passages in the apostle Paul’s writings. In Romans 9:3, Paul was even willing to be declared <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> (the Greek equivalent of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span>) if it would bring about the salvation of his fellow Jews. In Galatians 1:8-9, the same Greek word indicates an appropriate end for those who preach a false gospel. In 1 Corinthians 12:3, Paul warns that no one speaking in the Spirit can call Jesus <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span><em>,<\/em> that is, no one who has God’s Spirit will interpret Jesus’ crucifixion as a sign of God’s rejection of him, as the Jews of Paul’s day did. Instead, they will recognize it as an act of atonement for sinful humanity.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:20; Lev 27:28-29; Num 18:8-14; 21:2-3; Deut 7:1-6, 26; 13:12-18; Josh 6:17-19, 24; 7:11-15; 1 Sam 15:2-3; 1 Kgs 20:42; Isa 43:26-28; Mal 4:5-6; Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complete Dedication The Hebrew word kherem (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, kherem designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also ...","summary_en":"Complete Dedication The Hebrew word kherem (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, kherem designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66432,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Visions","title_en":"Visions","content_ro":"<h3>Visions<\/h3>\n<p>Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpreted for the one seeing the vision by God or an angel.<\/p>\n<p>Visions are also prominent in the book of Acts, and they are usually connected with prayer (Acts 9:10-12; 16:9-10; 22:17-21; 23:11; see Luke 1:8-20). On one occasion, Cornelius, a Roman officer, was visited by an angel (Acts 10:1-6, 30-32), who told him to send for Peter. The following day, Peter received a vision as he prayed (10:9-16; see 11:5-10) that directly related to his subsequent encounter with Cornelius. In Acts 9, the visions of Paul and Ananias likewise highlight God’s involvement in their lives (9:3-6, 10-16). These visions are not chance coincidences but the providential outworking of God’s saving purposes in the world.<\/p>\n<p>Visions give divine direction and show Christian workers the way in which they should carry out the Great Commission. Paul had visions on the Damascus road at his conversion (Acts 9:3-6; 22:6-10; 26:12-19), on the threshold of his missionary advance into Europe (16:9), at Corinth (18:9-11), in the Temple (22:17-21), and again in Jerusalem before he set out on his trip to Rome (23:11). Through visions God is active in guiding the affairs of the church and in extending its mission (see the study notes on 10:3, 9-16; 22:17-22; 23:11; see also Gal 1:8-9 and study note there).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 37:5-10; 40:1–41:36; Isa 6:1-13; Jer 14:14; Ezek 37:1-14; Dan 8:1-27; 9:21; Hos 12:10; Obad 1:1; Hab 2:3; Luke 1:8-20; Acts 9:3-6, 10-16; 10:3-6, 9-16, 30-32; 11:5-9; 16:9-10; 18:9-11; 22:6-10, 17-21; 23:11; 26:14-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; Rev 1:9–22:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Visions<\/h3>\n<p>Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpreted for the one seeing the vision by God or an angel.<\/p>\n<p>Visions are also prominent in the book of Acts, and they are usually connected with prayer (Acts 9:10-12; 16:9-10; 22:17-21; 23:11; see Luke 1:8-20). On one occasion, Cornelius, a Roman officer, was visited by an angel (Acts 10:1-6, 30-32), who told him to send for Peter. The following day, Peter received a vision as he prayed (10:9-16; see 11:5-10) that directly related to his subsequent encounter with Cornelius. In Acts 9, the visions of Paul and Ananias likewise highlight God’s involvement in their lives (9:3-6, 10-16). These visions are not chance coincidences but the providential outworking of God’s saving purposes in the world.<\/p>\n<p>Visions give divine direction and show Christian workers the way in which they should carry out the Great Commission. Paul had visions on the Damascus road at his conversion (Acts 9:3-6; 22:6-10; 26:12-19), on the threshold of his missionary advance into Europe (16:9), at Corinth (18:9-11), in the Temple (22:17-21), and again in Jerusalem before he set out on his trip to Rome (23:11). Through visions God is active in guiding the affairs of the church and in extending its mission (see the study notes on 10:3, 9-16; 22:17-22; 23:11; see also Gal 1:8-9 and study note there).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 37:5-10; 40:1–41:36; Isa 6:1-13; Jer 14:14; Ezek 37:1-14; Dan 8:1-27; 9:21; Hos 12:10; Obad 1:1; Hab 2:3; Luke 1:8-20; Acts 9:3-6, 10-16; 10:3-6, 9-16, 30-32; 11:5-9; 16:9-10; 18:9-11; 22:6-10, 17-21; 23:11; 26:14-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; Rev 1:9–22:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Visions Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpre...","summary_en":"Visions Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66682,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Angels","title_en":"Angels","content_ro":"<h3>Angels<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometimes administer his judgment (2 Kgs 19:35; Acts 12:23; Rev 9:15; 16:1-12). Angels were witnesses of Christ’s life (1 Tim 3:16), and they are now witnesses of the lives of God’s people (see 1 Cor 11:10; 1 Tim 5:21). There are guardian angels who protect God’s people (Matt 18:10; see also Pss 34:7; 91:11; Acts 12:11). They are “spirits sent to care for people who will inherit salvation” (Heb 1:14). Angels will accompany Christ when he returns (Matt 25:31; 2 Thes 1:7-8) and will participate in the final judgment (Matt 13:39, 41, 49-50; 16:27; 24:31; Mark 13:27; Luke 9:26; 12:8; 2 Thes 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Angels appear at some significant points in the Gospels. Angels announced the births of John the Baptist and Jesus (Luke 1:1–2:52) and ministered to Jesus after his temptation (Matt 4:11). Angels also appeared at the empty tomb after the resurrection of Jesus (Matt 28:1-8; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 24:23; John 20:12).<\/p>\n<p>The ministry of angels is also prominent in the book of Acts. On multiple occasions, an angel of the Lord made possible miraculous escapes from prison (5:19; 12:6-11). An angel offered a message of encouragement to Paul in the midst of a violent storm (27:23-24). An angel also directed Cornelius to seek the Good News from Peter (10:3, 7, 22; 11:13). Meanwhile, an angel struck down Herod Agrippa “because he accepted the people’s worship instead of giving the glory to God” (12:23). Throughout Acts, God was guiding his people in their ministry and using angels to accomplish his purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Some angels have fallen into sin and are destined for eternal judgment (Matt 25:41; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6). And although angels are spiritual and heavenly beings, angels are not to be worshiped (Gal 1:8; Col 2:18; Rev 19:10; 22:8-9) because they are inferior to Christ (Heb 1:5-14). Their role is to be servants of God (Heb 1:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 91:11; Dan 8:15-18; 9:21-23; 10:4–11:1; 12:1-2; Zech 1:8-13, 18-19; 2:3-5; Matt 1:20-24; 4:5-7, 11; 13:39-42, 49-50; 18:10; 24:31; 28:2-7; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 1:11-22, 26-38; 2:8-15; 9:26; 12:8; John 20:12-13; Acts 5:19-20; 7:30-35, 53; 10:3-8; 12:6-11, 23; 27:23-24; 1 Cor 11:10; Gal 1:8; 3:19; Col 2:18; 1 Thes 4:16; 1 Tim 3:16; 5:21; Heb 1:5-14; 12:22; 13:2; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6, 9; Rev 1:1-2; 5:2, 11-12; 7:1-2; 8:3-8; 9:15; 10:7-9; 14:6-10; 16:1-12; 19:10, 17; 20:1; 22:6-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Angels<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometimes administer his judgment (2 Kgs 19:35; Acts 12:23; Rev 9:15; 16:1-12). Angels were witnesses of Christ’s life (1 Tim 3:16), and they are now witnesses of the lives of God’s people (see 1 Cor 11:10; 1 Tim 5:21). There are guardian angels who protect God’s people (Matt 18:10; see also Pss 34:7; 91:11; Acts 12:11). They are “spirits sent to care for people who will inherit salvation” (Heb 1:14). Angels will accompany Christ when he returns (Matt 25:31; 2 Thes 1:7-8) and will participate in the final judgment (Matt 13:39, 41, 49-50; 16:27; 24:31; Mark 13:27; Luke 9:26; 12:8; 2 Thes 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Angels appear at some significant points in the Gospels. Angels announced the births of John the Baptist and Jesus (Luke 1:1–2:52) and ministered to Jesus after his temptation (Matt 4:11). Angels also appeared at the empty tomb after the resurrection of Jesus (Matt 28:1-8; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 24:23; John 20:12).<\/p>\n<p>The ministry of angels is also prominent in the book of Acts. On multiple occasions, an angel of the Lord made possible miraculous escapes from prison (5:19; 12:6-11). An angel offered a message of encouragement to Paul in the midst of a violent storm (27:23-24). An angel also directed Cornelius to seek the Good News from Peter (10:3, 7, 22; 11:13). Meanwhile, an angel struck down Herod Agrippa “because he accepted the people’s worship instead of giving the glory to God” (12:23). Throughout Acts, God was guiding his people in their ministry and using angels to accomplish his purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Some angels have fallen into sin and are destined for eternal judgment (Matt 25:41; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6). And although angels are spiritual and heavenly beings, angels are not to be worshiped (Gal 1:8; Col 2:18; Rev 19:10; 22:8-9) because they are inferior to Christ (Heb 1:5-14). Their role is to be servants of God (Heb 1:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 91:11; Dan 8:15-18; 9:21-23; 10:4–11:1; 12:1-2; Zech 1:8-13, 18-19; 2:3-5; Matt 1:20-24; 4:5-7, 11; 13:39-42, 49-50; 18:10; 24:31; 28:2-7; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 1:11-22, 26-38; 2:8-15; 9:26; 12:8; John 20:12-13; Acts 5:19-20; 7:30-35, 53; 10:3-8; 12:6-11, 23; 27:23-24; 1 Cor 11:10; Gal 1:8; 3:19; Col 2:18; 1 Thes 4:16; 1 Tim 3:16; 5:21; Heb 1:5-14; 12:22; 13:2; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6, 9; Rev 1:1-2; 5:2, 11-12; 7:1-2; 8:3-8; 9:15; 10:7-9; 14:6-10; 16:1-12; 19:10, 17; 20:1; 22:6-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Angels Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometime...","summary_en":"Angels Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometime...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87403,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Retribution","title_en":"Retribution","content_ro":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","summary_en":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88169,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complete Dedication","title_en":"Complete Dedication","content_ro":"<h3>Complete Dedication<\/h3>\n<p>The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also Josh 6:19, 24). The concept of being “specially set apart” was also applied to Israel’s enemies when they and their property were destroyed (Josh 6:17-19; 1 Sam 15:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Leviticus 27:21, 28, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> indicates an acceptable vow devoting something to the Lord for use in the sanctuary (see Num 18:14). This made the item, land, or person holy. The thing or person could not be bought back; it remained in the Lord’s service permanently.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of complete dedication through total destruction underlies several passages in the apostle Paul’s writings. In Romans 9:3, Paul was even willing to be declared <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> (the Greek equivalent of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span>) if it would bring about the salvation of his fellow Jews. In Galatians 1:8-9, the same Greek word indicates an appropriate end for those who preach a false gospel. In 1 Corinthians 12:3, Paul warns that no one speaking in the Spirit can call Jesus <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span><em>,<\/em> that is, no one who has God’s Spirit will interpret Jesus’ crucifixion as a sign of God’s rejection of him, as the Jews of Paul’s day did. Instead, they will recognize it as an act of atonement for sinful humanity.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:20; Lev 27:28-29; Num 18:8-14; 21:2-3; Deut 7:1-6, 26; 13:12-18; Josh 6:17-19, 24; 7:11-15; 1 Sam 15:2-3; 1 Kgs 20:42; Isa 43:26-28; Mal 4:5-6; Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complete Dedication<\/h3>\n<p>The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also Josh 6:19, 24). The concept of being “specially set apart” was also applied to Israel’s enemies when they and their property were destroyed (Josh 6:17-19; 1 Sam 15:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Leviticus 27:21, 28, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> indicates an acceptable vow devoting something to the Lord for use in the sanctuary (see Num 18:14). This made the item, land, or person holy. The thing or person could not be bought back; it remained in the Lord’s service permanently.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of complete dedication through total destruction underlies several passages in the apostle Paul’s writings. In Romans 9:3, Paul was even willing to be declared <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> (the Greek equivalent of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span>) if it would bring about the salvation of his fellow Jews. In Galatians 1:8-9, the same Greek word indicates an appropriate end for those who preach a false gospel. In 1 Corinthians 12:3, Paul warns that no one speaking in the Spirit can call Jesus <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span><em>,<\/em> that is, no one who has God’s Spirit will interpret Jesus’ crucifixion as a sign of God’s rejection of him, as the Jews of Paul’s day did. Instead, they will recognize it as an act of atonement for sinful humanity.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:20; Lev 27:28-29; Num 18:8-14; 21:2-3; Deut 7:1-6, 26; 13:12-18; Josh 6:17-19, 24; 7:11-15; 1 Sam 15:2-3; 1 Kgs 20:42; Isa 43:26-28; Mal 4:5-6; Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complete Dedication The Hebrew word kherem (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, kherem designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also ...","summary_en":"Complete Dedication The Hebrew word kherem (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, kherem designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94058,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Visions","title_en":"Visions","content_ro":"<h3>Visions<\/h3>\n<p>Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpreted for the one seeing the vision by God or an angel.<\/p>\n<p>Visions are also prominent in the book of Acts, and they are usually connected with prayer (Acts 9:10-12; 16:9-10; 22:17-21; 23:11; see Luke 1:8-20). On one occasion, Cornelius, a Roman officer, was visited by an angel (Acts 10:1-6, 30-32), who told him to send for Peter. The following day, Peter received a vision as he prayed (10:9-16; see 11:5-10) that directly related to his subsequent encounter with Cornelius. In Acts 9, the visions of Paul and Ananias likewise highlight God’s involvement in their lives (9:3-6, 10-16). These visions are not chance coincidences but the providential outworking of God’s saving purposes in the world.<\/p>\n<p>Visions give divine direction and show Christian workers the way in which they should carry out the Great Commission. Paul had visions on the Damascus road at his conversion (Acts 9:3-6; 22:6-10; 26:12-19), on the threshold of his missionary advance into Europe (16:9), at Corinth (18:9-11), in the Temple (22:17-21), and again in Jerusalem before he set out on his trip to Rome (23:11). Through visions God is active in guiding the affairs of the church and in extending its mission (see the study notes on 10:3, 9-16; 22:17-22; 23:11; see also Gal 1:8-9 and study note there).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 37:5-10; 40:1–41:36; Isa 6:1-13; Jer 14:14; Ezek 37:1-14; Dan 8:1-27; 9:21; Hos 12:10; Obad 1:1; Hab 2:3; Luke 1:8-20; Acts 9:3-6, 10-16; 10:3-6, 9-16, 30-32; 11:5-9; 16:9-10; 18:9-11; 22:6-10, 17-21; 23:11; 26:14-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; Rev 1:9–22:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Visions<\/h3>\n<p>Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpreted for the one seeing the vision by God or an angel.<\/p>\n<p>Visions are also prominent in the book of Acts, and they are usually connected with prayer (Acts 9:10-12; 16:9-10; 22:17-21; 23:11; see Luke 1:8-20). On one occasion, Cornelius, a Roman officer, was visited by an angel (Acts 10:1-6, 30-32), who told him to send for Peter. The following day, Peter received a vision as he prayed (10:9-16; see 11:5-10) that directly related to his subsequent encounter with Cornelius. In Acts 9, the visions of Paul and Ananias likewise highlight God’s involvement in their lives (9:3-6, 10-16). These visions are not chance coincidences but the providential outworking of God’s saving purposes in the world.<\/p>\n<p>Visions give divine direction and show Christian workers the way in which they should carry out the Great Commission. Paul had visions on the Damascus road at his conversion (Acts 9:3-6; 22:6-10; 26:12-19), on the threshold of his missionary advance into Europe (16:9), at Corinth (18:9-11), in the Temple (22:17-21), and again in Jerusalem before he set out on his trip to Rome (23:11). Through visions God is active in guiding the affairs of the church and in extending its mission (see the study notes on 10:3, 9-16; 22:17-22; 23:11; see also Gal 1:8-9 and study note there).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 37:5-10; 40:1–41:36; Isa 6:1-13; Jer 14:14; Ezek 37:1-14; Dan 8:1-27; 9:21; Hos 12:10; Obad 1:1; Hab 2:3; Luke 1:8-20; Acts 9:3-6, 10-16; 10:3-6, 9-16, 30-32; 11:5-9; 16:9-10; 18:9-11; 22:6-10, 17-21; 23:11; 26:14-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; Rev 1:9–22:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Visions Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpre...","summary_en":"Visions Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94308,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Angels","title_en":"Angels","content_ro":"<h3>Angels<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometimes administer his judgment (2 Kgs 19:35; Acts 12:23; Rev 9:15; 16:1-12). Angels were witnesses of Christ’s life (1 Tim 3:16), and they are now witnesses of the lives of God’s people (see 1 Cor 11:10; 1 Tim 5:21). There are guardian angels who protect God’s people (Matt 18:10; see also Pss 34:7; 91:11; Acts 12:11). They are “spirits sent to care for people who will inherit salvation” (Heb 1:14). Angels will accompany Christ when he returns (Matt 25:31; 2 Thes 1:7-8) and will participate in the final judgment (Matt 13:39, 41, 49-50; 16:27; 24:31; Mark 13:27; Luke 9:26; 12:8; 2 Thes 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Angels appear at some significant points in the Gospels. Angels announced the births of John the Baptist and Jesus (Luke 1:1–2:52) and ministered to Jesus after his temptation (Matt 4:11). Angels also appeared at the empty tomb after the resurrection of Jesus (Matt 28:1-8; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 24:23; John 20:12).<\/p>\n<p>The ministry of angels is also prominent in the book of Acts. On multiple occasions, an angel of the Lord made possible miraculous escapes from prison (5:19; 12:6-11). An angel offered a message of encouragement to Paul in the midst of a violent storm (27:23-24). An angel also directed Cornelius to seek the Good News from Peter (10:3, 7, 22; 11:13). Meanwhile, an angel struck down Herod Agrippa “because he accepted the people’s worship instead of giving the glory to God” (12:23). Throughout Acts, God was guiding his people in their ministry and using angels to accomplish his purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Some angels have fallen into sin and are destined for eternal judgment (Matt 25:41; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6). And although angels are spiritual and heavenly beings, angels are not to be worshiped (Gal 1:8; Col 2:18; Rev 19:10; 22:8-9) because they are inferior to Christ (Heb 1:5-14). Their role is to be servants of God (Heb 1:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 91:11; Dan 8:15-18; 9:21-23; 10:4–11:1; 12:1-2; Zech 1:8-13, 18-19; 2:3-5; Matt 1:20-24; 4:5-7, 11; 13:39-42, 49-50; 18:10; 24:31; 28:2-7; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 1:11-22, 26-38; 2:8-15; 9:26; 12:8; John 20:12-13; Acts 5:19-20; 7:30-35, 53; 10:3-8; 12:6-11, 23; 27:23-24; 1 Cor 11:10; Gal 1:8; 3:19; Col 2:18; 1 Thes 4:16; 1 Tim 3:16; 5:21; Heb 1:5-14; 12:22; 13:2; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6, 9; Rev 1:1-2; 5:2, 11-12; 7:1-2; 8:3-8; 9:15; 10:7-9; 14:6-10; 16:1-12; 19:10, 17; 20:1; 22:6-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Angels<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometimes administer his judgment (2 Kgs 19:35; Acts 12:23; Rev 9:15; 16:1-12). Angels were witnesses of Christ’s life (1 Tim 3:16), and they are now witnesses of the lives of God’s people (see 1 Cor 11:10; 1 Tim 5:21). There are guardian angels who protect God’s people (Matt 18:10; see also Pss 34:7; 91:11; Acts 12:11). They are “spirits sent to care for people who will inherit salvation” (Heb 1:14). Angels will accompany Christ when he returns (Matt 25:31; 2 Thes 1:7-8) and will participate in the final judgment (Matt 13:39, 41, 49-50; 16:27; 24:31; Mark 13:27; Luke 9:26; 12:8; 2 Thes 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Angels appear at some significant points in the Gospels. Angels announced the births of John the Baptist and Jesus (Luke 1:1–2:52) and ministered to Jesus after his temptation (Matt 4:11). Angels also appeared at the empty tomb after the resurrection of Jesus (Matt 28:1-8; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 24:23; John 20:12).<\/p>\n<p>The ministry of angels is also prominent in the book of Acts. On multiple occasions, an angel of the Lord made possible miraculous escapes from prison (5:19; 12:6-11). An angel offered a message of encouragement to Paul in the midst of a violent storm (27:23-24). An angel also directed Cornelius to seek the Good News from Peter (10:3, 7, 22; 11:13). Meanwhile, an angel struck down Herod Agrippa “because he accepted the people’s worship instead of giving the glory to God” (12:23). Throughout Acts, God was guiding his people in their ministry and using angels to accomplish his purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Some angels have fallen into sin and are destined for eternal judgment (Matt 25:41; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6). And although angels are spiritual and heavenly beings, angels are not to be worshiped (Gal 1:8; Col 2:18; Rev 19:10; 22:8-9) because they are inferior to Christ (Heb 1:5-14). Their role is to be servants of God (Heb 1:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 91:11; Dan 8:15-18; 9:21-23; 10:4–11:1; 12:1-2; Zech 1:8-13, 18-19; 2:3-5; Matt 1:20-24; 4:5-7, 11; 13:39-42, 49-50; 18:10; 24:31; 28:2-7; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 1:11-22, 26-38; 2:8-15; 9:26; 12:8; John 20:12-13; Acts 5:19-20; 7:30-35, 53; 10:3-8; 12:6-11, 23; 27:23-24; 1 Cor 11:10; Gal 1:8; 3:19; Col 2:18; 1 Thes 4:16; 1 Tim 3:16; 5:21; Heb 1:5-14; 12:22; 13:2; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6, 9; Rev 1:1-2; 5:2, 11-12; 7:1-2; 8:3-8; 9:15; 10:7-9; 14:6-10; 16:1-12; 19:10, 17; 20:1; 22:6-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Angels Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometime...","summary_en":"Angels Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometime...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115029,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Retribution","title_en":"Retribution","content_ro":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","summary_en":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115795,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complete Dedication","title_en":"Complete Dedication","content_ro":"<h3>Complete Dedication<\/h3>\n<p>The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also Josh 6:19, 24). The concept of being “specially set apart” was also applied to Israel’s enemies when they and their property were destroyed (Josh 6:17-19; 1 Sam 15:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Leviticus 27:21, 28, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> indicates an acceptable vow devoting something to the Lord for use in the sanctuary (see Num 18:14). This made the item, land, or person holy. The thing or person could not be bought back; it remained in the Lord’s service permanently.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of complete dedication through total destruction underlies several passages in the apostle Paul’s writings. In Romans 9:3, Paul was even willing to be declared <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> (the Greek equivalent of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span>) if it would bring about the salvation of his fellow Jews. In Galatians 1:8-9, the same Greek word indicates an appropriate end for those who preach a false gospel. In 1 Corinthians 12:3, Paul warns that no one speaking in the Spirit can call Jesus <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span><em>,<\/em> that is, no one who has God’s Spirit will interpret Jesus’ crucifixion as a sign of God’s rejection of him, as the Jews of Paul’s day did. Instead, they will recognize it as an act of atonement for sinful humanity.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:20; Lev 27:28-29; Num 18:8-14; 21:2-3; Deut 7:1-6, 26; 13:12-18; Josh 6:17-19, 24; 7:11-15; 1 Sam 15:2-3; 1 Kgs 20:42; Isa 43:26-28; Mal 4:5-6; Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complete Dedication<\/h3>\n<p>The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also Josh 6:19, 24). The concept of being “specially set apart” was also applied to Israel’s enemies when they and their property were destroyed (Josh 6:17-19; 1 Sam 15:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Leviticus 27:21, 28, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> indicates an acceptable vow devoting something to the Lord for use in the sanctuary (see Num 18:14). This made the item, land, or person holy. The thing or person could not be bought back; it remained in the Lord’s service permanently.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of complete dedication through total destruction underlies several passages in the apostle Paul’s writings. In Romans 9:3, Paul was even willing to be declared <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> (the Greek equivalent of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span>) if it would bring about the salvation of his fellow Jews. In Galatians 1:8-9, the same Greek word indicates an appropriate end for those who preach a false gospel. In 1 Corinthians 12:3, Paul warns that no one speaking in the Spirit can call Jesus <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span><em>,<\/em> that is, no one who has God’s Spirit will interpret Jesus’ crucifixion as a sign of God’s rejection of him, as the Jews of Paul’s day did. Instead, they will recognize it as an act of atonement for sinful humanity.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:20; Lev 27:28-29; Num 18:8-14; 21:2-3; Deut 7:1-6, 26; 13:12-18; Josh 6:17-19, 24; 7:11-15; 1 Sam 15:2-3; 1 Kgs 20:42; Isa 43:26-28; Mal 4:5-6; Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complete Dedication The Hebrew word kherem (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, kherem designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also ...","summary_en":"Complete Dedication The Hebrew word kherem (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, kherem designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121684,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Visions","title_en":"Visions","content_ro":"<h3>Visions<\/h3>\n<p>Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpreted for the one seeing the vision by God or an angel.<\/p>\n<p>Visions are also prominent in the book of Acts, and they are usually connected with prayer (Acts 9:10-12; 16:9-10; 22:17-21; 23:11; see Luke 1:8-20). On one occasion, Cornelius, a Roman officer, was visited by an angel (Acts 10:1-6, 30-32), who told him to send for Peter. The following day, Peter received a vision as he prayed (10:9-16; see 11:5-10) that directly related to his subsequent encounter with Cornelius. In Acts 9, the visions of Paul and Ananias likewise highlight God’s involvement in their lives (9:3-6, 10-16). These visions are not chance coincidences but the providential outworking of God’s saving purposes in the world.<\/p>\n<p>Visions give divine direction and show Christian workers the way in which they should carry out the Great Commission. Paul had visions on the Damascus road at his conversion (Acts 9:3-6; 22:6-10; 26:12-19), on the threshold of his missionary advance into Europe (16:9), at Corinth (18:9-11), in the Temple (22:17-21), and again in Jerusalem before he set out on his trip to Rome (23:11). Through visions God is active in guiding the affairs of the church and in extending its mission (see the study notes on 10:3, 9-16; 22:17-22; 23:11; see also Gal 1:8-9 and study note there).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 37:5-10; 40:1–41:36; Isa 6:1-13; Jer 14:14; Ezek 37:1-14; Dan 8:1-27; 9:21; Hos 12:10; Obad 1:1; Hab 2:3; Luke 1:8-20; Acts 9:3-6, 10-16; 10:3-6, 9-16, 30-32; 11:5-9; 16:9-10; 18:9-11; 22:6-10, 17-21; 23:11; 26:14-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; Rev 1:9–22:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Visions<\/h3>\n<p>Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpreted for the one seeing the vision by God or an angel.<\/p>\n<p>Visions are also prominent in the book of Acts, and they are usually connected with prayer (Acts 9:10-12; 16:9-10; 22:17-21; 23:11; see Luke 1:8-20). On one occasion, Cornelius, a Roman officer, was visited by an angel (Acts 10:1-6, 30-32), who told him to send for Peter. The following day, Peter received a vision as he prayed (10:9-16; see 11:5-10) that directly related to his subsequent encounter with Cornelius. In Acts 9, the visions of Paul and Ananias likewise highlight God’s involvement in their lives (9:3-6, 10-16). These visions are not chance coincidences but the providential outworking of God’s saving purposes in the world.<\/p>\n<p>Visions give divine direction and show Christian workers the way in which they should carry out the Great Commission. Paul had visions on the Damascus road at his conversion (Acts 9:3-6; 22:6-10; 26:12-19), on the threshold of his missionary advance into Europe (16:9), at Corinth (18:9-11), in the Temple (22:17-21), and again in Jerusalem before he set out on his trip to Rome (23:11). Through visions God is active in guiding the affairs of the church and in extending its mission (see the study notes on 10:3, 9-16; 22:17-22; 23:11; see also Gal 1:8-9 and study note there).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 37:5-10; 40:1–41:36; Isa 6:1-13; Jer 14:14; Ezek 37:1-14; Dan 8:1-27; 9:21; Hos 12:10; Obad 1:1; Hab 2:3; Luke 1:8-20; Acts 9:3-6, 10-16; 10:3-6, 9-16, 30-32; 11:5-9; 16:9-10; 18:9-11; 22:6-10, 17-21; 23:11; 26:14-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; Rev 1:9–22:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Visions Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpre...","summary_en":"Visions Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121934,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Angels","title_en":"Angels","content_ro":"<h3>Angels<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometimes administer his judgment (2 Kgs 19:35; Acts 12:23; Rev 9:15; 16:1-12). Angels were witnesses of Christ’s life (1 Tim 3:16), and they are now witnesses of the lives of God’s people (see 1 Cor 11:10; 1 Tim 5:21). There are guardian angels who protect God’s people (Matt 18:10; see also Pss 34:7; 91:11; Acts 12:11). They are “spirits sent to care for people who will inherit salvation” (Heb 1:14). Angels will accompany Christ when he returns (Matt 25:31; 2 Thes 1:7-8) and will participate in the final judgment (Matt 13:39, 41, 49-50; 16:27; 24:31; Mark 13:27; Luke 9:26; 12:8; 2 Thes 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Angels appear at some significant points in the Gospels. Angels announced the births of John the Baptist and Jesus (Luke 1:1–2:52) and ministered to Jesus after his temptation (Matt 4:11). Angels also appeared at the empty tomb after the resurrection of Jesus (Matt 28:1-8; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 24:23; John 20:12).<\/p>\n<p>The ministry of angels is also prominent in the book of Acts. On multiple occasions, an angel of the Lord made possible miraculous escapes from prison (5:19; 12:6-11). An angel offered a message of encouragement to Paul in the midst of a violent storm (27:23-24). An angel also directed Cornelius to seek the Good News from Peter (10:3, 7, 22; 11:13). Meanwhile, an angel struck down Herod Agrippa “because he accepted the people’s worship instead of giving the glory to God” (12:23). Throughout Acts, God was guiding his people in their ministry and using angels to accomplish his purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Some angels have fallen into sin and are destined for eternal judgment (Matt 25:41; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6). And although angels are spiritual and heavenly beings, angels are not to be worshiped (Gal 1:8; Col 2:18; Rev 19:10; 22:8-9) because they are inferior to Christ (Heb 1:5-14). Their role is to be servants of God (Heb 1:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 91:11; Dan 8:15-18; 9:21-23; 10:4–11:1; 12:1-2; Zech 1:8-13, 18-19; 2:3-5; Matt 1:20-24; 4:5-7, 11; 13:39-42, 49-50; 18:10; 24:31; 28:2-7; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 1:11-22, 26-38; 2:8-15; 9:26; 12:8; John 20:12-13; Acts 5:19-20; 7:30-35, 53; 10:3-8; 12:6-11, 23; 27:23-24; 1 Cor 11:10; Gal 1:8; 3:19; Col 2:18; 1 Thes 4:16; 1 Tim 3:16; 5:21; Heb 1:5-14; 12:22; 13:2; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6, 9; Rev 1:1-2; 5:2, 11-12; 7:1-2; 8:3-8; 9:15; 10:7-9; 14:6-10; 16:1-12; 19:10, 17; 20:1; 22:6-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Angels<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometimes administer his judgment (2 Kgs 19:35; Acts 12:23; Rev 9:15; 16:1-12). Angels were witnesses of Christ’s life (1 Tim 3:16), and they are now witnesses of the lives of God’s people (see 1 Cor 11:10; 1 Tim 5:21). There are guardian angels who protect God’s people (Matt 18:10; see also Pss 34:7; 91:11; Acts 12:11). They are “spirits sent to care for people who will inherit salvation” (Heb 1:14). Angels will accompany Christ when he returns (Matt 25:31; 2 Thes 1:7-8) and will participate in the final judgment (Matt 13:39, 41, 49-50; 16:27; 24:31; Mark 13:27; Luke 9:26; 12:8; 2 Thes 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Angels appear at some significant points in the Gospels. Angels announced the births of John the Baptist and Jesus (Luke 1:1–2:52) and ministered to Jesus after his temptation (Matt 4:11). Angels also appeared at the empty tomb after the resurrection of Jesus (Matt 28:1-8; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 24:23; John 20:12).<\/p>\n<p>The ministry of angels is also prominent in the book of Acts. On multiple occasions, an angel of the Lord made possible miraculous escapes from prison (5:19; 12:6-11). An angel offered a message of encouragement to Paul in the midst of a violent storm (27:23-24). An angel also directed Cornelius to seek the Good News from Peter (10:3, 7, 22; 11:13). Meanwhile, an angel struck down Herod Agrippa “because he accepted the people’s worship instead of giving the glory to God” (12:23). Throughout Acts, God was guiding his people in their ministry and using angels to accomplish his purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Some angels have fallen into sin and are destined for eternal judgment (Matt 25:41; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6). And although angels are spiritual and heavenly beings, angels are not to be worshiped (Gal 1:8; Col 2:18; Rev 19:10; 22:8-9) because they are inferior to Christ (Heb 1:5-14). Their role is to be servants of God (Heb 1:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 91:11; Dan 8:15-18; 9:21-23; 10:4–11:1; 12:1-2; Zech 1:8-13, 18-19; 2:3-5; Matt 1:20-24; 4:5-7, 11; 13:39-42, 49-50; 18:10; 24:31; 28:2-7; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 1:11-22, 26-38; 2:8-15; 9:26; 12:8; John 20:12-13; Acts 5:19-20; 7:30-35, 53; 10:3-8; 12:6-11, 23; 27:23-24; 1 Cor 11:10; Gal 1:8; 3:19; Col 2:18; 1 Thes 4:16; 1 Tim 3:16; 5:21; Heb 1:5-14; 12:22; 13:2; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6, 9; Rev 1:1-2; 5:2, 11-12; 7:1-2; 8:3-8; 9:15; 10:7-9; 14:6-10; 16:1-12; 19:10, 17; 20:1; 22:6-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Angels Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometime...","summary_en":"Angels Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometime...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142655,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Retribution","title_en":"Retribution","content_ro":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","summary_en":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143421,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Complete Dedication","title_en":"Complete Dedication","content_ro":"<h3>Complete Dedication<\/h3>\n<p>The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also Josh 6:19, 24). The concept of being “specially set apart” was also applied to Israel’s enemies when they and their property were destroyed (Josh 6:17-19; 1 Sam 15:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Leviticus 27:21, 28, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> indicates an acceptable vow devoting something to the Lord for use in the sanctuary (see Num 18:14). This made the item, land, or person holy. The thing or person could not be bought back; it remained in the Lord’s service permanently.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of complete dedication through total destruction underlies several passages in the apostle Paul’s writings. In Romans 9:3, Paul was even willing to be declared <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> (the Greek equivalent of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span>) if it would bring about the salvation of his fellow Jews. In Galatians 1:8-9, the same Greek word indicates an appropriate end for those who preach a false gospel. In 1 Corinthians 12:3, Paul warns that no one speaking in the Spirit can call Jesus <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span><em>,<\/em> that is, no one who has God’s Spirit will interpret Jesus’ crucifixion as a sign of God’s rejection of him, as the Jews of Paul’s day did. Instead, they will recognize it as an act of atonement for sinful humanity.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:20; Lev 27:28-29; Num 18:8-14; 21:2-3; Deut 7:1-6, 26; 13:12-18; Josh 6:17-19, 24; 7:11-15; 1 Sam 15:2-3; 1 Kgs 20:42; Isa 43:26-28; Mal 4:5-6; Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Complete Dedication<\/h3>\n<p>The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also Josh 6:19, 24). The concept of being “specially set apart” was also applied to Israel’s enemies when they and their property were destroyed (Josh 6:17-19; 1 Sam 15:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Leviticus 27:21, 28, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span> indicates an acceptable vow devoting something to the Lord for use in the sanctuary (see Num 18:14). This made the item, land, or person holy. The thing or person could not be bought back; it remained in the Lord’s service permanently.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of complete dedication through total destruction underlies several passages in the apostle Paul’s writings. In Romans 9:3, Paul was even willing to be declared <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span> (the Greek equivalent of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kherem<\/span>) if it would bring about the salvation of his fellow Jews. In Galatians 1:8-9, the same Greek word indicates an appropriate end for those who preach a false gospel. In 1 Corinthians 12:3, Paul warns that no one speaking in the Spirit can call Jesus <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">anathema<\/span><em>,<\/em> that is, no one who has God’s Spirit will interpret Jesus’ crucifixion as a sign of God’s rejection of him, as the Jews of Paul’s day did. Instead, they will recognize it as an act of atonement for sinful humanity.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:20; Lev 27:28-29; Num 18:8-14; 21:2-3; Deut 7:1-6, 26; 13:12-18; Josh 6:17-19, 24; 7:11-15; 1 Sam 15:2-3; 1 Kgs 20:42; Isa 43:26-28; Mal 4:5-6; Rom 9:3; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Complete Dedication The Hebrew word kherem (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, kherem designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also ...","summary_en":"Complete Dedication The Hebrew word kherem (“specially set apart”) is difficult to translate because it represents a concept for which there is no exact parallel in modern English. In the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, kherem designated something that was dedicated to a pagan god and therefore hostile to the Lord. Such things were to be destroyed (see Josh 6:18). In the case of valuable metal items, they were brought to the sanctuary, where they became holy to the Lord (Lev 27:28; see also ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149310,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Visions","title_en":"Visions","content_ro":"<h3>Visions<\/h3>\n<p>Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpreted for the one seeing the vision by God or an angel.<\/p>\n<p>Visions are also prominent in the book of Acts, and they are usually connected with prayer (Acts 9:10-12; 16:9-10; 22:17-21; 23:11; see Luke 1:8-20). On one occasion, Cornelius, a Roman officer, was visited by an angel (Acts 10:1-6, 30-32), who told him to send for Peter. The following day, Peter received a vision as he prayed (10:9-16; see 11:5-10) that directly related to his subsequent encounter with Cornelius. In Acts 9, the visions of Paul and Ananias likewise highlight God’s involvement in their lives (9:3-6, 10-16). These visions are not chance coincidences but the providential outworking of God’s saving purposes in the world.<\/p>\n<p>Visions give divine direction and show Christian workers the way in which they should carry out the Great Commission. Paul had visions on the Damascus road at his conversion (Acts 9:3-6; 22:6-10; 26:12-19), on the threshold of his missionary advance into Europe (16:9), at Corinth (18:9-11), in the Temple (22:17-21), and again in Jerusalem before he set out on his trip to Rome (23:11). Through visions God is active in guiding the affairs of the church and in extending its mission (see the study notes on 10:3, 9-16; 22:17-22; 23:11; see also Gal 1:8-9 and study note there).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 37:5-10; 40:1–41:36; Isa 6:1-13; Jer 14:14; Ezek 37:1-14; Dan 8:1-27; 9:21; Hos 12:10; Obad 1:1; Hab 2:3; Luke 1:8-20; Acts 9:3-6, 10-16; 10:3-6, 9-16, 30-32; 11:5-9; 16:9-10; 18:9-11; 22:6-10, 17-21; 23:11; 26:14-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; Rev 1:9–22:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Visions<\/h3>\n<p>Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpreted for the one seeing the vision by God or an angel.<\/p>\n<p>Visions are also prominent in the book of Acts, and they are usually connected with prayer (Acts 9:10-12; 16:9-10; 22:17-21; 23:11; see Luke 1:8-20). On one occasion, Cornelius, a Roman officer, was visited by an angel (Acts 10:1-6, 30-32), who told him to send for Peter. The following day, Peter received a vision as he prayed (10:9-16; see 11:5-10) that directly related to his subsequent encounter with Cornelius. In Acts 9, the visions of Paul and Ananias likewise highlight God’s involvement in their lives (9:3-6, 10-16). These visions are not chance coincidences but the providential outworking of God’s saving purposes in the world.<\/p>\n<p>Visions give divine direction and show Christian workers the way in which they should carry out the Great Commission. Paul had visions on the Damascus road at his conversion (Acts 9:3-6; 22:6-10; 26:12-19), on the threshold of his missionary advance into Europe (16:9), at Corinth (18:9-11), in the Temple (22:17-21), and again in Jerusalem before he set out on his trip to Rome (23:11). Through visions God is active in guiding the affairs of the church and in extending its mission (see the study notes on 10:3, 9-16; 22:17-22; 23:11; see also Gal 1:8-9 and study note there).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 37:5-10; 40:1–41:36; Isa 6:1-13; Jer 14:14; Ezek 37:1-14; Dan 8:1-27; 9:21; Hos 12:10; Obad 1:1; Hab 2:3; Luke 1:8-20; Acts 9:3-6, 10-16; 10:3-6, 9-16, 30-32; 11:5-9; 16:9-10; 18:9-11; 22:6-10, 17-21; 23:11; 26:14-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; Rev 1:9–22:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Visions Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpre...","summary_en":"Visions Visions are closely related to other revelatory experiences such as dreams (Gen 37:5-10; 40:5-19). Classic examples include Ezekiel’s vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezek 37:1-14) and Isaiah’s vision of God’s throne (Isa 6). Visions were often the means by which the Old Testament prophets received messages from the Lord. These visions often contained very striking imagery. The imagery generally offered a graphic, metaphorical depiction of an earthly reality, which was then interpre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149560,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Angels","title_en":"Angels","content_ro":"<h3>Angels<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometimes administer his judgment (2 Kgs 19:35; Acts 12:23; Rev 9:15; 16:1-12). Angels were witnesses of Christ’s life (1 Tim 3:16), and they are now witnesses of the lives of God’s people (see 1 Cor 11:10; 1 Tim 5:21). There are guardian angels who protect God’s people (Matt 18:10; see also Pss 34:7; 91:11; Acts 12:11). They are “spirits sent to care for people who will inherit salvation” (Heb 1:14). Angels will accompany Christ when he returns (Matt 25:31; 2 Thes 1:7-8) and will participate in the final judgment (Matt 13:39, 41, 49-50; 16:27; 24:31; Mark 13:27; Luke 9:26; 12:8; 2 Thes 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Angels appear at some significant points in the Gospels. Angels announced the births of John the Baptist and Jesus (Luke 1:1–2:52) and ministered to Jesus after his temptation (Matt 4:11). Angels also appeared at the empty tomb after the resurrection of Jesus (Matt 28:1-8; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 24:23; John 20:12).<\/p>\n<p>The ministry of angels is also prominent in the book of Acts. On multiple occasions, an angel of the Lord made possible miraculous escapes from prison (5:19; 12:6-11). An angel offered a message of encouragement to Paul in the midst of a violent storm (27:23-24). An angel also directed Cornelius to seek the Good News from Peter (10:3, 7, 22; 11:13). Meanwhile, an angel struck down Herod Agrippa “because he accepted the people’s worship instead of giving the glory to God” (12:23). Throughout Acts, God was guiding his people in their ministry and using angels to accomplish his purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Some angels have fallen into sin and are destined for eternal judgment (Matt 25:41; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6). And although angels are spiritual and heavenly beings, angels are not to be worshiped (Gal 1:8; Col 2:18; Rev 19:10; 22:8-9) because they are inferior to Christ (Heb 1:5-14). Their role is to be servants of God (Heb 1:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 91:11; Dan 8:15-18; 9:21-23; 10:4–11:1; 12:1-2; Zech 1:8-13, 18-19; 2:3-5; Matt 1:20-24; 4:5-7, 11; 13:39-42, 49-50; 18:10; 24:31; 28:2-7; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 1:11-22, 26-38; 2:8-15; 9:26; 12:8; John 20:12-13; Acts 5:19-20; 7:30-35, 53; 10:3-8; 12:6-11, 23; 27:23-24; 1 Cor 11:10; Gal 1:8; 3:19; Col 2:18; 1 Thes 4:16; 1 Tim 3:16; 5:21; Heb 1:5-14; 12:22; 13:2; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6, 9; Rev 1:1-2; 5:2, 11-12; 7:1-2; 8:3-8; 9:15; 10:7-9; 14:6-10; 16:1-12; 19:10, 17; 20:1; 22:6-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Angels<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometimes administer his judgment (2 Kgs 19:35; Acts 12:23; Rev 9:15; 16:1-12). Angels were witnesses of Christ’s life (1 Tim 3:16), and they are now witnesses of the lives of God’s people (see 1 Cor 11:10; 1 Tim 5:21). There are guardian angels who protect God’s people (Matt 18:10; see also Pss 34:7; 91:11; Acts 12:11). They are “spirits sent to care for people who will inherit salvation” (Heb 1:14). Angels will accompany Christ when he returns (Matt 25:31; 2 Thes 1:7-8) and will participate in the final judgment (Matt 13:39, 41, 49-50; 16:27; 24:31; Mark 13:27; Luke 9:26; 12:8; 2 Thes 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Angels appear at some significant points in the Gospels. Angels announced the births of John the Baptist and Jesus (Luke 1:1–2:52) and ministered to Jesus after his temptation (Matt 4:11). Angels also appeared at the empty tomb after the resurrection of Jesus (Matt 28:1-8; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 24:23; John 20:12).<\/p>\n<p>The ministry of angels is also prominent in the book of Acts. On multiple occasions, an angel of the Lord made possible miraculous escapes from prison (5:19; 12:6-11). An angel offered a message of encouragement to Paul in the midst of a violent storm (27:23-24). An angel also directed Cornelius to seek the Good News from Peter (10:3, 7, 22; 11:13). Meanwhile, an angel struck down Herod Agrippa “because he accepted the people’s worship instead of giving the glory to God” (12:23). Throughout Acts, God was guiding his people in their ministry and using angels to accomplish his purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Some angels have fallen into sin and are destined for eternal judgment (Matt 25:41; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6). And although angels are spiritual and heavenly beings, angels are not to be worshiped (Gal 1:8; Col 2:18; Rev 19:10; 22:8-9) because they are inferior to Christ (Heb 1:5-14). Their role is to be servants of God (Heb 1:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ps 91:11; Dan 8:15-18; 9:21-23; 10:4–11:1; 12:1-2; Zech 1:8-13, 18-19; 2:3-5; Matt 1:20-24; 4:5-7, 11; 13:39-42, 49-50; 18:10; 24:31; 28:2-7; Mark 16:5-7; Luke 1:11-22, 26-38; 2:8-15; 9:26; 12:8; John 20:12-13; Acts 5:19-20; 7:30-35, 53; 10:3-8; 12:6-11, 23; 27:23-24; 1 Cor 11:10; Gal 1:8; 3:19; Col 2:18; 1 Thes 4:16; 1 Tim 3:16; 5:21; Heb 1:5-14; 12:22; 13:2; 2 Pet 2:4, 11; Jude 1:6, 9; Rev 1:1-2; 5:2, 11-12; 7:1-2; 8:3-8; 9:15; 10:7-9; 14:6-10; 16:1-12; 19:10, 17; 20:1; 22:6-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Angels Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometime...","summary_en":"Angels Throughout the Bible, angels are God’s heavenly agents who carry out his purpose and communicate God’s will to humanity (Gen 16:7-12; Num 22:22-34; Judg 13:3-21; 2 Kgs 1:3, 15; Zech 1:4-12). The only angels named in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel, who carry out special assignments (Dan 8:16, 18; 9:21; 10:12, 21; 12:1-2; Luke 1:19-20; Jude 1:9). Angels had a role in putting God’s law into effect through Moses (Acts 7:30, 35, 38, 53; Gal 3:19). Angels dispense God’s grace and sometime...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":57913,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:9","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The <em>Good News . . . you welcomed<\/em> was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The <em>Good News . . . you welcomed<\/em> was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:9 The Good News . . . you welcomed was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).","summary_en":"1:9 The Good News . . . you welcomed was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85539,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:9","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The <em>Good News . . . you welcomed<\/em> was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The <em>Good News . . . you welcomed<\/em> was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:9 The Good News . . . you welcomed was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).","summary_en":"1:9 The Good News . . . you welcomed was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113165,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:9","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The <em>Good News . . . you welcomed<\/em> was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The <em>Good News . . . you welcomed<\/em> was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:9 The Good News . . . you welcomed was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).","summary_en":"1:9 The Good News . . . you welcomed was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140791,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:9","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The <em>Good News . . . you welcomed<\/em> was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> The <em>Good News . . . you welcomed<\/em> was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:9 The Good News . . . you welcomed was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).","summary_en":"1:9 The Good News . . . you welcomed was precisely the message Paul had preached to them (1:8; cp. 2 Thes 2:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":40181,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"Slave: A Name Adopted by Christian Servants","title_en":"Slave: A Name Adopted by Christian Servants","content_ro":"<h3>Slave: A Name Adopted by Christian Servants<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Five NT authors called themselves “a slave [or servant] of Jesus Christ”: Paul (Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10; Phil 1:1; Col 4:12; 2 Tm 2:24; Ti 1:1), James (Jas 1:1), Peter (2 Pt 1:1), Jude (Jude 1:1), and John (Rv 1:1). In many cases, the term is a synonym for “Christian.” Why would such a term become a name for Christians? In the OT, God was viewed as a great king; the subjects of kings were their slaves. The people of Israel saw themselves in the same relationship to God: they were his slaves.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Often the title “slave of the king” meant that the person was an officer in the king’s service; it was a title of honor. In Jewish literature Moses and others were called slaves of God (Nm 12:7-8; Rv 15:3). The term “slave” was thus a title both of honor and of subjugation; in the NT it is hard to know which sense is intended. Certainly subjection was often meant (1 Cor 7:22; Phil 2:7), but when applied to the apostolic writers, the term probably suggested their honored position in God’s household. At the same time, it indicated their obedience to Christ; he commanded and they obeyed. Since obedience was characteristic of all Christians, “slave of Christ” became a title for members of the young church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Slave: A Name Adopted by Christian Servants<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Five NT authors called themselves “a slave [or servant] of Jesus Christ”: Paul (Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10; Phil 1:1; Col 4:12; 2 Tm 2:24; Ti 1:1), James (Jas 1:1), Peter (2 Pt 1:1), Jude (Jude 1:1), and John (Rv 1:1). In many cases, the term is a synonym for “Christian.” Why would such a term become a name for Christians? In the OT, God was viewed as a great king; the subjects of kings were their slaves. The people of Israel saw themselves in the same relationship to God: they were his slaves.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Often the title “slave of the king” meant that the person was an officer in the king’s service; it was a title of honor. In Jewish literature Moses and others were called slaves of God (Nm 12:7-8; Rv 15:3). The term “slave” was thus a title both of honor and of subjugation; in the NT it is hard to know which sense is intended. Certainly subjection was often meant (1 Cor 7:22; Phil 2:7), but when applied to the apostolic writers, the term probably suggested their honored position in God’s household. At the same time, it indicated their obedience to Christ; he commanded and they obeyed. Since obedience was characteristic of all Christians, “slave of Christ” became a title for members of the young church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Slave: A Name Adopted by Christian Servants Five NT authors called themselves “a slave [or servant] of Jesus Christ”: Paul (Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10; Phil 1:1; Col 4:12; 2 Tm 2:24; Ti 1:1), James (Jas 1:1), Peter (2 Pt 1:1), Jude (Jude 1:1), and John (Rv 1:1). In many cases, the term is a synonym for “Christian.” Why would such a term become a name for Christians? In the OT, God was viewed as a great king; the subjects of kings were their slaves. The people of Israel saw themselves in the same relat...","summary_en":"Slave: A Name Adopted by Christian Servants Five NT authors called themselves “a slave [or servant] of Jesus Christ”: Paul (Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10; Phil 1:1; Col 4:12; 2 Tm 2:24; Ti 1:1), James (Jas 1:1), Peter (2 Pt 1:1), Jude (Jude 1:1), and John (Rv 1:1). In many cases, the term is a synonym for “Christian.” Why would such a term become a name for Christians? In the OT, God was viewed as a great king; the subjects of kings were their slaves. The people of Israel saw themselves in the same relat...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57914,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> The tone and content of this letter make it clear that <em>trying to win the approval of people<\/em> was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being <em>Christ’s servant<\/em> requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> The tone and content of this letter make it clear that <em>trying to win the approval of people<\/em> was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being <em>Christ’s servant<\/em> requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10 The tone and content of this letter make it clear that trying to win the approval of people was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being Christ’s servant requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).","summary_en":"1:10 The tone and content of this letter make it clear that trying to win the approval of people was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being Christ’s servant requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85540,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> The tone and content of this letter make it clear that <em>trying to win the approval of people<\/em> was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being <em>Christ’s servant<\/em> requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> The tone and content of this letter make it clear that <em>trying to win the approval of people<\/em> was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being <em>Christ’s servant<\/em> requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10 The tone and content of this letter make it clear that trying to win the approval of people was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being Christ’s servant requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).","summary_en":"1:10 The tone and content of this letter make it clear that trying to win the approval of people was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being Christ’s servant requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113166,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> The tone and content of this letter make it clear that <em>trying to win the approval of people<\/em> was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being <em>Christ’s servant<\/em> requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> The tone and content of this letter make it clear that <em>trying to win the approval of people<\/em> was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being <em>Christ’s servant<\/em> requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10 The tone and content of this letter make it clear that trying to win the approval of people was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being Christ’s servant requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).","summary_en":"1:10 The tone and content of this letter make it clear that trying to win the approval of people was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being Christ’s servant requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140792,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> The tone and content of this letter make it clear that <em>trying to win the approval of people<\/em> was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being <em>Christ’s servant<\/em> requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> The tone and content of this letter make it clear that <em>trying to win the approval of people<\/em> was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being <em>Christ’s servant<\/em> requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10 The tone and content of this letter make it clear that trying to win the approval of people was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being Christ’s servant requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).","summary_en":"1:10 The tone and content of this letter make it clear that trying to win the approval of people was not Paul’s goal. Paul was probably criticized by the Judaizers for trying to please people by presenting only the part of the Good News pertaining to faith and grace, and not what they perceived to be the whole message including the law. • Being Christ’s servant requires fidelity to Christ, regardless of how people respond (cp. Acts 5:29; Eph 6:5-6; 1 Thes 2:3-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":42602,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70228,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97854,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125480,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around <span>AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around <span>AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13122,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Galatians","title_en":"Letter to the Galatians","content_ro":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","summary_en":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21111,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Judaizers*","title_en":"Judaizers*","content_ro":"<h3>JUDAIZERS*<\/h3>\n<p>Christian Jews who, during the apostolic and early postapostolic periods, attempted to impose the Jewish way of life on gentile Christians. The Greek verb, which literally means “to Judaize,” is found only one time in the NT (Gal 2:14), where it actually means “to live according to Jewish customs and traditions.” In that passage Paul quotes part of a brief conversation he had with Peter several years earlier: “If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can you compel the Gentiles to live like Jews [i.e., to Judaize]?” (<span>rsv<\/span>). The issue that concerned Paul was not simply whether or not a person followed the Jewish way of life but whether one erroneously thought that salvation was attained thereby.<\/p>\n<p>In the early days of Christianity, most—if not all—Christians were Jews prior to their conversion to Christianity. The few who were originally Gentiles, such as Nicolaus of Antioch (Acts 6:5), had converted to Judaism before turning to Christianity. At that time, conversion to Judaism was accomplished through three separate steps: (1) circumcision (for males); (2) a ritual bath in water; and (3) agreement to take upon oneself the “yoke of the law,” that is, to obey the 613 commands of the Mosaic law as interpreted and expanded in Jewish Halakah (rabbinic legal decisions). Following Jewish customs and traditions and observing Jewish religious laws was a normal way of life for Jewish Christians, whether they were Jews by birth or through conversion. For them, belief in Jesus as the Messiah of Jewish expectation enhanced, but did not replace, their Judaism. Christianity was not regarded as a religion distinct from Judaism but rather as the truest form of Judaism. These Jewish Christians had all been circumcised as infants, or upon conversion to Judaism, and they also practiced the kosher dietary laws and rules of ritual purity prescribed in Mosaic legislation and rabbinic tradition. Further, they continued to worship at the temple in Jerusalem (Acts 3:1; 21:26) until its destruction by the Romans in <span>AD<\/span> 70, and certain Jewish Christians continued to meet in synagogues (see Jas 2:2, <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<p>While earliest Christianity began as a predominantly Jewish movement, it soon expanded into the Greco-Roman world. Jewish Christians were forced to leave Jerusalem as a result of persecutions (Acts 8:1; 11:19-24), and they proclaimed the gospel wherever they went. Philip was responsible for bringing the gospel to Samaria, where many Samaritans became Christians (8:4-25). On the Day of Pentecost, many Jews from places all over the Roman world became converts to the Christian faith (2:5-11). Presumably, when these newly converted Jewish Christians returned to their homes, they carried the gospel with them. Although the origin of the Christian community in Rome is shrouded in obscurity, this is probably how the gospel first came to Rome. One of the central concerns of Luke, the author of Acts, is to show how Christianity, which began as a small, persecuted sect of Judaism in Jerusalem, spread throughout the Roman world; in so doing, it was rejected by Jews and embraced by Gentiles. The major turning point in Acts is in chapter 10, where Peter is the means whereby the Roman centurion Cornelius, together with his entire household, accepted the gospel and began to manifest the gifts of the Holy Spirit. According to Acts 10:45, “The Jewish believers who came with Peter were amazed that the gift of the Holy Spirit had been poured out upon the Gentiles, too” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The growing number of gentile converts to Christianity forced Jewish Christians to face a very difficult problem: Must a Gentile first become a Jew in order to be a Christian? Some Jewish Christians gave a positive answer to this question, and these became known as the circumcision party (Acts 11:2; Gal 2:12). Others, such as Peter and Barnabas, and especially Paul, vigorously disagreed. While these two radically different points of view could have split the early church into two major factions, that possibility did not occur. Luke tells the story of how, after a successful first missionary journey (Acts 13:1–14:28), Paul and Barnabas reported to the church at Antioch how God had opened a door of faith to the Gentiles (Acts 14:27). Opposition from the Judaizers in the circumcision party was soon felt, however, since some of them had come to Antioch from Judea for the express purpose of advocating the idea that circumcision was absolutely necessary for salvation (15:1). Many Jewish Christians had, like Paul, once been Pharisees. These former Pharisees were particularly insistent that new converts who were Gentiles be circumcised and charged to keep the law of Moses (v 5). They were really demanding that Gentiles become converted to Judaism in order to be Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas debated with members of the circumcision party before an assembly of apostles and elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4-12). The assembly, led by James the Just (the brother of Jesus), listened to both sides and decided to issue a compromise. A letter to the gentile churches was drafted in which it was recommended that gentile converts to Christianity adhere to only a few absolutely essential obligations: (1) abstention from meat sacrificed to idols, (2) abstention from eating blood or blood-saturated meat, and (3) abstention from unchastity (vv 23-29). These three obligations were probably singled out because they were thought to have been important features of those laws regarded as part of the covenant between God and Noah according to Jewish tradition. Since Noah was the ancestor of all mankind, Gentiles as well as Jews, such laws had universal validity. The Mosaic covenant, on the other hand, was incumbent only upon Jews, not upon Gentiles. For this reason the Jerusalem Council determined that abstention from meat sacrificed to idols, blood-saturated meat, and unchastity applied to all Christians, whereas the obligation of circumcision did not.<\/p>\n<p>Judging from the remainder of the book of Acts, it might be supposed that the decision of the Jerusalem Council was satisfactory to the Judaizers of the circumcision party. However, from the details provided by Paul in many of his letters, we find that this was not the case. After Paul briefly summarizes the results of the Jerusalem Council for the Galatian Christians (Gal 2:1-10), he relates how, even after the Jerusalem Council, the Judaizers of the circumcision party were sufficiently powerful to cause even Peter and Barnabas to temporarily isolate themselves from gentile Christians. (According to rabbinic purity laws, one would become religiously impure if one ate with Gentiles.) The major reason Paul wrote the Letter to the Galatians was to combat Judaizers who had apparently invaded the Christian communities in Galatia after his departure. These Judaizers appear to have successfully persuaded some of the Galatian Christians that salvation was available only for those who were circumcised and who kept the Mosaic law (5:12; 6:13). At least some of the problems experienced by the Corinthian church appear to have been caused by Judaizers (2 Cor 11:12–15, 22), and they had infected the Christian community at Philippi (Phil 3:2-3). Judaizers also appear to have made some progress in the church at Colosse. Therefore, according to Colossians 2:16-17, “Let no one pass judgment on you in questions of food and drink or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a sabbath. These are only a shadow of what is to come; but the substance belongs to Christ” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Of all the early apostles and elders, Paul was the one who most consistently opposed the Judaizers’ view that Gentiles must first become Jews in order to be Christians. His dramatic conversion to Christianity, narrated three times in Acts (9:1-9; 22:6-16; 26:12-23) and occasionally referred to by Paul himself (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:11-17), convinced him that salvation could be achieved only through faith in Christ. Since Jesus was the <em>only<\/em> way, all other means by which persons sought to obtain salvation were necessarily invalid and illegitimate. Paul was fully aware that it was not because of the fact that he was an observant Jew that he had become justified before God (Phil 3:2-11) but through his faith in Christ. Primarily because of the persistent activity of the Judaizers, Paul had to insist frequently on the invalidity of the law and the validity of faith as the means of being justified before God. This theme dominates his letters to the Romans and the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>Jewish Christianity gradually withered and disappeared, and with it went the insistence of the Judaizers that Gentiles live according to Jewish customs and traditions in order to receive salvation. The center of Jewish Christianity had traditionally been Jerusalem. Just before the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple at the end of the Jewish revolt of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, many Jewish Christians fled to Pella in obedience to a divine revelation. The ill-fated revolt of Bar-Kochba (<span>AD<\/span> 132–135) further weakened the movement, when Jewish Christians experienced persecution at the hands of the Jewish insurgents. Thereafter Jewish Christianity grew weaker and eventually disappeared. With its disappearance the persistent notion that Gentiles must first become Jews in order to be Christians also died.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; First Jewish Revolt; Galatians, Letter to the; Jerusalem Council; Jew; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDAIZERS*<\/h3>\n<p>Christian Jews who, during the apostolic and early postapostolic periods, attempted to impose the Jewish way of life on gentile Christians. The Greek verb, which literally means “to Judaize,” is found only one time in the NT (Gal 2:14), where it actually means “to live according to Jewish customs and traditions.” In that passage Paul quotes part of a brief conversation he had with Peter several years earlier: “If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can you compel the Gentiles to live like Jews [i.e., to Judaize]?” (<span>rsv<\/span>). The issue that concerned Paul was not simply whether or not a person followed the Jewish way of life but whether one erroneously thought that salvation was attained thereby.<\/p>\n<p>In the early days of Christianity, most—if not all—Christians were Jews prior to their conversion to Christianity. The few who were originally Gentiles, such as Nicolaus of Antioch (Acts 6:5), had converted to Judaism before turning to Christianity. At that time, conversion to Judaism was accomplished through three separate steps: (1) circumcision (for males); (2) a ritual bath in water; and (3) agreement to take upon oneself the “yoke of the law,” that is, to obey the 613 commands of the Mosaic law as interpreted and expanded in Jewish Halakah (rabbinic legal decisions). Following Jewish customs and traditions and observing Jewish religious laws was a normal way of life for Jewish Christians, whether they were Jews by birth or through conversion. For them, belief in Jesus as the Messiah of Jewish expectation enhanced, but did not replace, their Judaism. Christianity was not regarded as a religion distinct from Judaism but rather as the truest form of Judaism. These Jewish Christians had all been circumcised as infants, or upon conversion to Judaism, and they also practiced the kosher dietary laws and rules of ritual purity prescribed in Mosaic legislation and rabbinic tradition. Further, they continued to worship at the temple in Jerusalem (Acts 3:1; 21:26) until its destruction by the Romans in <span>AD<\/span> 70, and certain Jewish Christians continued to meet in synagogues (see Jas 2:2, <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<p>While earliest Christianity began as a predominantly Jewish movement, it soon expanded into the Greco-Roman world. Jewish Christians were forced to leave Jerusalem as a result of persecutions (Acts 8:1; 11:19-24), and they proclaimed the gospel wherever they went. Philip was responsible for bringing the gospel to Samaria, where many Samaritans became Christians (8:4-25). On the Day of Pentecost, many Jews from places all over the Roman world became converts to the Christian faith (2:5-11). Presumably, when these newly converted Jewish Christians returned to their homes, they carried the gospel with them. Although the origin of the Christian community in Rome is shrouded in obscurity, this is probably how the gospel first came to Rome. One of the central concerns of Luke, the author of Acts, is to show how Christianity, which began as a small, persecuted sect of Judaism in Jerusalem, spread throughout the Roman world; in so doing, it was rejected by Jews and embraced by Gentiles. The major turning point in Acts is in chapter 10, where Peter is the means whereby the Roman centurion Cornelius, together with his entire household, accepted the gospel and began to manifest the gifts of the Holy Spirit. According to Acts 10:45, “The Jewish believers who came with Peter were amazed that the gift of the Holy Spirit had been poured out upon the Gentiles, too” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The growing number of gentile converts to Christianity forced Jewish Christians to face a very difficult problem: Must a Gentile first become a Jew in order to be a Christian? Some Jewish Christians gave a positive answer to this question, and these became known as the circumcision party (Acts 11:2; Gal 2:12). Others, such as Peter and Barnabas, and especially Paul, vigorously disagreed. While these two radically different points of view could have split the early church into two major factions, that possibility did not occur. Luke tells the story of how, after a successful first missionary journey (Acts 13:1–14:28), Paul and Barnabas reported to the church at Antioch how God had opened a door of faith to the Gentiles (Acts 14:27). Opposition from the Judaizers in the circumcision party was soon felt, however, since some of them had come to Antioch from Judea for the express purpose of advocating the idea that circumcision was absolutely necessary for salvation (15:1). Many Jewish Christians had, like Paul, once been Pharisees. These former Pharisees were particularly insistent that new converts who were Gentiles be circumcised and charged to keep the law of Moses (v 5). They were really demanding that Gentiles become converted to Judaism in order to be Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas debated with members of the circumcision party before an assembly of apostles and elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4-12). The assembly, led by James the Just (the brother of Jesus), listened to both sides and decided to issue a compromise. A letter to the gentile churches was drafted in which it was recommended that gentile converts to Christianity adhere to only a few absolutely essential obligations: (1) abstention from meat sacrificed to idols, (2) abstention from eating blood or blood-saturated meat, and (3) abstention from unchastity (vv 23-29). These three obligations were probably singled out because they were thought to have been important features of those laws regarded as part of the covenant between God and Noah according to Jewish tradition. Since Noah was the ancestor of all mankind, Gentiles as well as Jews, such laws had universal validity. The Mosaic covenant, on the other hand, was incumbent only upon Jews, not upon Gentiles. For this reason the Jerusalem Council determined that abstention from meat sacrificed to idols, blood-saturated meat, and unchastity applied to all Christians, whereas the obligation of circumcision did not.<\/p>\n<p>Judging from the remainder of the book of Acts, it might be supposed that the decision of the Jerusalem Council was satisfactory to the Judaizers of the circumcision party. However, from the details provided by Paul in many of his letters, we find that this was not the case. After Paul briefly summarizes the results of the Jerusalem Council for the Galatian Christians (Gal 2:1-10), he relates how, even after the Jerusalem Council, the Judaizers of the circumcision party were sufficiently powerful to cause even Peter and Barnabas to temporarily isolate themselves from gentile Christians. (According to rabbinic purity laws, one would become religiously impure if one ate with Gentiles.) The major reason Paul wrote the Letter to the Galatians was to combat Judaizers who had apparently invaded the Christian communities in Galatia after his departure. These Judaizers appear to have successfully persuaded some of the Galatian Christians that salvation was available only for those who were circumcised and who kept the Mosaic law (5:12; 6:13). At least some of the problems experienced by the Corinthian church appear to have been caused by Judaizers (2 Cor 11:12–15, 22), and they had infected the Christian community at Philippi (Phil 3:2-3). Judaizers also appear to have made some progress in the church at Colosse. Therefore, according to Colossians 2:16-17, “Let no one pass judgment on you in questions of food and drink or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a sabbath. These are only a shadow of what is to come; but the substance belongs to Christ” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Of all the early apostles and elders, Paul was the one who most consistently opposed the Judaizers’ view that Gentiles must first become Jews in order to be Christians. His dramatic conversion to Christianity, narrated three times in Acts (9:1-9; 22:6-16; 26:12-23) and occasionally referred to by Paul himself (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:11-17), convinced him that salvation could be achieved only through faith in Christ. Since Jesus was the <em>only<\/em> way, all other means by which persons sought to obtain salvation were necessarily invalid and illegitimate. Paul was fully aware that it was not because of the fact that he was an observant Jew that he had become justified before God (Phil 3:2-11) but through his faith in Christ. Primarily because of the persistent activity of the Judaizers, Paul had to insist frequently on the invalidity of the law and the validity of faith as the means of being justified before God. This theme dominates his letters to the Romans and the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>Jewish Christianity gradually withered and disappeared, and with it went the insistence of the Judaizers that Gentiles live according to Jewish customs and traditions in order to receive salvation. The center of Jewish Christianity had traditionally been Jerusalem. Just before the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple at the end of the Jewish revolt of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, many Jewish Christians fled to Pella in obedience to a divine revelation. The ill-fated revolt of Bar-Kochba (<span>AD<\/span> 132–135) further weakened the movement, when Jewish Christians experienced persecution at the hands of the Jewish insurgents. Thereafter Jewish Christianity grew weaker and eventually disappeared. With its disappearance the persistent notion that Gentiles must first become Jews in order to be Christians also died.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; First Jewish Revolt; Galatians, Letter to the; Jerusalem Council; Jew; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDAIZERS* Christian Jews who, during the apostolic and early postapostolic periods, attempted to impose the Jewish way of life on gentile Christians. The Greek verb, which literally means “to Judaize,” is found only one time in the NT (Gal 2:14), where it actually means “to live according to Jewish customs and traditions.” In that passage Paul quotes part of a brief conversation he had with Peter several years earlier: “If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can yo...","summary_en":"JUDAIZERS* Christian Jews who, during the apostolic and early postapostolic periods, attempted to impose the Jewish way of life on gentile Christians. The Greek verb, which literally means “to Judaize,” is found only one time in the NT (Gal 2:14), where it actually means “to live according to Jewish customs and traditions.” In that passage Paul quotes part of a brief conversation he had with Peter several years earlier: “If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can yo...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57915,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11–2:21<\/strong> The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11–2:21<\/strong> The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11–2:21 The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.","summary_en":"1:11–2:21 The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57916,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>the gospel message I preach:<\/em> Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>the gospel message I preach:<\/em> Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11 the gospel message I preach: Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).","summary_en":"1:11 the gospel message I preach: Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85541,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11–2:21<\/strong> The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11–2:21<\/strong> The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11–2:21 The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.","summary_en":"1:11–2:21 The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85542,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>the gospel message I preach:<\/em> Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>the gospel message I preach:<\/em> Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11 the gospel message I preach: Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).","summary_en":"1:11 the gospel message I preach: Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113167,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11–2:21<\/strong> The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11–2:21<\/strong> The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11–2:21 The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.","summary_en":"1:11–2:21 The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113168,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>the gospel message I preach:<\/em> Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>the gospel message I preach:<\/em> Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11 the gospel message I preach: Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).","summary_en":"1:11 the gospel message I preach: Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140793,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11–2:21<\/strong> The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11–2:21<\/strong> The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11–2:21 The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.","summary_en":"1:11–2:21 The Judaizers who had come to Galatia preaching faith plus circumcision questioned Paul’s apostleship and attempted to discredit his message. Paul defended his apostolic authority, demonstrating from past events that his message was the true Good News.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140794,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>the gospel message I preach:<\/em> Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>the gospel message I preach:<\/em> Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11 the gospel message I preach: Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).","summary_en":"1:11 the gospel message I preach: Paul’s message was that people are made right with God by grace through faith, not by obeying the law (see 2:16-17; Rom 10:9-13; Eph 2:8-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":2399,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Apostleship Apostle","title_en":"Apostleship Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP<\/h3>\n<p>Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and conceptual backgrounds.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word for “apostle” is not used outside the NT in the same sense as it is in the NT. It is derived from the verb “to send” and is at home in the language of the sea meaning a particular “ship” or “group of ships,” a “marine expedition” or “the leader” of such. Its usage is almost always impersonal and thoroughly passive. There is no hint of personal initiative or authorization, merely the connotation of something being sent. Later papyri use the word to mean “bill” or “invoice” or even a “passport,” continuing to reflect the vocabulary of maritime affairs.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, the word was used to designate those who had been sent by Jesus with the proclamation of the gospel. From among the wider group of those who followed him, Jesus selected 12 men (Mt 10:1-4; Mk 3:13-19; Lk 6:12-16) who maintained with him a particularly close relationship, receiving private instruction and witnessing his miracles and controversy with the Jewish authorities. On one occasion, Jesus sent these men out to preach the message of repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick; that is, to minister in ways that were characteristic of his own work (Mt 10:1-15; Mk 6:7-13, 30; Lk 9:1-6). The same relationship is expressed in the saying “He who hears you hears me, and he who rejects you rejects me, and he who rejects me rejects him who sent me” (Lk 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 10:40). It is clear that the Twelve are not merely to pass Jesus’ teaching on but to represent his very person. After the resurrection, Jesus commissioned the Twelve (Mt 28; Lk 24; Jn 20–21) to proclaim God’s act in Christ on behalf of all men. Only those who had been with Jesus from the beginning of his ministry to his resurrection were qualified to be his apostolic witnesses (Acts 1:21-22). Paul qualified because he had seen the risen Christ (1 Cor 15:4-10).<\/p>\n<p>The Pauline writings demonstrate two characteristic usages of the word “apostle.” On occasion, it refers to persons authorized by local congregations and entrusted with the safe delivery of specific gifts for other members of the Christian community (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). More important are those passages where “apostle” takes on a more technical sense through the qualifying phrase “of Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 11:13; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 2:6). The “sent one” is the “sent one of Jesus Christ” (Rom 16:7; 1 Cor 9:1, 5; 12:28; Gal 1:17-19). In the statements where Paul claims his own right to this title, he argues along lines assuming the same basic apostolic concept that Jesus had. He consistently links this claim to a specific event in the past in which the risen Lord had appeared to him (1 Cor 9:1; Gal 1:12, 16). This appearance he ranked alongside those of the resurrection appearances (1 Cor 15:3-8). Paul understood his experience outside Damascus (cf. Acts 9:1-19a; 22:6-16; 26:12-18; Gal 1:17) as a lifelong commission to preach the now-resurrected One (1 Cor 1:17; 2:1-2) chiefly among the Gentiles (Acts 9:15; 22:15; 26:17, 23; Gal 1:15-16). It was through his preaching ministry that Christ continued to work, creating the new people of God (1 Cor 9:1-2; Gal 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP<\/h3>\n<p>Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and conceptual backgrounds.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word for “apostle” is not used outside the NT in the same sense as it is in the NT. It is derived from the verb “to send” and is at home in the language of the sea meaning a particular “ship” or “group of ships,” a “marine expedition” or “the leader” of such. Its usage is almost always impersonal and thoroughly passive. There is no hint of personal initiative or authorization, merely the connotation of something being sent. Later papyri use the word to mean “bill” or “invoice” or even a “passport,” continuing to reflect the vocabulary of maritime affairs.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, the word was used to designate those who had been sent by Jesus with the proclamation of the gospel. From among the wider group of those who followed him, Jesus selected 12 men (Mt 10:1-4; Mk 3:13-19; Lk 6:12-16) who maintained with him a particularly close relationship, receiving private instruction and witnessing his miracles and controversy with the Jewish authorities. On one occasion, Jesus sent these men out to preach the message of repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick; that is, to minister in ways that were characteristic of his own work (Mt 10:1-15; Mk 6:7-13, 30; Lk 9:1-6). The same relationship is expressed in the saying “He who hears you hears me, and he who rejects you rejects me, and he who rejects me rejects him who sent me” (Lk 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 10:40). It is clear that the Twelve are not merely to pass Jesus’ teaching on but to represent his very person. After the resurrection, Jesus commissioned the Twelve (Mt 28; Lk 24; Jn 20–21) to proclaim God’s act in Christ on behalf of all men. Only those who had been with Jesus from the beginning of his ministry to his resurrection were qualified to be his apostolic witnesses (Acts 1:21-22). Paul qualified because he had seen the risen Christ (1 Cor 15:4-10).<\/p>\n<p>The Pauline writings demonstrate two characteristic usages of the word “apostle.” On occasion, it refers to persons authorized by local congregations and entrusted with the safe delivery of specific gifts for other members of the Christian community (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). More important are those passages where “apostle” takes on a more technical sense through the qualifying phrase “of Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 11:13; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 2:6). The “sent one” is the “sent one of Jesus Christ” (Rom 16:7; 1 Cor 9:1, 5; 12:28; Gal 1:17-19). In the statements where Paul claims his own right to this title, he argues along lines assuming the same basic apostolic concept that Jesus had. He consistently links this claim to a specific event in the past in which the risen Lord had appeared to him (1 Cor 9:1; Gal 1:12, 16). This appearance he ranked alongside those of the resurrection appearances (1 Cor 15:3-8). Paul understood his experience outside Damascus (cf. Acts 9:1-19a; 22:6-16; 26:12-18; Gal 1:17) as a lifelong commission to preach the now-resurrected One (1 Cor 1:17; 2:1-2) chiefly among the Gentiles (Acts 9:15; 22:15; 26:17, 23; Gal 1:15-16). It was through his preaching ministry that Christ continued to work, creating the new people of God (1 Cor 9:1-2; Gal 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and con...","summary_en":"APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and con...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6505,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","title_en":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","content_ro":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","summary_en":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9658,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Disciple","title_en":"Disciple","content_ro":"<h3>DISCIPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Someone who follows another person or another way of life and who submits himself to the discipline (teaching) of that leader or way. In the Bible the term “disciple” is found almost exclusively in the Gospels and the book of Acts, the only exceptions being Isaiah 8:16 and less directly Isaiah 50:4 and 54:13, where the same Hebrew word is translated “learned” and “taught,” respectively. Yet clearly wherever there is a teacher and those taught, the idea of discipleship is present.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospels the immediate followers of Jesus, called by his authority from a wide variety of circumstances, not only the Twelve but all those who were sympathetic to his teaching and committed to him, are called “disciples.” The calling of these disciples took place at a time when other teachers had their disciples, most notably the Pharisees (Mk 2:18; Lk 5:33) and John the Baptist (Mt 9:14). It is evident from the practice of John the Baptist that different leaders called for different disciplines from their followers. John’s way was considerably more ascetic in character than that of Jesus; however, it too involved not only teaching regarding conduct and manner of life, but also a distinctive pattern of praying (Lk 11:1).<\/p>\n<p>The disciples of Jesus had a unique experience. Not only did they benefit from the immediate teaching of Jesus, his looks and tones of voice (Mk 10:21) as well as his words, but they were also witnesses of the unfolding drama of redemption that had Christ as its center. They followed a teacher who embodied the substance of that teaching. The first disciples could be taught by Christ only little by little, not only because of the need to remove their misconceptions (Mt 16:21), but also because the full significance of what Jesus said and did could not be most fully appreciated until after the events of his death and resurrection (Mt 28:9). It is not surprising that the period of “discipling” covered the time before and after Christ’s death and resurrection, and also after Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit taught the disciples about matters that they could not “bear” while Jesus remained on earth (Jn 16:12).<\/p>\n<p>Groups of Jesus’ first disciples, both the Twelve and the Seventy (Mt 26:20: Lk 10:1), received his teaching, taught others in turn (Lk 10:1-11), and were given power to heal (Mt 10:1). They were also to proclaim the message of salvation through Christ. Yet the Twelve were given special prominence, and with the exception of Judas Iscariot (whose place was taken by Matthias, Acts 1:26), they became the foundation teachers of the newly emerging Christian church. Their authority in the church, given by Christ (Mt 16:19; 28:16-20), was to be characterized by a unique style of self-giving service (Lk 22:24-30). To this group of disciples, who came to be known as the apostles (though this term is occasionally given to a wider application), Saul of Tarsus was added. At his conversion on the road to Damascus, he saw the risen Lord and was immediately commissioned by Christ (Gal 1:12, 16) as the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 9:15).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of his ascension Christ commissioned the first disciples to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19); hence, the term “disciple” is also used in the book of Acts to describe believers, those who confess Christ. Though they have not been directly called by Christ himself, such disciples are called by Christ’s Spirit through the message delivered by the first disciples; disciples called later are not in any sense inferior to the first disciples, even though they are less privileged. It was proper for early Christians to be called disciples of Jesus of Nazareth or simply “the disciples” (Acts 6:1-2, 7; 9:36; 11:26) because they were carrying on the teaching of Jesus and living the life he had exemplified. They were thus recognized as a “school” or living community that embodied the teaching of their “master” in practice. The book of 1 John emphasizes that only those who keep Christ’s commandments show real love for God (1 Jn 2:3-6; 3:10-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DISCIPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Someone who follows another person or another way of life and who submits himself to the discipline (teaching) of that leader or way. In the Bible the term “disciple” is found almost exclusively in the Gospels and the book of Acts, the only exceptions being Isaiah 8:16 and less directly Isaiah 50:4 and 54:13, where the same Hebrew word is translated “learned” and “taught,” respectively. Yet clearly wherever there is a teacher and those taught, the idea of discipleship is present.<\/p>\n<p>In the Gospels the immediate followers of Jesus, called by his authority from a wide variety of circumstances, not only the Twelve but all those who were sympathetic to his teaching and committed to him, are called “disciples.” The calling of these disciples took place at a time when other teachers had their disciples, most notably the Pharisees (Mk 2:18; Lk 5:33) and John the Baptist (Mt 9:14). It is evident from the practice of John the Baptist that different leaders called for different disciplines from their followers. John’s way was considerably more ascetic in character than that of Jesus; however, it too involved not only teaching regarding conduct and manner of life, but also a distinctive pattern of praying (Lk 11:1).<\/p>\n<p>The disciples of Jesus had a unique experience. Not only did they benefit from the immediate teaching of Jesus, his looks and tones of voice (Mk 10:21) as well as his words, but they were also witnesses of the unfolding drama of redemption that had Christ as its center. They followed a teacher who embodied the substance of that teaching. The first disciples could be taught by Christ only little by little, not only because of the need to remove their misconceptions (Mt 16:21), but also because the full significance of what Jesus said and did could not be most fully appreciated until after the events of his death and resurrection (Mt 28:9). It is not surprising that the period of “discipling” covered the time before and after Christ’s death and resurrection, and also after Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit taught the disciples about matters that they could not “bear” while Jesus remained on earth (Jn 16:12).<\/p>\n<p>Groups of Jesus’ first disciples, both the Twelve and the Seventy (Mt 26:20: Lk 10:1), received his teaching, taught others in turn (Lk 10:1-11), and were given power to heal (Mt 10:1). They were also to proclaim the message of salvation through Christ. Yet the Twelve were given special prominence, and with the exception of Judas Iscariot (whose place was taken by Matthias, Acts 1:26), they became the foundation teachers of the newly emerging Christian church. Their authority in the church, given by Christ (Mt 16:19; 28:16-20), was to be characterized by a unique style of self-giving service (Lk 22:24-30). To this group of disciples, who came to be known as the apostles (though this term is occasionally given to a wider application), Saul of Tarsus was added. At his conversion on the road to Damascus, he saw the risen Lord and was immediately commissioned by Christ (Gal 1:12, 16) as the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 9:15).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of his ascension Christ commissioned the first disciples to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19); hence, the term “disciple” is also used in the book of Acts to describe believers, those who confess Christ. Though they have not been directly called by Christ himself, such disciples are called by Christ’s Spirit through the message delivered by the first disciples; disciples called later are not in any sense inferior to the first disciples, even though they are less privileged. It was proper for early Christians to be called disciples of Jesus of Nazareth or simply “the disciples” (Acts 6:1-2, 7; 9:36; 11:26) because they were carrying on the teaching of Jesus and living the life he had exemplified. They were thus recognized as a “school” or living community that embodied the teaching of their “master” in practice. The book of 1 John emphasizes that only those who keep Christ’s commandments show real love for God (1 Jn 2:3-6; 3:10-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"DISCIPLE Someone who follows another person or another way of life and who submits himself to the discipline (teaching) of that leader or way. In the Bible the term “disciple” is found almost exclusively in the Gospels and the book of Acts, the only exceptions being Isaiah 8:16 and less directly Isaiah 50:4 and 54:13, where the same Hebrew word is translated “learned” and “taught,” respectively. Yet clearly wherever there is a teacher and those taught, the idea of discipleship is present. In ...","summary_en":"DISCIPLE Someone who follows another person or another way of life and who submits himself to the discipline (teaching) of that leader or way. In the Bible the term “disciple” is found almost exclusively in the Gospels and the book of Acts, the only exceptions being Isaiah 8:16 and less directly Isaiah 50:4 and 54:13, where the same Hebrew word is translated “learned” and “taught,” respectively. Yet clearly wherever there is a teacher and those taught, the idea of discipleship is present. In ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13089,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Galatians","title_en":"Letter to the Galatians","content_ro":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","summary_en":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15889,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Hebrews","title_en":"Letter to the Hebrews","content_ro":"<h3>HEBREWS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most profound and enigmatic books in the NT. The identity of its author, the time of its writing, and the people and place to which it was sent are all shrouded in mystery. Yet, in spite of the uncertainty, Hebrews remains one of the most timely and relevant books in the Bible. Some 300 years ago John Owen, the English Puritan, appropriately remarked: “No doubt the Epistle next in importance to Romans is this to the Hebrews.” The letter is both doctrinal and practical, theological and pastoral. In short, it builds a compelling case for the superiority of Christianity. Hebrews also reflects the impassioned concern of a pastor’s heart. Those who have experienced God’s ultimate work of grace in Christ are urged to hold fast to God’s final word of revelation in his Son.<\/p>\n<p>Unlike most other NT epistles, Hebrews does not begin like a letter. There is no introductory salutation, the writer is not identified, and no mention is made of those to whom the document is addressed. The author characterizes the work as a “word of exhortation” (13:22, <span>rsv<\/span>), which suggests a sermon or oral homily (cf. Acts 13:15). Nonetheless, its conclusion is that of a conventional letter (Heb 13:22-25). Some have detected a gradual transition in the document from an essay to a more specifically epistolary form (cf. 2:1; 4:1; 13:22-25). The evidence thus suggests that the author may have cast the original homiletic “word of exhortation” into letter form when the need to communicate in writing with his Christian friends became urgent.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Who wrote the book is not directly stated in the letter. Since the late second century, various authorities have linked the document with the apostle Paul. Clement of Alexandria (d. 220) theorized that Paul wrote the letter in Hebrew for Jews and that Luke translated it into Greek. However, this suggestion has not been widely received by modern scholars. Clement’s pupil Origen (d. 254) stated more generally that the thoughts of the letter are Pauline but that the style is unlike that of the known writings of the apostle. Other early authorities, such as Jerome (d. 419) and Augustine (d. 430), persuaded that canonicity demanded apostolic authorship, likewise affirmed that Paul was the author.<\/p>\n<p>Yet a number of factors argue against the Pauline authorship of Hebrews. The anonymity of the letter is contrary to the consistent pattern of Paul’s introduction in the opening salutation of his letters. Moreover, Hebrews 2:3 indicates the writer was discipled by eyewitnesses of the Lord. Yet Paul insists that his knowledge of Christ was gained from a firsthand encounter with the risen Christ (cf. Gal 1:12). F. F. Bruce evaluates the authorship of Hebrews as follows: “We may say with certainty that the thought of the epistle is not Paul’s, the language is not Paul’s, and the technique of OT quotations is not Paul’s.”<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian tradition suggests that Barnabas may have written Hebrews. According to Tertullian (d. 220), many early authorities believed that Barnabas was responsible for the letter. Acts 4:36 (<span>asv<\/span>) speaks of him as a “son of exhortation” (cf. Heb 13:22). Furthermore, as a Levite, Barnabas would have been familiar with the Jewish sacrificial ritual so prominent in the letter.<\/p>\n<p>Luther was the first to suggest that Hebrews may have been penned by Apollos, “an excellent man of learning, who had been a disciple of the apostles and learned much from them, and who was very well versed in Scripture.” As a native of Alexandria (Acts 18:24), Apollos would have been familiar with the typological interpretation evident in Hebrews. Clearly Apollos was the sort of man who was qualified to write Hebrews.<\/p>\n<p>Other names have been suggested as possible authors. Calvin surmised that either Luke or Clement of Rome was responsible for the letter. It is noted that the Greek of Hebrews resembles the language and style of the third Gospel and Acts. Others theorize that Hebrews may have been written by Silas, a Jewish Christian from Jerusalem who would have been thoroughly familiar with the Levitical ritual. Silas is described as one of “the church leaders” (Acts 15:22). He was a coworker with Paul in the gentile mission, and apparently was known in Rome as well as in Jerusalem (1 Pt 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>In conclusion, it is probable that the author of Hebrews was a second-generation Jewish Christian, a master of classical Greek whose Bible was the Septuagint, conversant with first-century Alexandrian philosophy, and a creative apologist for the Christian faith. As to the identity of that author, we can affirm no more than Origen in the third century: “But as to who actually wrote the Letter, God alone knows.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The very early title of the letter, “To Hebrews,” suggests that the book concerns Jewish Christians living in the Dispersion. The letter itself offers a few hints of the historical circumstances surrounding its composition. Not long after becoming Christians, the readers of the letter were exposed to severe persecution (Heb 10:32-36). During their trial, the new believers endured imprisonment, confiscation of personal property, and public ridicule. Yet the persecution had not been fatal; they had not yet been called upon to lay down their lives in martyrdom (12:4). Amid the excitement of their newfound faith in Christ, they had demonstrated practical concern and love by ministering to fellow believers in need (6:10) and comforting others who had been harassed for their faith (10:34).<\/p>\n<p>But since the time of those earlier trials, the readers had made little progress in Christian maturity (5:11-13). Moreover, in the face of a new wave of persecution, and despondent over an apparent delay in the Lord’s coming, the believers had begun to waver and abandon hope. Indeed, they threatened to renounce Jesus Christ and to revert back to the security of the Jewish religion that enjoyed the protection of Roman law.<\/p>\n<p>Thus we read that because of the strange, new teachings of certain Judaizers who sought to draw them back to their former religion (13:9), the wavering believers had neglected to assemble together (10:25) and had lost confidence in their spiritual leaders (13:17). Faced with the possibility that these Jewish Christians might abandon their faith altogether, the writer sternly warns them of the tragic consequences of renouncing the Son (6:4-6; 10:26-31; 13:12-19) and urges them to renew their commitment to Christ, God’s foremost and final revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Lacking firm information as to the author and recipients of the letter, no certainty exists as to the date of the writing. We have noted that the author of Hebrews, and probably his readers as well, had been discipled by those who were personally acquainted with Jesus (2:3). Further evidence in the letter suggests that Paul probably was not alive. Timothy, Paul’s younger associate, was still living (13:23).<\/p>\n<p>The absence of any mention in Hebrews of the destruction of the Jerusalem temple is significant for dating the letter. In terms of his argument that the old covenant had passed away and the legal priesthood had been superseded, the writer would scarcely have omitted mention of the temple’s destruction had he written the letter later than <span>AD<\/span> 70. Hebrews 9:6-10 and 10:1-4, 11-14 plainly suggest that the Jewish sacrifices were still being offered. Hence, it may be supposed with some degree of certainty that the letter was written prior to <span>AD<\/span> 70. If it was written after Paul’s death, that would put it after <span>AD<\/span> 67, the traditional date of his execution. Thus, Hebrews may have been written in the period <span>AD<\/span> 67–70.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandDestination\">Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>The place from which Hebrews was written is also uncertain. Some manuscripts of the letter bear the subscription “written from Rome” or “written from Italy.” Such notations are educated deductions drawn from the statement “The Christians from Italy send you their greetings” (13:24). Most probably this indicates that the writer is extending greetings to a church in Italy on behalf of Italian Christians associated with him in another land, possibly Asia. Nevertheless, we cannot locate the point of origin with any certainty.<\/p>\n<p>It has been suggested that the letter was written to a group of Jewish converts to Christianity. Yet the precise community to which it was sent is a matter of debate. Opinions vary from Judea to Spain. Tradition has it that Hebrews was directed to Jewish Christians living in Palestine. But against a Palestinian destination it may be argued: (1) the readers had had no personal contact with Jesus (2:3), an unlikely event for mid-first-century residents of Palestine; (2) the statement in 12:4 that his readers had not yet given their lives could hardly be said of Palestinian Christians of the period; (3) the generosity of the believers (10:34; 13:16) was inconsistent with the poverty of the Jerusalem church; and (4) the general tone of the letter is Hellenistic rather than rabbinical.<\/p>\n<p>Other proposals for the destination of Hebrews include (1) Caesarea, on the supposition of Lukan authorship; (2) Syrian Antioch or Cyprus, assuming Barnabas wrote the letter; (3) Ephesus, in the light of the conversion of many Jews during Paul’s ministry in that city; (4) Colosse, noting certain similarities between the Colossian heresy and the false beliefs of the “Hebrews”; and (5) Alexandria, because of the apparent influence of the philosopher Philo Judaeus in the letter.<\/p>\n<p>The thesis that Hebrews was directed to a group of Jewish Christians in Rome has found favor with a number of scholars. Arguments in support of a Roman destination include the following facts: (1) The letter was first known in Rome no later than <span>AD<\/span> 96. (2) Romans 11:13, 18 suggests that the church at Rome consisted of a Jewish-Christian minority. (3) References to persecution and suffering endured by the readers (Heb 10:32-33; 12:4) are consistent with known repressive measures exacted by the Roman authorities. (4) There is a good possibility that saints who “come from Italy” would convey greetings to their brethren in Rome. (5) The Jewish community in Rome preserved certain features of nonconformist or sectarian Judaism that would explain several notable similarities between the theology and praxis of the Qumran community and that expressed in Hebrews.<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that the letter was addressed to a small subgroup within a local church. The exhortation in 5:12 (<span>rsv<\/span>)—“by this time you ought to be teachers”—hardly would have been relevant to an entire congregation. Hebrews 13:7, 24 lends further support to the theory that the letter was sent to a small group, perhaps to a “house church” within a larger assembly.<\/p>\n<p>Tentatively, one might conclude that the addressees were converts from Judaism who dwelt in the Dispersion. Hence they were familiar with OT Judaism and were acquainted with the religious philosophy of the Greek world. Possibly the readers comprised a house fellowship that tended to disassociate itself from the parent group (10:25). The existence of such house churches in Rome is confirmed by Romans 16:5, 14-15.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In response to the threat that his Jewish-Christian friends might renounce Christianity and revert to Judaism, the writer by a “word of exhortation” (13:22) communicated to them the finality of the Christian revelation. He sought also to inform his despondent, vacillating readers that Christ, the object of God’s final revelation, is vastly superior to the greatest of Judaism’s heroes. The author, in addition, affirmed the heavenly and eternal character of the salvation secured by Christ. Whereas the legal sacrificial system was powerless to effect the remission of sin, Christ the eternal High Priest “is able, once and forever, to save everyone who comes to God through him” (7:25, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In short, the writer commended to his readers the need for patient endurance amid the persecution and sufferings to which the heirs of eternal salvation are inevitably exposed. Just as Jesus, the forerunner of our faith, suffered and patiently endured in anticipation of eternal reward, so ought harassed, oppressed believers “take a new grip with your tired hands and stand firm on your shaky legs” (12:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) in anticipation of their reception in that eternal “kingdom that cannot be destroyed” (12:28, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The author’s final purpose for writing was to proclaim the fearful judgment that awaits those who repudiate Jesus Christ. Since “our God is a consuming fire” (12:29, <span>nlt<\/span>), “what makes us think that we can escape if we are indifferent to this great salvation” (2:3, <span>nlt<\/span>)?<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>Next to Romans, Hebrews is the most doctrinal book in the NT. The writer develops a series of weighty arguments to demonstrate the superiority of the gospel of Christ to the religion of Judaism. Since Jesus is final both as to his person and his work, Christianity is the ultimate and normative faith. The book’s particularism runs counter to the spirit of the modern world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Son to Former Revelation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>The writer acknowledges that God revealed himself to the prophets of old in many ways—through dreams, visions, audible speech, and mighty acts. But “in these last days” (the advent of the end times, cf. 9:26) God spoke finally and definitively through his own Son (1:2). Central to the argument is the fact that in one way or another the prophets received an eternal word from God. Yet given the intimate relation of the Son to the Father, God’s latest revelation has come forth from the very depths of his own being.<\/p>\n<p>Identification of the Son as the pinnacle of divine revelation leads to a concise but profound statement of Christ’s person and his cosmic work. The Son reflects the glory of God in that the sum of the divine attributes brilliantly shine through his person. Moreover, he bears the very image and stamp of God’s nature (1:3), as the wax bears the impress of the seal. Jesus as God’s final word of revelation is truly the divine and eternal Son of God. Christ’s excellence is further displayed in the fact that he is the mighty agent through whom the universe was created (v 2) and by whom the cosmic order is sustained (v 3). In the moral realm he has wrought the purification of sins and now sits enthroned on God’s right hand (cf. 8:1). God’s pleasure toward the Son is seen in that he has appointed Christ heir and head of all (1:2). His name is surpassed by none save God the Father (v 4).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Son to Angels (1:5–2:18)<\/h5>\n<p>Angels enjoyed an exalted status in biblical and postbiblical Judaism. Traditionally the Jews believed that angels praised God upon his throne, mediated God’s revelation to men, attended to God’s will, and gave succor to the people of God. Angels were far superior to men in power and knowledge. According to the Jewish Apocrypha, angels ruled the stars and were responsible for the rise and fall of civilizations. In Qumran thought, angelic beings would engage in a final cosmic struggle with Belial and the forces of evil at the end of the age.<\/p>\n<p>Against this background the writer of Hebrews argues that the Son is vastly superior to the angels. To prove his point, the author assembles a string of well-known OT texts and applies them directly to the Son. God never said of any angel, “Today I have become your Father” (Ps 2:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Yet just such a claim was made on behalf of the Son (Heb 1:5). When the Son incarnated himself in the world, he received the obedient worship of angels (v 6). His is the sovereignty and the eternality and the majesty at God’s right hand (vv 8, 11-12). By contrast, angels are “only servants” (v 14) that rank below the Son in dignity and might.<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrews 2:1-4 the writer parenthetically warns his wavering congregation of the danger of drifting away from the truth of God. If disobedience to the law mediated by angels resulted in stern punishment, how much more severe would be God’s judgment on those who trampled under foot the revelation delivered by the Son? If God’s saving grace in Christ is neglected, retribution will surely follow (2:3).<\/p>\n<p>The mention of angels turns the writer’s mind to Jesus’ humiliation and exaltation (2:5-18). Psalm 8, a song about the smallness and yet the significance of man, is applied to the experience of Jesus. In assuming human flesh and blood, Jesus was made “for a little while . . . lower than the angels” (Heb 2:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). But subsequent to the completion of his earthly work, he was elevated above the angels and crowned with the glory and honor of heaven (v 9). The theological implications of Christ’s descent and ascent are carefully spelled out: Christ descended to earth (1) to bring many children to glory (v 10), (2) to destroy the devil (v 14), (3) to deliver his people from the bondage of death (v 15), and (4) to make an offering on the cross for the sins of the people (v 17). He ascended to heaven (1) to intercede on our behalf as a faithful High Priest (v 17), and (2) to succor those who are sorely tempted (v 18). The perfect summary of Christ’s person and work is given in Hebrews 2:9: “What we do see is Jesus, who ‘for a little while was made lower than the angels’ and now is ‘crowned with glory and honor’ because he suffered death for us. Yes, by God’s grace, Jesus tasted death for everyone in all the world” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Son to Moses and Joshua (3:1–4:13)<\/h5>\n<p>Jewish Christians contemplating reversion to Judaism surely believed that Moses was one of the greatest figures in Israel’s history. So esteemed was the one who led Israel out of Egypt through the wilderness and who gave them the Law that there was no one in Israel’s history so honored as Moses. Yet the author of Hebrews argues that Moses, though faithful to his calling, was but a servant in the house of God. Jesus, by contrast, was not a servant but a Son; he was not a mere dweller in the house but the very builder of the structure. Jesus, therefore, far transcends the revered figure of Moses.<\/p>\n<p>Practical implications are drawn from Jesus’ superiority to Moses. From Psalm 95:7-11 the writer rehearses the tragic experience of Israel under Moses during the desert wanderings (Heb 3:7-19). Throughout the 40-year wilderness experience the people hardened their hearts and rebelled against God. In turn God was provoked by their stubbornness and swore that those who sinned would never enter the rest he was going to provide (vv 10-11, 18). The writer thus argues that if disobedience to God under Moses had serious consequences, forsaking Christ will be much more perilous. Hence the wavering Christians are urged to watch lest due to an evil, unbelieving heart they should fall away from the living God (v 12). Nothing short of steadfast persistence will lead to the attainment of the heavenly goal (v 14).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua, likewise, was regarded as a great leader of Israel. Yet because of disobedience, the people under Joshua’s leadership failed to enter the rest that God had planned. That rest spoken of corresponds to the Sabbath rest of God (4:3-4), and is a concept closely related to salvation. It is a spiritual reality that is achieved by turning from our own empty works and trusting in the finished work of Christ (v 10). The author reminds the readers that “there is a special rest [a Sabbath rest] still waiting for the people of God” (v 9, <span>nlt<\/span>), one that only Christ can provide. Christians not only benefit from this Sabbath rest in the present age but anticipate its full realization in the age to come. One of the chief means of ensuring entry into the Sabbath rest of salvation is the Word of God (v 12). The living and powerful Word penetrates the innermost depths of the soul, reveals our impoverished condition, and strengthens the trusting heart.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Priesthood of the Son (4:14–7:28)<\/h5>\n<p>Almost half of Hebrews is devoted to the priesthood of Jesus Christ. The writer goes to great lengths to demonstrate that the revered Aaronic priestly system has been superseded by the High Priest “in the line of Melchizedek” (5:6; 6:20; 7:11). This central theme had been anticipated earlier when Christ was referred to as “our merciful and faithful High Priest before God” who has made atonement for sins (2:17, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Hebrews makes the claim that Jesus’ priesthood is the ultimate ground of the believers’ confidence (4:14-16). On three counts Jesus surpasses the old legal priestly order. First, he is an <em>exalted<\/em> high priest (v 14). The Jewish high priest climbed the mount to enter the temple sanctuary. But Jesus, our great high priest, has ascended to heaven itself and entered the sanctuary on high. He ministers in no earthly tabernacle but in the very presence of God. Second, Jesus is an <em>empathetic<\/em> high priest (v 15a). Fully God and fully man, Jesus suffers along with his people in their trials and afflictions. From heaven’s perspective he knows fully what his people are called upon to endure. He “feels” our hurts, and he does so perfectly. Finally, Jesus is a <em>sinless<\/em> high priest (v 15b). Day in and day out (7:27), year in and year out, the Levitical priests were required to bring sacrifices for their own sins. Yet Jesus had no sin that needed cleansing, for “he is holy and blameless, unstained by sin” (v 26, <span>nlt<\/span>). In view of Jesus’ priestly perfections, sorely tempted Christians are urged to come to the throne of grace to receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need (4:16).<\/p>\n<p>For those not convinced that Jesus was indeed a legitimate priest, two prerequisites for priesthood are detailed. First, if the high priest is to represent humanity before God, he must be taken from among men (5:1-2). And second, he must be called by God to high priestly office, as was Aaron (v 4). Christ has fully satisfied these qualifications. From Psalms 2:7 and 110:4 it is shown that Jesus did not take this office upon himself but was appointed by God (Heb 5:5-6). Moreover, from the obedience that he had to learn (v 8) and from the agony of the Gethsemane experience (v 7) it is clear that Jesus was in every way a man. Nevertheless, Hebrews makes it perfectly clear that Jesus was not a priest after the order of Aaron but a high priest in the line of Melchizedek (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>After introducing the theme of Christ as a Melchizedekian high priest, the writer recalls that his readers were not ready for such advanced teaching. Although not new converts (5:12), his friends had remained spiritually immature and sluggish. Hence the writer issues the challenge to press on to Christian maturity, to be ready for the solid food of advanced teaching.<\/p>\n<p>In his digression the writer warns not only against spiritual immaturity but also against “apostasy.” The question now arises whether the author’s apostasy teaching in Hebrews 6:4-8 and 10:26-31 contradicts the NT doctrine of the perseverance of the saints. Undoubtedly it does not. Some authorities hold that those addressed were not true Christians, hence the issue is not one of apostasy. It is possible, like Judas Iscariot or Simon Magus (Acts 8:9-24), to possess considerable knowledge of the gospel and fall short of personal commitment. But the writer makes it quite clear that in the case of his addressees he is persuaded otherwise (Heb 6:9). The most reasonable view is that in these two hortatory passages the writer advances a hypothetical argument warning his friends of the utter seriousness of reverting back to Judaism. That is, if a falling away were to occur, renewal would be impossible unless Christ were to die a second time. The writer sums up the point of these difficult passages with the words “It is a terrible thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (10:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Nevertheless, followers of Christ may confidently lay hold of God’s promises, confirmed by solemn oath, to see them through their trials (6:13-18). God may be trusted to hold the believer fast.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrews 7 contains an intricate argument for the superiority of Christ’s priesthood over the old legal order. Melchizedek, the ancient priest-king of Salem (Gn 14:18-20), is regarded as a primordial type of Christ. He is “king of righteousness” and “king of peace” (Heb 7:2). The solemn priest from Salem has figuratively what Christ possesses actually: neither mother nor father, neither beginning nor end of life (v 3). Melchizedek is shown to be superior to Abraham on three counts: (1) Melchizedek blessed the patriarch (vv 1, 7); (2) he accepted tithes from Abraham (vv 2-6); and (3) Melchizedek lives on since the OT nowhere mentions his death (v 8). It follows that since Levi was in the loins of Abraham as seed (v 10), Melchizedek is superior to the Levitical priests. And inasmuch as Christ is a priest in the likeness of Melchizedek (v 15), it follows that the Son of God is more excellent than the old legal priesthood.<\/p>\n<p>The result is that the old Levitical priesthood has been superseded by the priesthood of Christ. The demise of the old order was inevitable, for its repetitive animal sacrifices could never effect spiritual perfection (7:11). It was a system characterized by weakness and uselessness (v 18). By contrast, Christ’s priesthood is indestructible, eternal, uninterrupted, efficacious, final, and perfect (vv 16, 21, 24-27). Forgiveness and reconciliation is possible only through Christ, our great High Priest.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Priestly Work of the Son (8:1–10:39)<\/h5>\n<p>Since Christ’s priestly office far excels the old order, it follows that his priestly ministration is superior to all that has gone before. The theme of Christ as high priest in a better sanctuary is introduced (8:1-5). The writer utilizes Plato’s distinction between the ideal form in heaven and the imperfect copy on earth to argue that the Levitical sanctuary and sacrifices are mere shadows of the heavenly realities: (1) Christ ministers in the true tent that is the heavenly sanctuary (vv 2, 5); (2) he discharges his high priestly service in the very presence of the Father, which results in a far more effective ministry (vv 1, 6); and (3) his oblation on the cross was the ultimate sacrifice (v 3). How unreasonable it is that his Christian readers should go back to the old Jewish priestly system!<\/p>\n<p>Christ is the minister of a new and better covenant (8:6-13). The old covenant established by God with the nation’s fathers was not to be despised; nevertheless, it had become ineffectual and obsolete (v 13). Indeed, the prophet Jeremiah (Jer 31:31-34) foresaw the new covenant that God would inaugurate with his people. This new covenant sealed by Christ involves (1) the immediate work of the Holy Spirit on the mind and heart (Heb 8:10); (2) a personal and intimate knowledge of God (v 11); and (3) the full absolution of sins (v 12). This new and better covenant has been established on the work of Christ, the great High Priest.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 9 gives a detailed comparison of the efficacy of priestly service under the old and new covenants. The Levitical priests ministered in a material sanctuary on earth (vv 1-5). Features of the tabernacle and its furnishings are described to highlight their obsolescence. More important, however, is the character of the sacrificial ritual conducted in the earthly sanctuary. The Jewish priests in their daily service were not permitted to enter the Holy of Holies, which contained the ark of the covenant and the mercy seat—the place of propitiation of sins (v 6). The high priest alone could enter the Holy of Holies, and then but once a year on the Day of Atonement, and only after sacrificing for his own sins (v 7). The inaccessibility of the Holy of Holies signified that access to the presence of God had not been opened. The presence of the curtain symbolized that the people had no way to the throne of God, the priests had no way, and the high priest had a limited way and only once a year. Moreover, the sacrifices brought by the Jewish priests could not purify the conscience but merely dealt with external ritual cleansing (vv 9-10). A truly effectual sacrifice must await “the time of reformation” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s priestly ministration is shown to be far more efficacious. First, the Christian’s High Priest has brought a better sacrifice (9:11-14), and here we arrive at the heart of the message of Hebrews. Employing the imagery of the tabernacle, the author demonstrates that Christ our High Priest has accomplished what the Jewish priests failed to do. He entered the heavenly Holy of Holies, not repeatedly, but <em>once<\/em> for all, thereby effecting a completed redemption (v 12). Christ brought to the altar, not the blood of bulls and goats, but his own life’s blood. The Lord did not merely lay down a material body, but he presented himself to God through the eternal Spirit (v 14). Christ’s better sacrifice thus goes beyond cleansing of the flesh to the purification of the defiled conscience.<\/p>\n<p>Second, Christ through his death has instituted a better covenant (9:15-23). The teaching of Hebrews 8:6-13 is developed further. The old covenant was sealed with the blood of calves and goats (9:19). But the new covenant was ratified with the blood of Christ, God’s own Son. The new covenant thus could accomplish what the old covenant merely foreshadowed—forgiveness and cleansing of sins (v 22).<\/p>\n<p>Third, Christ ministers in a better tabernacle (9:24-28). Our Lord entered, not into a merely earthly sanctuary, but into the holy place of heaven, there to represent us (v 24). Access to the throne is not limited to one day per year, for he is continually in the presence of the Father. Nor is it necessary that repeated sacrifices be made. Christ’s single sacrifice on the cross has conquered sin once and for all (v 26). In sum, as regards the sanctuary, the covenant, and the sacrifices, the Christian’s High Priest is vastly superior to the old Jewish order.<\/p>\n<p>In order to drive home these crucial points, the writer in chapter 10 expands on the theme of the absolute finality of Christ’s high priestly work. The earlier argument concerning the futile character of the Levitical sacrifices (9:6-14) is repeated for emphasis (10:1-4). The Mosaic ceremonial legislation called for repetitive sacrifices, which could never perfect the worshiper (v 1). Instead of purifying one’s life, they served only as a yearly reminder of sin (v 3) until Christ should come.<\/p>\n<p>The writer discovers in Psalm 40:6-8 a prediction that the eternal Christ would become man for the purpose of offering himself as the ultimate sacrifice for sin (Heb 10:5-10). Once again the sanctifying power of Christ’s single self-oblation is emphasized (v 10). The vivid contrast is again drawn between the ineffective ministry of the Jewish priests who stand during the daily ritual (v 11), and the effectual single sacrifice of Christ, who is now seated at the right hand of God (v 12). Since Jesus “by that one offering . . . perfected forever all those whom he is making holy” (v 14, <span>nlt<\/span>), nothing can be added to what the seated Sovereign has accomplished (v 18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the manifest superiority of Christ’s priestly office and work, the struggling Christians are exhorted to appropriate the means of grace at their disposal (10:19-39). In the midst of trials and persecution they should remember that Christ has effectively opened the way to God (vv 19-20). They are summoned to come to God in faith with hearts cleansed by Christ’s sacrifice (v 22). Those tempted to revert to legal religion should hold fast and support one another in love (vv 23-24). The means of grace afforded by corporate worship should not be neglected (v 25). In short, the wavering Jewish Christians are summoned to renewed endurance and fidelity to their Lord (vv 26-31). What God has promised to his people he will surely make good.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Life of Faith (11:1–12:29)<\/h5>\n<p>The discussion of faith and endurance as the solution to despondency (10:36-38) prompts a fuller consideration of the faith theme. Faith is a prominent concept in the book of Hebrews, as attested by the fact that the word occurs some 35 times in the letter. The Pauline idea of faith as the means of legal justification is adapted to the particular circumstances of the threatened Jewish Christians. The concept of faith is broader in this book than the strictly saving faith discussed by Paul, in that it leads to spiritual salvation (11:39-40). Faith is the power by which heaven’s unseen realities are laid hold of to satisfy the soul. Faith enables the Christian disciple to view the world and interpret the flow of history from the divine perspective. Faith is the means of victory over the world of sin and woe. Through faith the believer approaches the throne of grace (4:16) with the confidence and assurance that God will enable him to overcome.<\/p>\n<p>The victory faith affords is amply illustrated from the history of God’s OT people. Abel, Enoch, and Noah in the primal history; Abraham, the father of faith; Moses, the leader of the young nation; and many valiant prophets and martyrs serve as living memorials to faith’s overcoming power. And yet God has something better in store for his sanctified people, the church (11:40): the reality of the living Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the greatest model of steadfast endurance in suffering is Jesus, “the Originator and Perfecter of our faith” (12:2, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). When surrounded with trials, the Christian needs to recall Christ, who in anticipation of the heavenly crown endured the cross and its shame. The Christian’s trials are trivial compared with what Jesus Christ was called upon to suffer (v 3). Moreover, for the people of God, suffering and persecution prove to be disguised blessings. The rod of discipline confirms our status as children of the living God (vv 5-10). But beyond this, the sovereign God is able to transform the Christian’s suffering into inestimable blessing (v 11). Hence the wavering saints should strive for spiritual wholeness and maturity, taking care lest they be overtaken by bitterness and resentment (v 15).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Exhortations and Benediction (13:1-25)<\/h5>\n<p>The writer in his closing words challenges his Christian friends to be faithful to the tasks that lie at hand. They are to show continued love to the brethren, to extend hospitality to strangers, to uphold the sanctity of marriage, to be content with what they now possess, and to be obedient to their spiritual leaders (13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The readers are warned against the trickery of the Judaizers, who would lead them astray from Jesus Christ, the one who remains “the same yesterday, today, and forever” (13:8). Spiritual determination is strengthened by recalling the example of Christ, who “suffered outside the city gates” for their salvation (v 12). As the people of God, they are challenged to follow Christ “outside the camp,” bearing abuse for him (v 13). Patient endurance is possible when the Christian realizes that he has no enduring city here (v 14). His goal is the heavenly Jerusalem, the eternal city of God.<\/p>\n<p>The anonymous letter to the unknown “Hebrews” closes with a glorious benediction. The Christian’s God is described as the great “God of peace” (13:20), and Jesus is “the great Shepherd of the sheep,” who established a new and eternal covenant and then rose triumphant from the dead. And the promise is made to the trusting soul that the triune God would “equip you with all you need for doing his will” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The letter to the Hebrews is rich in doctrinal teaching. It discloses more about the historical Jesus than any other NT letter. It alone explains the atoning work of Christ under the rubric of the Melchizedekian priest. The letter’s discussion of repentance, justification, sanctification, and perseverance makes it a mine of salvation teaching. Its explication of old and new covenants, impending judgment, and the world to come make a significant contribution to Christian theology. And the letter’s teaching on faith, endurance, and the practical Christian combine to make Hebrews one of the most important documents God has given to the church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEBREWS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most profound and enigmatic books in the NT. The identity of its author, the time of its writing, and the people and place to which it was sent are all shrouded in mystery. Yet, in spite of the uncertainty, Hebrews remains one of the most timely and relevant books in the Bible. Some 300 years ago John Owen, the English Puritan, appropriately remarked: “No doubt the Epistle next in importance to Romans is this to the Hebrews.” The letter is both doctrinal and practical, theological and pastoral. In short, it builds a compelling case for the superiority of Christianity. Hebrews also reflects the impassioned concern of a pastor’s heart. Those who have experienced God’s ultimate work of grace in Christ are urged to hold fast to God’s final word of revelation in his Son.<\/p>\n<p>Unlike most other NT epistles, Hebrews does not begin like a letter. There is no introductory salutation, the writer is not identified, and no mention is made of those to whom the document is addressed. The author characterizes the work as a “word of exhortation” (13:22, <span>rsv<\/span>), which suggests a sermon or oral homily (cf. Acts 13:15). Nonetheless, its conclusion is that of a conventional letter (Heb 13:22-25). Some have detected a gradual transition in the document from an essay to a more specifically epistolary form (cf. 2:1; 4:1; 13:22-25). The evidence thus suggests that the author may have cast the original homiletic “word of exhortation” into letter form when the need to communicate in writing with his Christian friends became urgent.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Who wrote the book is not directly stated in the letter. Since the late second century, various authorities have linked the document with the apostle Paul. Clement of Alexandria (d. 220) theorized that Paul wrote the letter in Hebrew for Jews and that Luke translated it into Greek. However, this suggestion has not been widely received by modern scholars. Clement’s pupil Origen (d. 254) stated more generally that the thoughts of the letter are Pauline but that the style is unlike that of the known writings of the apostle. Other early authorities, such as Jerome (d. 419) and Augustine (d. 430), persuaded that canonicity demanded apostolic authorship, likewise affirmed that Paul was the author.<\/p>\n<p>Yet a number of factors argue against the Pauline authorship of Hebrews. The anonymity of the letter is contrary to the consistent pattern of Paul’s introduction in the opening salutation of his letters. Moreover, Hebrews 2:3 indicates the writer was discipled by eyewitnesses of the Lord. Yet Paul insists that his knowledge of Christ was gained from a firsthand encounter with the risen Christ (cf. Gal 1:12). F. F. Bruce evaluates the authorship of Hebrews as follows: “We may say with certainty that the thought of the epistle is not Paul’s, the language is not Paul’s, and the technique of OT quotations is not Paul’s.”<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian tradition suggests that Barnabas may have written Hebrews. According to Tertullian (d. 220), many early authorities believed that Barnabas was responsible for the letter. Acts 4:36 (<span>asv<\/span>) speaks of him as a “son of exhortation” (cf. Heb 13:22). Furthermore, as a Levite, Barnabas would have been familiar with the Jewish sacrificial ritual so prominent in the letter.<\/p>\n<p>Luther was the first to suggest that Hebrews may have been penned by Apollos, “an excellent man of learning, who had been a disciple of the apostles and learned much from them, and who was very well versed in Scripture.” As a native of Alexandria (Acts 18:24), Apollos would have been familiar with the typological interpretation evident in Hebrews. Clearly Apollos was the sort of man who was qualified to write Hebrews.<\/p>\n<p>Other names have been suggested as possible authors. Calvin surmised that either Luke or Clement of Rome was responsible for the letter. It is noted that the Greek of Hebrews resembles the language and style of the third Gospel and Acts. Others theorize that Hebrews may have been written by Silas, a Jewish Christian from Jerusalem who would have been thoroughly familiar with the Levitical ritual. Silas is described as one of “the church leaders” (Acts 15:22). He was a coworker with Paul in the gentile mission, and apparently was known in Rome as well as in Jerusalem (1 Pt 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>In conclusion, it is probable that the author of Hebrews was a second-generation Jewish Christian, a master of classical Greek whose Bible was the Septuagint, conversant with first-century Alexandrian philosophy, and a creative apologist for the Christian faith. As to the identity of that author, we can affirm no more than Origen in the third century: “But as to who actually wrote the Letter, God alone knows.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The very early title of the letter, “To Hebrews,” suggests that the book concerns Jewish Christians living in the Dispersion. The letter itself offers a few hints of the historical circumstances surrounding its composition. Not long after becoming Christians, the readers of the letter were exposed to severe persecution (Heb 10:32-36). During their trial, the new believers endured imprisonment, confiscation of personal property, and public ridicule. Yet the persecution had not been fatal; they had not yet been called upon to lay down their lives in martyrdom (12:4). Amid the excitement of their newfound faith in Christ, they had demonstrated practical concern and love by ministering to fellow believers in need (6:10) and comforting others who had been harassed for their faith (10:34).<\/p>\n<p>But since the time of those earlier trials, the readers had made little progress in Christian maturity (5:11-13). Moreover, in the face of a new wave of persecution, and despondent over an apparent delay in the Lord’s coming, the believers had begun to waver and abandon hope. Indeed, they threatened to renounce Jesus Christ and to revert back to the security of the Jewish religion that enjoyed the protection of Roman law.<\/p>\n<p>Thus we read that because of the strange, new teachings of certain Judaizers who sought to draw them back to their former religion (13:9), the wavering believers had neglected to assemble together (10:25) and had lost confidence in their spiritual leaders (13:17). Faced with the possibility that these Jewish Christians might abandon their faith altogether, the writer sternly warns them of the tragic consequences of renouncing the Son (6:4-6; 10:26-31; 13:12-19) and urges them to renew their commitment to Christ, God’s foremost and final revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Lacking firm information as to the author and recipients of the letter, no certainty exists as to the date of the writing. We have noted that the author of Hebrews, and probably his readers as well, had been discipled by those who were personally acquainted with Jesus (2:3). Further evidence in the letter suggests that Paul probably was not alive. Timothy, Paul’s younger associate, was still living (13:23).<\/p>\n<p>The absence of any mention in Hebrews of the destruction of the Jerusalem temple is significant for dating the letter. In terms of his argument that the old covenant had passed away and the legal priesthood had been superseded, the writer would scarcely have omitted mention of the temple’s destruction had he written the letter later than <span>AD<\/span> 70. Hebrews 9:6-10 and 10:1-4, 11-14 plainly suggest that the Jewish sacrifices were still being offered. Hence, it may be supposed with some degree of certainty that the letter was written prior to <span>AD<\/span> 70. If it was written after Paul’s death, that would put it after <span>AD<\/span> 67, the traditional date of his execution. Thus, Hebrews may have been written in the period <span>AD<\/span> 67–70.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandDestination\">Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>The place from which Hebrews was written is also uncertain. Some manuscripts of the letter bear the subscription “written from Rome” or “written from Italy.” Such notations are educated deductions drawn from the statement “The Christians from Italy send you their greetings” (13:24). Most probably this indicates that the writer is extending greetings to a church in Italy on behalf of Italian Christians associated with him in another land, possibly Asia. Nevertheless, we cannot locate the point of origin with any certainty.<\/p>\n<p>It has been suggested that the letter was written to a group of Jewish converts to Christianity. Yet the precise community to which it was sent is a matter of debate. Opinions vary from Judea to Spain. Tradition has it that Hebrews was directed to Jewish Christians living in Palestine. But against a Palestinian destination it may be argued: (1) the readers had had no personal contact with Jesus (2:3), an unlikely event for mid-first-century residents of Palestine; (2) the statement in 12:4 that his readers had not yet given their lives could hardly be said of Palestinian Christians of the period; (3) the generosity of the believers (10:34; 13:16) was inconsistent with the poverty of the Jerusalem church; and (4) the general tone of the letter is Hellenistic rather than rabbinical.<\/p>\n<p>Other proposals for the destination of Hebrews include (1) Caesarea, on the supposition of Lukan authorship; (2) Syrian Antioch or Cyprus, assuming Barnabas wrote the letter; (3) Ephesus, in the light of the conversion of many Jews during Paul’s ministry in that city; (4) Colosse, noting certain similarities between the Colossian heresy and the false beliefs of the “Hebrews”; and (5) Alexandria, because of the apparent influence of the philosopher Philo Judaeus in the letter.<\/p>\n<p>The thesis that Hebrews was directed to a group of Jewish Christians in Rome has found favor with a number of scholars. Arguments in support of a Roman destination include the following facts: (1) The letter was first known in Rome no later than <span>AD<\/span> 96. (2) Romans 11:13, 18 suggests that the church at Rome consisted of a Jewish-Christian minority. (3) References to persecution and suffering endured by the readers (Heb 10:32-33; 12:4) are consistent with known repressive measures exacted by the Roman authorities. (4) There is a good possibility that saints who “come from Italy” would convey greetings to their brethren in Rome. (5) The Jewish community in Rome preserved certain features of nonconformist or sectarian Judaism that would explain several notable similarities between the theology and praxis of the Qumran community and that expressed in Hebrews.<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that the letter was addressed to a small subgroup within a local church. The exhortation in 5:12 (<span>rsv<\/span>)—“by this time you ought to be teachers”—hardly would have been relevant to an entire congregation. Hebrews 13:7, 24 lends further support to the theory that the letter was sent to a small group, perhaps to a “house church” within a larger assembly.<\/p>\n<p>Tentatively, one might conclude that the addressees were converts from Judaism who dwelt in the Dispersion. Hence they were familiar with OT Judaism and were acquainted with the religious philosophy of the Greek world. Possibly the readers comprised a house fellowship that tended to disassociate itself from the parent group (10:25). The existence of such house churches in Rome is confirmed by Romans 16:5, 14-15.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In response to the threat that his Jewish-Christian friends might renounce Christianity and revert to Judaism, the writer by a “word of exhortation” (13:22) communicated to them the finality of the Christian revelation. He sought also to inform his despondent, vacillating readers that Christ, the object of God’s final revelation, is vastly superior to the greatest of Judaism’s heroes. The author, in addition, affirmed the heavenly and eternal character of the salvation secured by Christ. Whereas the legal sacrificial system was powerless to effect the remission of sin, Christ the eternal High Priest “is able, once and forever, to save everyone who comes to God through him” (7:25, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In short, the writer commended to his readers the need for patient endurance amid the persecution and sufferings to which the heirs of eternal salvation are inevitably exposed. Just as Jesus, the forerunner of our faith, suffered and patiently endured in anticipation of eternal reward, so ought harassed, oppressed believers “take a new grip with your tired hands and stand firm on your shaky legs” (12:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) in anticipation of their reception in that eternal “kingdom that cannot be destroyed” (12:28, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The author’s final purpose for writing was to proclaim the fearful judgment that awaits those who repudiate Jesus Christ. Since “our God is a consuming fire” (12:29, <span>nlt<\/span>), “what makes us think that we can escape if we are indifferent to this great salvation” (2:3, <span>nlt<\/span>)?<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>Next to Romans, Hebrews is the most doctrinal book in the NT. The writer develops a series of weighty arguments to demonstrate the superiority of the gospel of Christ to the religion of Judaism. Since Jesus is final both as to his person and his work, Christianity is the ultimate and normative faith. The book’s particularism runs counter to the spirit of the modern world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Son to Former Revelation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>The writer acknowledges that God revealed himself to the prophets of old in many ways—through dreams, visions, audible speech, and mighty acts. But “in these last days” (the advent of the end times, cf. 9:26) God spoke finally and definitively through his own Son (1:2). Central to the argument is the fact that in one way or another the prophets received an eternal word from God. Yet given the intimate relation of the Son to the Father, God’s latest revelation has come forth from the very depths of his own being.<\/p>\n<p>Identification of the Son as the pinnacle of divine revelation leads to a concise but profound statement of Christ’s person and his cosmic work. The Son reflects the glory of God in that the sum of the divine attributes brilliantly shine through his person. Moreover, he bears the very image and stamp of God’s nature (1:3), as the wax bears the impress of the seal. Jesus as God’s final word of revelation is truly the divine and eternal Son of God. Christ’s excellence is further displayed in the fact that he is the mighty agent through whom the universe was created (v 2) and by whom the cosmic order is sustained (v 3). In the moral realm he has wrought the purification of sins and now sits enthroned on God’s right hand (cf. 8:1). God’s pleasure toward the Son is seen in that he has appointed Christ heir and head of all (1:2). His name is surpassed by none save God the Father (v 4).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Son to Angels (1:5–2:18)<\/h5>\n<p>Angels enjoyed an exalted status in biblical and postbiblical Judaism. Traditionally the Jews believed that angels praised God upon his throne, mediated God’s revelation to men, attended to God’s will, and gave succor to the people of God. Angels were far superior to men in power and knowledge. According to the Jewish Apocrypha, angels ruled the stars and were responsible for the rise and fall of civilizations. In Qumran thought, angelic beings would engage in a final cosmic struggle with Belial and the forces of evil at the end of the age.<\/p>\n<p>Against this background the writer of Hebrews argues that the Son is vastly superior to the angels. To prove his point, the author assembles a string of well-known OT texts and applies them directly to the Son. God never said of any angel, “Today I have become your Father” (Ps 2:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Yet just such a claim was made on behalf of the Son (Heb 1:5). When the Son incarnated himself in the world, he received the obedient worship of angels (v 6). His is the sovereignty and the eternality and the majesty at God’s right hand (vv 8, 11-12). By contrast, angels are “only servants” (v 14) that rank below the Son in dignity and might.<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrews 2:1-4 the writer parenthetically warns his wavering congregation of the danger of drifting away from the truth of God. If disobedience to the law mediated by angels resulted in stern punishment, how much more severe would be God’s judgment on those who trampled under foot the revelation delivered by the Son? If God’s saving grace in Christ is neglected, retribution will surely follow (2:3).<\/p>\n<p>The mention of angels turns the writer’s mind to Jesus’ humiliation and exaltation (2:5-18). Psalm 8, a song about the smallness and yet the significance of man, is applied to the experience of Jesus. In assuming human flesh and blood, Jesus was made “for a little while . . . lower than the angels” (Heb 2:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). But subsequent to the completion of his earthly work, he was elevated above the angels and crowned with the glory and honor of heaven (v 9). The theological implications of Christ’s descent and ascent are carefully spelled out: Christ descended to earth (1) to bring many children to glory (v 10), (2) to destroy the devil (v 14), (3) to deliver his people from the bondage of death (v 15), and (4) to make an offering on the cross for the sins of the people (v 17). He ascended to heaven (1) to intercede on our behalf as a faithful High Priest (v 17), and (2) to succor those who are sorely tempted (v 18). The perfect summary of Christ’s person and work is given in Hebrews 2:9: “What we do see is Jesus, who ‘for a little while was made lower than the angels’ and now is ‘crowned with glory and honor’ because he suffered death for us. Yes, by God’s grace, Jesus tasted death for everyone in all the world” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Son to Moses and Joshua (3:1–4:13)<\/h5>\n<p>Jewish Christians contemplating reversion to Judaism surely believed that Moses was one of the greatest figures in Israel’s history. So esteemed was the one who led Israel out of Egypt through the wilderness and who gave them the Law that there was no one in Israel’s history so honored as Moses. Yet the author of Hebrews argues that Moses, though faithful to his calling, was but a servant in the house of God. Jesus, by contrast, was not a servant but a Son; he was not a mere dweller in the house but the very builder of the structure. Jesus, therefore, far transcends the revered figure of Moses.<\/p>\n<p>Practical implications are drawn from Jesus’ superiority to Moses. From Psalm 95:7-11 the writer rehearses the tragic experience of Israel under Moses during the desert wanderings (Heb 3:7-19). Throughout the 40-year wilderness experience the people hardened their hearts and rebelled against God. In turn God was provoked by their stubbornness and swore that those who sinned would never enter the rest he was going to provide (vv 10-11, 18). The writer thus argues that if disobedience to God under Moses had serious consequences, forsaking Christ will be much more perilous. Hence the wavering Christians are urged to watch lest due to an evil, unbelieving heart they should fall away from the living God (v 12). Nothing short of steadfast persistence will lead to the attainment of the heavenly goal (v 14).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua, likewise, was regarded as a great leader of Israel. Yet because of disobedience, the people under Joshua’s leadership failed to enter the rest that God had planned. That rest spoken of corresponds to the Sabbath rest of God (4:3-4), and is a concept closely related to salvation. It is a spiritual reality that is achieved by turning from our own empty works and trusting in the finished work of Christ (v 10). The author reminds the readers that “there is a special rest [a Sabbath rest] still waiting for the people of God” (v 9, <span>nlt<\/span>), one that only Christ can provide. Christians not only benefit from this Sabbath rest in the present age but anticipate its full realization in the age to come. One of the chief means of ensuring entry into the Sabbath rest of salvation is the Word of God (v 12). The living and powerful Word penetrates the innermost depths of the soul, reveals our impoverished condition, and strengthens the trusting heart.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Priesthood of the Son (4:14–7:28)<\/h5>\n<p>Almost half of Hebrews is devoted to the priesthood of Jesus Christ. The writer goes to great lengths to demonstrate that the revered Aaronic priestly system has been superseded by the High Priest “in the line of Melchizedek” (5:6; 6:20; 7:11). This central theme had been anticipated earlier when Christ was referred to as “our merciful and faithful High Priest before God” who has made atonement for sins (2:17, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Hebrews makes the claim that Jesus’ priesthood is the ultimate ground of the believers’ confidence (4:14-16). On three counts Jesus surpasses the old legal priestly order. First, he is an <em>exalted<\/em> high priest (v 14). The Jewish high priest climbed the mount to enter the temple sanctuary. But Jesus, our great high priest, has ascended to heaven itself and entered the sanctuary on high. He ministers in no earthly tabernacle but in the very presence of God. Second, Jesus is an <em>empathetic<\/em> high priest (v 15a). Fully God and fully man, Jesus suffers along with his people in their trials and afflictions. From heaven’s perspective he knows fully what his people are called upon to endure. He “feels” our hurts, and he does so perfectly. Finally, Jesus is a <em>sinless<\/em> high priest (v 15b). Day in and day out (7:27), year in and year out, the Levitical priests were required to bring sacrifices for their own sins. Yet Jesus had no sin that needed cleansing, for “he is holy and blameless, unstained by sin” (v 26, <span>nlt<\/span>). In view of Jesus’ priestly perfections, sorely tempted Christians are urged to come to the throne of grace to receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need (4:16).<\/p>\n<p>For those not convinced that Jesus was indeed a legitimate priest, two prerequisites for priesthood are detailed. First, if the high priest is to represent humanity before God, he must be taken from among men (5:1-2). And second, he must be called by God to high priestly office, as was Aaron (v 4). Christ has fully satisfied these qualifications. From Psalms 2:7 and 110:4 it is shown that Jesus did not take this office upon himself but was appointed by God (Heb 5:5-6). Moreover, from the obedience that he had to learn (v 8) and from the agony of the Gethsemane experience (v 7) it is clear that Jesus was in every way a man. Nevertheless, Hebrews makes it perfectly clear that Jesus was not a priest after the order of Aaron but a high priest in the line of Melchizedek (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>After introducing the theme of Christ as a Melchizedekian high priest, the writer recalls that his readers were not ready for such advanced teaching. Although not new converts (5:12), his friends had remained spiritually immature and sluggish. Hence the writer issues the challenge to press on to Christian maturity, to be ready for the solid food of advanced teaching.<\/p>\n<p>In his digression the writer warns not only against spiritual immaturity but also against “apostasy.” The question now arises whether the author’s apostasy teaching in Hebrews 6:4-8 and 10:26-31 contradicts the NT doctrine of the perseverance of the saints. Undoubtedly it does not. Some authorities hold that those addressed were not true Christians, hence the issue is not one of apostasy. It is possible, like Judas Iscariot or Simon Magus (Acts 8:9-24), to possess considerable knowledge of the gospel and fall short of personal commitment. But the writer makes it quite clear that in the case of his addressees he is persuaded otherwise (Heb 6:9). The most reasonable view is that in these two hortatory passages the writer advances a hypothetical argument warning his friends of the utter seriousness of reverting back to Judaism. That is, if a falling away were to occur, renewal would be impossible unless Christ were to die a second time. The writer sums up the point of these difficult passages with the words “It is a terrible thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (10:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Nevertheless, followers of Christ may confidently lay hold of God’s promises, confirmed by solemn oath, to see them through their trials (6:13-18). God may be trusted to hold the believer fast.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrews 7 contains an intricate argument for the superiority of Christ’s priesthood over the old legal order. Melchizedek, the ancient priest-king of Salem (Gn 14:18-20), is regarded as a primordial type of Christ. He is “king of righteousness” and “king of peace” (Heb 7:2). The solemn priest from Salem has figuratively what Christ possesses actually: neither mother nor father, neither beginning nor end of life (v 3). Melchizedek is shown to be superior to Abraham on three counts: (1) Melchizedek blessed the patriarch (vv 1, 7); (2) he accepted tithes from Abraham (vv 2-6); and (3) Melchizedek lives on since the OT nowhere mentions his death (v 8). It follows that since Levi was in the loins of Abraham as seed (v 10), Melchizedek is superior to the Levitical priests. And inasmuch as Christ is a priest in the likeness of Melchizedek (v 15), it follows that the Son of God is more excellent than the old legal priesthood.<\/p>\n<p>The result is that the old Levitical priesthood has been superseded by the priesthood of Christ. The demise of the old order was inevitable, for its repetitive animal sacrifices could never effect spiritual perfection (7:11). It was a system characterized by weakness and uselessness (v 18). By contrast, Christ’s priesthood is indestructible, eternal, uninterrupted, efficacious, final, and perfect (vv 16, 21, 24-27). Forgiveness and reconciliation is possible only through Christ, our great High Priest.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Priestly Work of the Son (8:1–10:39)<\/h5>\n<p>Since Christ’s priestly office far excels the old order, it follows that his priestly ministration is superior to all that has gone before. The theme of Christ as high priest in a better sanctuary is introduced (8:1-5). The writer utilizes Plato’s distinction between the ideal form in heaven and the imperfect copy on earth to argue that the Levitical sanctuary and sacrifices are mere shadows of the heavenly realities: (1) Christ ministers in the true tent that is the heavenly sanctuary (vv 2, 5); (2) he discharges his high priestly service in the very presence of the Father, which results in a far more effective ministry (vv 1, 6); and (3) his oblation on the cross was the ultimate sacrifice (v 3). How unreasonable it is that his Christian readers should go back to the old Jewish priestly system!<\/p>\n<p>Christ is the minister of a new and better covenant (8:6-13). The old covenant established by God with the nation’s fathers was not to be despised; nevertheless, it had become ineffectual and obsolete (v 13). Indeed, the prophet Jeremiah (Jer 31:31-34) foresaw the new covenant that God would inaugurate with his people. This new covenant sealed by Christ involves (1) the immediate work of the Holy Spirit on the mind and heart (Heb 8:10); (2) a personal and intimate knowledge of God (v 11); and (3) the full absolution of sins (v 12). This new and better covenant has been established on the work of Christ, the great High Priest.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 9 gives a detailed comparison of the efficacy of priestly service under the old and new covenants. The Levitical priests ministered in a material sanctuary on earth (vv 1-5). Features of the tabernacle and its furnishings are described to highlight their obsolescence. More important, however, is the character of the sacrificial ritual conducted in the earthly sanctuary. The Jewish priests in their daily service were not permitted to enter the Holy of Holies, which contained the ark of the covenant and the mercy seat—the place of propitiation of sins (v 6). The high priest alone could enter the Holy of Holies, and then but once a year on the Day of Atonement, and only after sacrificing for his own sins (v 7). The inaccessibility of the Holy of Holies signified that access to the presence of God had not been opened. The presence of the curtain symbolized that the people had no way to the throne of God, the priests had no way, and the high priest had a limited way and only once a year. Moreover, the sacrifices brought by the Jewish priests could not purify the conscience but merely dealt with external ritual cleansing (vv 9-10). A truly effectual sacrifice must await “the time of reformation” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s priestly ministration is shown to be far more efficacious. First, the Christian’s High Priest has brought a better sacrifice (9:11-14), and here we arrive at the heart of the message of Hebrews. Employing the imagery of the tabernacle, the author demonstrates that Christ our High Priest has accomplished what the Jewish priests failed to do. He entered the heavenly Holy of Holies, not repeatedly, but <em>once<\/em> for all, thereby effecting a completed redemption (v 12). Christ brought to the altar, not the blood of bulls and goats, but his own life’s blood. The Lord did not merely lay down a material body, but he presented himself to God through the eternal Spirit (v 14). Christ’s better sacrifice thus goes beyond cleansing of the flesh to the purification of the defiled conscience.<\/p>\n<p>Second, Christ through his death has instituted a better covenant (9:15-23). The teaching of Hebrews 8:6-13 is developed further. The old covenant was sealed with the blood of calves and goats (9:19). But the new covenant was ratified with the blood of Christ, God’s own Son. The new covenant thus could accomplish what the old covenant merely foreshadowed—forgiveness and cleansing of sins (v 22).<\/p>\n<p>Third, Christ ministers in a better tabernacle (9:24-28). Our Lord entered, not into a merely earthly sanctuary, but into the holy place of heaven, there to represent us (v 24). Access to the throne is not limited to one day per year, for he is continually in the presence of the Father. Nor is it necessary that repeated sacrifices be made. Christ’s single sacrifice on the cross has conquered sin once and for all (v 26). In sum, as regards the sanctuary, the covenant, and the sacrifices, the Christian’s High Priest is vastly superior to the old Jewish order.<\/p>\n<p>In order to drive home these crucial points, the writer in chapter 10 expands on the theme of the absolute finality of Christ’s high priestly work. The earlier argument concerning the futile character of the Levitical sacrifices (9:6-14) is repeated for emphasis (10:1-4). The Mosaic ceremonial legislation called for repetitive sacrifices, which could never perfect the worshiper (v 1). Instead of purifying one’s life, they served only as a yearly reminder of sin (v 3) until Christ should come.<\/p>\n<p>The writer discovers in Psalm 40:6-8 a prediction that the eternal Christ would become man for the purpose of offering himself as the ultimate sacrifice for sin (Heb 10:5-10). Once again the sanctifying power of Christ’s single self-oblation is emphasized (v 10). The vivid contrast is again drawn between the ineffective ministry of the Jewish priests who stand during the daily ritual (v 11), and the effectual single sacrifice of Christ, who is now seated at the right hand of God (v 12). Since Jesus “by that one offering . . . perfected forever all those whom he is making holy” (v 14, <span>nlt<\/span>), nothing can be added to what the seated Sovereign has accomplished (v 18).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the manifest superiority of Christ’s priestly office and work, the struggling Christians are exhorted to appropriate the means of grace at their disposal (10:19-39). In the midst of trials and persecution they should remember that Christ has effectively opened the way to God (vv 19-20). They are summoned to come to God in faith with hearts cleansed by Christ’s sacrifice (v 22). Those tempted to revert to legal religion should hold fast and support one another in love (vv 23-24). The means of grace afforded by corporate worship should not be neglected (v 25). In short, the wavering Jewish Christians are summoned to renewed endurance and fidelity to their Lord (vv 26-31). What God has promised to his people he will surely make good.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Life of Faith (11:1–12:29)<\/h5>\n<p>The discussion of faith and endurance as the solution to despondency (10:36-38) prompts a fuller consideration of the faith theme. Faith is a prominent concept in the book of Hebrews, as attested by the fact that the word occurs some 35 times in the letter. The Pauline idea of faith as the means of legal justification is adapted to the particular circumstances of the threatened Jewish Christians. The concept of faith is broader in this book than the strictly saving faith discussed by Paul, in that it leads to spiritual salvation (11:39-40). Faith is the power by which heaven’s unseen realities are laid hold of to satisfy the soul. Faith enables the Christian disciple to view the world and interpret the flow of history from the divine perspective. Faith is the means of victory over the world of sin and woe. Through faith the believer approaches the throne of grace (4:16) with the confidence and assurance that God will enable him to overcome.<\/p>\n<p>The victory faith affords is amply illustrated from the history of God’s OT people. Abel, Enoch, and Noah in the primal history; Abraham, the father of faith; Moses, the leader of the young nation; and many valiant prophets and martyrs serve as living memorials to faith’s overcoming power. And yet God has something better in store for his sanctified people, the church (11:40): the reality of the living Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the greatest model of steadfast endurance in suffering is Jesus, “the Originator and Perfecter of our faith” (12:2, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). When surrounded with trials, the Christian needs to recall Christ, who in anticipation of the heavenly crown endured the cross and its shame. The Christian’s trials are trivial compared with what Jesus Christ was called upon to suffer (v 3). Moreover, for the people of God, suffering and persecution prove to be disguised blessings. The rod of discipline confirms our status as children of the living God (vv 5-10). But beyond this, the sovereign God is able to transform the Christian’s suffering into inestimable blessing (v 11). Hence the wavering saints should strive for spiritual wholeness and maturity, taking care lest they be overtaken by bitterness and resentment (v 15).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Exhortations and Benediction (13:1-25)<\/h5>\n<p>The writer in his closing words challenges his Christian friends to be faithful to the tasks that lie at hand. They are to show continued love to the brethren, to extend hospitality to strangers, to uphold the sanctity of marriage, to be content with what they now possess, and to be obedient to their spiritual leaders (13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The readers are warned against the trickery of the Judaizers, who would lead them astray from Jesus Christ, the one who remains “the same yesterday, today, and forever” (13:8). Spiritual determination is strengthened by recalling the example of Christ, who “suffered outside the city gates” for their salvation (v 12). As the people of God, they are challenged to follow Christ “outside the camp,” bearing abuse for him (v 13). Patient endurance is possible when the Christian realizes that he has no enduring city here (v 14). His goal is the heavenly Jerusalem, the eternal city of God.<\/p>\n<p>The anonymous letter to the unknown “Hebrews” closes with a glorious benediction. The Christian’s God is described as the great “God of peace” (13:20), and Jesus is “the great Shepherd of the sheep,” who established a new and eternal covenant and then rose triumphant from the dead. And the promise is made to the trusting soul that the triune God would “equip you with all you need for doing his will” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The letter to the Hebrews is rich in doctrinal teaching. It discloses more about the historical Jesus than any other NT letter. It alone explains the atoning work of Christ under the rubric of the Melchizedekian priest. The letter’s discussion of repentance, justification, sanctification, and perseverance makes it a mine of salvation teaching. Its explication of old and new covenants, impending judgment, and the world to come make a significant contribution to Christian theology. And the letter’s teaching on faith, endurance, and the practical Christian combine to make Hebrews one of the most important documents God has given to the church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEBREWS, Letter to the One of the most profound and enigmatic books in the NT. The identity of its author, the time of its writing, and the people and place to which it was sent are all shrouded in mystery. Yet, in spite of the uncertainty, Hebrews remains one of the most timely and relevant books in the Bible. Some 300 years ago John Owen, the English Puritan, appropriately remarked: “No doubt the Epistle next in importance to Romans is this to the Hebrews.” The letter is both doctrinal and ...","summary_en":"HEBREWS, Letter to the One of the most profound and enigmatic books in the NT. The identity of its author, the time of its writing, and the people and place to which it was sent are all shrouded in mystery. Yet, in spite of the uncertainty, Hebrews remains one of the most timely and relevant books in the Bible. Some 300 years ago John Owen, the English Puritan, appropriately remarked: “No doubt the Epistle next in importance to Romans is this to the Hebrews.” The letter is both doctrinal and ...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32898,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Revelation","title_en":"Revelation","content_ro":"<h3>REVELATION<\/h3>\n<p>Term from the Latin <em>revelatio,<\/em> referring to either (1) the act of revealing for the purpose of making something known or (2) the thing that is revealed. In theology it designates God’s own self-disclosure or manifesting of himself, or things concerning himself and the world; it may also mean the word itself, oral or written, that conveys such revelation. The equivalent NT terms are <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">apokalupsis<\/span> (apocalypse), which means unveiling, uncovering, or making someone or something known. The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phanerosis<\/span> is virtually synonymous, though usually with the nuance of clear, readily discernible presentation.<\/p>\n<p>Rationalistic philosophy (as promoted by René Descartes, Immanuel Kant, J. G. Fichte, F. W. J. von Schelling, G. W. F. Hegel) finds in human reason the sole source for whatever shape revelation takes or is, acknowledging only natural religion and denying the reality of all supernatural divine revelation. Rationalists may at times admit the possibility of supernatural religion, but they cannot conceive of divine intervention.<\/p>\n<p>Christian theology, on the other hand, is committed to the idea that the principle of knowledge is the Word of God, specifically the Scripture, despite the severe critique of higher criticism against any claim that the Scripture affords a secure, reliable, and independent base for theological truth. Modern critical theology has declared its support for what it calls “scientific theology,” for the “sure” judgments of natural science and the supposed improbability of all supernatural happenings. This has forced the Scripture, as the inspired Word of God, out of its authoritative, normative position. What the Scripture contains is not the account of what actually happened, or what God actually said or did, but merely the early church’s confession of faith as to what first-century followers of Christ supposed or contrived to have happened. The Bible, therefore, is not unique in its divine origin; it is only the unique product of early religious searchings and strivings.<\/p>\n<p>Christian theology, on the other hand, asserts (on the basis of the scriptural text and the confirming mighty acts of God) that divine revelation is the first, last, and only source for theology. People have knowledge of God because of God’s initiative and activity. God is always the initiator and author of revelation; people are the recipients. God discloses what otherwise would be unknown; he uncovers what otherwise would be hidden (Dt 29:29; Gal 1:12; Eph 3:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeneralRevelation\">General Revelation<\/p>\n<p>God draws back the veil in a twofold manner. There is first of all what has come to be called “general revelation.” God reveals himself in nature, in history, and in all people as made in his image. The association of God’s revelation with nature, by which people have an intuitive knowledge of God’s existence, is of long standing and is a truth supported throughout Scripture—both in the OT (Pss 10:11; 14:1, 19:1) and in the NT (Acts 14:17; 17:22-29; Rom 1:19-21). That there is a God, that God is the Creator with almighty power, that God deals justly as the supreme Judge, or rules as the “wholly other” over his creatures—these things are known and recognized by many people. Thus, the fact that God <em>is,<\/em> is undeniable. So, when people deny God’s existence, as do atheists, it is a forced effort against an inner conviction worked by nature itself. Paul could expect concurrence from the Athenians when he asserted that it is in God, the one and only true God, that all people live and move and have their being (Acts 17:28). Knowing God through nature, however, is not the end of revelation. Full and complete revelation comes when people encounter the personhood of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SpecialRevelation\">Special Revelation<\/p>\n<p>To know God from his revelation in nature still leaves him and his gracious purposes completely unknown. The gracious, loving heart of God intends the salvation of all people. By special revelation God purposes to share this with mankind in various ways. Mankind would know nothing at all of God’s messianic purposes in Christ, if God had not revealed his heart and purposes throughout Scripture. By inner, immediate illumination of their hearts and minds by God, the prophets and apostles spoke his Word as he gave them utterance (Jer 1:4-19; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Thes 2:13; 2 Pt 1:16-21). The zenith of God’s revelation was the coming in flesh of his beloved Son, Jesus Christ (Jn 1:14-18; Gal 4:4-5; Heb 1:1-2). Jesus’ revelation of the Father and the Father’s gracious will toward all people was direct, accurate, and preeminent (Jn 14).<\/p>\n<p>God did not merely illuminate the hearts and minds of his prophets and apostles to speak his Word, but in specific instances also inspired them to record in writing the thoughts, words, and promises that he wanted revealed and retained for all time. The sacred collection of writings forms a remarkably harmonious and unified whole by which God reveals his thoughts and purposes toward humanity. For this writing, the prophets and apostles were prompted to recount not only certain historical events and happenings but also what God revealed for special communication. The ultimate purpose of Scripture is to reveal Christ. To him all Scripture gives witness (Jn 5:39; 10:35; Acts 10:43; 18:28; 1 Cor 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bible, Inspiration of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REVELATION<\/h3>\n<p>Term from the Latin <em>revelatio,<\/em> referring to either (1) the act of revealing for the purpose of making something known or (2) the thing that is revealed. In theology it designates God’s own self-disclosure or manifesting of himself, or things concerning himself and the world; it may also mean the word itself, oral or written, that conveys such revelation. The equivalent NT terms are <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">apokalupsis<\/span> (apocalypse), which means unveiling, uncovering, or making someone or something known. The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phanerosis<\/span> is virtually synonymous, though usually with the nuance of clear, readily discernible presentation.<\/p>\n<p>Rationalistic philosophy (as promoted by René Descartes, Immanuel Kant, J. G. Fichte, F. W. J. von Schelling, G. W. F. Hegel) finds in human reason the sole source for whatever shape revelation takes or is, acknowledging only natural religion and denying the reality of all supernatural divine revelation. Rationalists may at times admit the possibility of supernatural religion, but they cannot conceive of divine intervention.<\/p>\n<p>Christian theology, on the other hand, is committed to the idea that the principle of knowledge is the Word of God, specifically the Scripture, despite the severe critique of higher criticism against any claim that the Scripture affords a secure, reliable, and independent base for theological truth. Modern critical theology has declared its support for what it calls “scientific theology,” for the “sure” judgments of natural science and the supposed improbability of all supernatural happenings. This has forced the Scripture, as the inspired Word of God, out of its authoritative, normative position. What the Scripture contains is not the account of what actually happened, or what God actually said or did, but merely the early church’s confession of faith as to what first-century followers of Christ supposed or contrived to have happened. The Bible, therefore, is not unique in its divine origin; it is only the unique product of early religious searchings and strivings.<\/p>\n<p>Christian theology, on the other hand, asserts (on the basis of the scriptural text and the confirming mighty acts of God) that divine revelation is the first, last, and only source for theology. People have knowledge of God because of God’s initiative and activity. God is always the initiator and author of revelation; people are the recipients. God discloses what otherwise would be unknown; he uncovers what otherwise would be hidden (Dt 29:29; Gal 1:12; Eph 3:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeneralRevelation\">General Revelation<\/p>\n<p>God draws back the veil in a twofold manner. There is first of all what has come to be called “general revelation.” God reveals himself in nature, in history, and in all people as made in his image. The association of God’s revelation with nature, by which people have an intuitive knowledge of God’s existence, is of long standing and is a truth supported throughout Scripture—both in the OT (Pss 10:11; 14:1, 19:1) and in the NT (Acts 14:17; 17:22-29; Rom 1:19-21). That there is a God, that God is the Creator with almighty power, that God deals justly as the supreme Judge, or rules as the “wholly other” over his creatures—these things are known and recognized by many people. Thus, the fact that God <em>is,<\/em> is undeniable. So, when people deny God’s existence, as do atheists, it is a forced effort against an inner conviction worked by nature itself. Paul could expect concurrence from the Athenians when he asserted that it is in God, the one and only true God, that all people live and move and have their being (Acts 17:28). Knowing God through nature, however, is not the end of revelation. Full and complete revelation comes when people encounter the personhood of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SpecialRevelation\">Special Revelation<\/p>\n<p>To know God from his revelation in nature still leaves him and his gracious purposes completely unknown. The gracious, loving heart of God intends the salvation of all people. By special revelation God purposes to share this with mankind in various ways. Mankind would know nothing at all of God’s messianic purposes in Christ, if God had not revealed his heart and purposes throughout Scripture. By inner, immediate illumination of their hearts and minds by God, the prophets and apostles spoke his Word as he gave them utterance (Jer 1:4-19; 1 Cor 2:13; 1 Thes 2:13; 2 Pt 1:16-21). The zenith of God’s revelation was the coming in flesh of his beloved Son, Jesus Christ (Jn 1:14-18; Gal 4:4-5; Heb 1:1-2). Jesus’ revelation of the Father and the Father’s gracious will toward all people was direct, accurate, and preeminent (Jn 14).<\/p>\n<p>God did not merely illuminate the hearts and minds of his prophets and apostles to speak his Word, but in specific instances also inspired them to record in writing the thoughts, words, and promises that he wanted revealed and retained for all time. The sacred collection of writings forms a remarkably harmonious and unified whole by which God reveals his thoughts and purposes toward humanity. For this writing, the prophets and apostles were prompted to recount not only certain historical events and happenings but also what God revealed for special communication. The ultimate purpose of Scripture is to reveal Christ. To him all Scripture gives witness (Jn 5:39; 10:35; Acts 10:43; 18:28; 1 Cor 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bible, Inspiration of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REVELATION Term from the Latin revelatio, referring to either (1) the act of revealing for the purpose of making something known or (2) the thing that is revealed. In theology it designates God’s own self-disclosure or manifesting of himself, or things concerning himself and the world; it may also mean the word itself, oral or written, that conveys such revelation. The equivalent NT terms are apokalupsis (apocalypse), which means unveiling, uncovering, or making someone or something known. Th...","summary_en":"REVELATION Term from the Latin revelatio, referring to either (1) the act of revealing for the purpose of making something known or (2) the thing that is revealed. In theology it designates God’s own self-disclosure or manifesting of himself, or things concerning himself and the world; it may also mean the word itself, oral or written, that conveys such revelation. The equivalent NT terms are apokalupsis (apocalypse), which means unveiling, uncovering, or making someone or something known. Th...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57917,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:12","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>no human source . . . no one taught me:<\/em> Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • <em>I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ:<\/em> See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; 15:3-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>no human source . . . no one taught me:<\/em> Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • <em>I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ:<\/em> See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; 15:3-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:12 no human source . . . no one taught me: Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ: See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; ...","summary_en":"1:12 no human source . . . no one taught me: Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ: See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85543,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:12","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>no human source . . . no one taught me:<\/em> Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • <em>I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ:<\/em> See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; 15:3-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>no human source . . . no one taught me:<\/em> Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • <em>I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ:<\/em> See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; 15:3-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:12 no human source . . . no one taught me: Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ: See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; ...","summary_en":"1:12 no human source . . . no one taught me: Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ: See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113169,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:12","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>no human source . . . no one taught me:<\/em> Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • <em>I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ:<\/em> See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; 15:3-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>no human source . . . no one taught me:<\/em> Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • <em>I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ:<\/em> See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; 15:3-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:12 no human source . . . no one taught me: Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ: See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; ...","summary_en":"1:12 no human source . . . no one taught me: Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ: See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140795,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:12","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>no human source . . . no one taught me:<\/em> Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • <em>I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ:<\/em> See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; 15:3-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> <em>no human source . . . no one taught me:<\/em> Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • <em>I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ:<\/em> See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; 15:3-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:12 no human source . . . no one taught me: Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ: See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; ...","summary_en":"1:12 no human source . . . no one taught me: Jewish scholars primarily depended on teachers. The Judaizers argued that Paul had received his commission and message from the other apostles, but then had unfaithfully changed the message. • I received it by direct revelation from Jesus Christ: See 1:17; Acts 9:3-15; 26:12-18. Paul’s unique experience gave him distinctive authority and insight. But he learned other matters, such as the life of Christ, from others (e.g., Gal 1:18; 1 Cor 11:23-26; ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":42454,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jewish Leaders","title_en":"Jewish Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","summary_en":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70080,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jewish Leaders","title_en":"Jewish Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","summary_en":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97706,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jewish Leaders","title_en":"Jewish Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","summary_en":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125332,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jewish Leaders","title_en":"Jewish Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","summary_en":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13087,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Galatians","title_en":"Letter to the Galatians","content_ro":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","summary_en":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29096,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57918,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:13","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:13-14<\/strong> To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to <em>God’s church<\/em> and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:13-14<\/strong> To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to <em>God’s church<\/em> and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:13-14 To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to God’s church and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).","summary_en":"1:13-14 To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to God’s church and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85544,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:13","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:13-14<\/strong> To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to <em>God’s church<\/em> and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:13-14<\/strong> To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to <em>God’s church<\/em> and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:13-14 To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to God’s church and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).","summary_en":"1:13-14 To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to God’s church and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113170,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:13","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:13-14<\/strong> To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to <em>God’s church<\/em> and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:13-14<\/strong> To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to <em>God’s church<\/em> and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:13-14 To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to God’s church and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).","summary_en":"1:13-14 To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to God’s church and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140796,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:13","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:13-14<\/strong> To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to <em>God’s church<\/em> and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:13-14<\/strong> To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to <em>God’s church<\/em> and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:13-14 To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to God’s church and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).","summary_en":"1:13-14 To prove that his message did not come from human reason (1:11), Paul describes what he was like before he encountered Christ: He was a highly successful Jew (see Acts 8:1-3; 22:1-5; 26:4-5; Phil 3:4-7). His antagonism to God’s church and strict adherence to Judaism demonstrated his faith in the law before Christ confronted him (Gal 1:15-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66319,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93945,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121571,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149197,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":29072,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30134,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pharisees","title_en":"Pharisees","content_ro":"<h3>PHARISEES<\/h3>\n<p>Religious sect active in Palestine during the NT period. The Pharisees are consistently depicted in the Gospels as Jesus’ antagonists. It is commonly held that the Pharisees represented mainstream Judaism early in the first century and that they were characterized by a variety of morally objectionable features. Accordingly, most Bible dictionaries and similar works of reference depict the Pharisees as greedy, hypocritical, lacking a sense of justice, overly concerned with fulfilling the literal details of the law, and insensitive to the spiritual significance of the OT. These and other characteristics are furthermore viewed as giving shape to Judaism more generally.<\/p>\n<p>There are several problems with this common perception of Pharisaic Judaism. In the first place, the Gospels themselves give some important information that appears inconsistent with this view. Second, the primary documents of rabbinic Judaism (such as the Mishnah, the Talmud, and the Midrashim) are positive and praiseworthy. Third, it has become increasingly clear, especially since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, that prior to <span>AD<\/span> 70 the Pharisees constituted only a small movement in a highly diversified society; whatever their popularity and influence, they can hardly be taken as representative of Judaism in general.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/p>\n<p>The origins of the Pharisees are obscure. According to Jewish tradition, Pharisaic (= rabbinic) Judaism can be traced back to Ezra and the beginnings of the scribal movement in the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>. At the opposite extreme, a few scholars argue that, since there are no explicit references to the Pharisees in historical documents prior to the second century <span>BC<\/span>, Pharisaism appeared suddenly after the Maccabean revolt (167 <span>BC<\/span>). Many specialists take the position that perhaps as early as the third century <span>BC<\/span> one can find evidence of an incipient form of Pharisaism (as in The Wisdom of Joshua [Jesus] ben Sirach, also known as Ecclesiasticus). It may well be, moreover, that the intellectual pursuits associated with the work of the scribes did have something to do with the development of the Pharisees. It is also probable that prior to the Maccabean revolt some distinctive Pharisaic concerns appeared in connection with the development of the Hasidim (“the faithful ones”—traditionalists who opposed Greek influence in Jewish society).<\/p>\n<p>According to a popular and reasonable interpretation, the Hasidim became disillusioned with the Maccabean rulers, whose conduct violated Jewish sensibilities in several respects. Some of the Hasidim separated themselves from the nation and developed into nonconformist sects, such as that of the Essenes. Those who remained tried to exert their influence on Jewish life and developed into the sect of the Pharisees.<\/p>\n<p>The Pharisees no doubt played a significant role in Jewish affairs during the next century, even though at times they had little political clout. By NT times, they were widely recognized as religious leaders. Josephus, who tells us that he belonged to this sect, wrote toward the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span> that the Pharisees were “extremely influential among the townsfolk; and all prayers and sacred rites of divine worship are performed according to their exposition. This is the great tribute that the inhabitants of the cities, by practicing the highest ideal both in their way of living and in their discourse, have paid to the excellence of the Pharisees” (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.15). We cannot determine whether this description applies to the period before <span>AD<\/span> 70, but the evidence of the Gospels themselves confirms it to some extent. For example, the parable of the publican and the Pharisee (Lk 18:9-14), while it condemns the Pharisee, makes sense only if we appreciate the role reversal it announces: the wicked publican, not the one generally regarded as righteous, goes home justified.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BasicCharacteristics\">Basic Characteristics<\/p>\n<p>It is not possible to give an accurate characterization of the Pharisees, since scholars disagree sharply concerning their fundamental distinctiveness. Some stress the notion of “separateness,” partly on the basis of the supposed etymology of the name (from Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">parush<\/span><em>,<\/em> “separated one,” though other suggestions have been made). A more carefully nuanced viewpoint calls attention to the Pharisees’ concern with ritual purity (cf. Mk 7:1-4). Some of the evidence indicates that the Pharisees wished to apply the priestly rituals to the people generally (this factor may help to explain the relative ease with which the Pharisees adapted to the absence of the temple and its sacrifices after <span>AD<\/span> 70). Still another position sees the Pharisees as the scholar class. The close connection between them and the scribes (experts in the law) gives credence to this view, as does the fact that much of the later rabbinic literature reflects an intellectual pursuit, particularly in its detailed logical argumentations regarding the meaning and application of the Torah.<\/p>\n<p>These various approaches are not mutually exclusive. Moreover, there appears to be widespread agreement about one theological conviction that was foundational to Pharisaism, namely, their commitment to the notion of a twofold law: the written Torah (the OT, principally the Pentateuch) and the oral Torah (the traditions handed down through many generations of rabbis). This is certainly one feature that distinguished them from the Sadducees (cf. Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 13.297-98). The latter accepted only the authority of the books of Moses and argued strongly that the importance that the Pharisees attached to oral traditions represented an unjustifiable innovation. These traditions, which sought to regulate the lives of the people before God, became more and more detailed over the course of time and were eventually brought together and written down as a single document, the Mishnah (dated c. <span>AD<\/span> 210). Somewhere in its development the view arose that the oral law itself had been given by God to Moses and thus shared divine authority with the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>A careful look at the NT helps in understanding that this feature more than anything else explains the nature of the conflict between the Pharisaic viewpoint and the message of the gospel. The apostle Paul, for example, stresses the distinctiveness of his apostolic preaching by contrasting it to “the traditions of the fathers,” which he zealously pursued in his youth (Gal 1:14). Especially instructive is the key passage in Mark 7, where it is written that the Pharisees complained to Jesus, “Why don’t your disciples live according to the tradition of the elders instead of eating their food with ‘unclean’ hands?” (v 5, <span>niv<\/span>). Christ’s reply counters their criticism with a serious indictment: “You have let go of the commands of God and are holding on to the traditions of men. . . . Thus you nullify the word of God by your tradition that you have handed down” (vv 8, 13 ; cf. Mt 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The importance the Pharisees attributed to their interpretations of the law compromised the authority of God’s own revelation. To make matters worse, the genius of those interpretations was to distort the doctrine of grace by relaxing the divine standards. The very example used by Jesus in Mark 7:10-12 indicates that a rabbinic regulation—the Corban—made it possible for people to ignore the fifth commandment and feel justified in so doing.<\/p>\n<p>The Pharisaic regulations were numerous and aggravating, but at least they could be fulfilled. Those who followed scrupulously the rabbinic traditions were in danger of concluding that their conduct satisfied God’s demands (cf. Paul’s description of his own preconversion attitude, Phil 3:6). And a muted sense of one’s sin goes hand in hand with a false sense of spiritual security; the need to depend on God’s mercy no longer appears crucial. This is, of course, the point of the parable of the publican and the Pharisee (Lk 18:9-14). In contrast, Jesus calls for a much higher righteousness than that of the Pharisees: “Be perfect, as your Father in heaven is perfect” (Mt 5:48; cf. v 20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Essenes; Jew; Judaism; Sadducees; Talmud; Torah; Tradition; Tradition, Oral.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHARISEES<\/h3>\n<p>Religious sect active in Palestine during the NT period. The Pharisees are consistently depicted in the Gospels as Jesus’ antagonists. It is commonly held that the Pharisees represented mainstream Judaism early in the first century and that they were characterized by a variety of morally objectionable features. Accordingly, most Bible dictionaries and similar works of reference depict the Pharisees as greedy, hypocritical, lacking a sense of justice, overly concerned with fulfilling the literal details of the law, and insensitive to the spiritual significance of the OT. These and other characteristics are furthermore viewed as giving shape to Judaism more generally.<\/p>\n<p>There are several problems with this common perception of Pharisaic Judaism. In the first place, the Gospels themselves give some important information that appears inconsistent with this view. Second, the primary documents of rabbinic Judaism (such as the Mishnah, the Talmud, and the Midrashim) are positive and praiseworthy. Third, it has become increasingly clear, especially since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, that prior to <span>AD<\/span> 70 the Pharisees constituted only a small movement in a highly diversified society; whatever their popularity and influence, they can hardly be taken as representative of Judaism in general.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/p>\n<p>The origins of the Pharisees are obscure. According to Jewish tradition, Pharisaic (= rabbinic) Judaism can be traced back to Ezra and the beginnings of the scribal movement in the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>. At the opposite extreme, a few scholars argue that, since there are no explicit references to the Pharisees in historical documents prior to the second century <span>BC<\/span>, Pharisaism appeared suddenly after the Maccabean revolt (167 <span>BC<\/span>). Many specialists take the position that perhaps as early as the third century <span>BC<\/span> one can find evidence of an incipient form of Pharisaism (as in The Wisdom of Joshua [Jesus] ben Sirach, also known as Ecclesiasticus). It may well be, moreover, that the intellectual pursuits associated with the work of the scribes did have something to do with the development of the Pharisees. It is also probable that prior to the Maccabean revolt some distinctive Pharisaic concerns appeared in connection with the development of the Hasidim (“the faithful ones”—traditionalists who opposed Greek influence in Jewish society).<\/p>\n<p>According to a popular and reasonable interpretation, the Hasidim became disillusioned with the Maccabean rulers, whose conduct violated Jewish sensibilities in several respects. Some of the Hasidim separated themselves from the nation and developed into nonconformist sects, such as that of the Essenes. Those who remained tried to exert their influence on Jewish life and developed into the sect of the Pharisees.<\/p>\n<p>The Pharisees no doubt played a significant role in Jewish affairs during the next century, even though at times they had little political clout. By NT times, they were widely recognized as religious leaders. Josephus, who tells us that he belonged to this sect, wrote toward the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span> that the Pharisees were “extremely influential among the townsfolk; and all prayers and sacred rites of divine worship are performed according to their exposition. This is the great tribute that the inhabitants of the cities, by practicing the highest ideal both in their way of living and in their discourse, have paid to the excellence of the Pharisees” (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.15). We cannot determine whether this description applies to the period before <span>AD<\/span> 70, but the evidence of the Gospels themselves confirms it to some extent. For example, the parable of the publican and the Pharisee (Lk 18:9-14), while it condemns the Pharisee, makes sense only if we appreciate the role reversal it announces: the wicked publican, not the one generally regarded as righteous, goes home justified.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BasicCharacteristics\">Basic Characteristics<\/p>\n<p>It is not possible to give an accurate characterization of the Pharisees, since scholars disagree sharply concerning their fundamental distinctiveness. Some stress the notion of “separateness,” partly on the basis of the supposed etymology of the name (from Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">parush<\/span><em>,<\/em> “separated one,” though other suggestions have been made). A more carefully nuanced viewpoint calls attention to the Pharisees’ concern with ritual purity (cf. Mk 7:1-4). Some of the evidence indicates that the Pharisees wished to apply the priestly rituals to the people generally (this factor may help to explain the relative ease with which the Pharisees adapted to the absence of the temple and its sacrifices after <span>AD<\/span> 70). Still another position sees the Pharisees as the scholar class. The close connection between them and the scribes (experts in the law) gives credence to this view, as does the fact that much of the later rabbinic literature reflects an intellectual pursuit, particularly in its detailed logical argumentations regarding the meaning and application of the Torah.<\/p>\n<p>These various approaches are not mutually exclusive. Moreover, there appears to be widespread agreement about one theological conviction that was foundational to Pharisaism, namely, their commitment to the notion of a twofold law: the written Torah (the OT, principally the Pentateuch) and the oral Torah (the traditions handed down through many generations of rabbis). This is certainly one feature that distinguished them from the Sadducees (cf. Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 13.297-98). The latter accepted only the authority of the books of Moses and argued strongly that the importance that the Pharisees attached to oral traditions represented an unjustifiable innovation. These traditions, which sought to regulate the lives of the people before God, became more and more detailed over the course of time and were eventually brought together and written down as a single document, the Mishnah (dated c. <span>AD<\/span> 210). Somewhere in its development the view arose that the oral law itself had been given by God to Moses and thus shared divine authority with the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>A careful look at the NT helps in understanding that this feature more than anything else explains the nature of the conflict between the Pharisaic viewpoint and the message of the gospel. The apostle Paul, for example, stresses the distinctiveness of his apostolic preaching by contrasting it to “the traditions of the fathers,” which he zealously pursued in his youth (Gal 1:14). Especially instructive is the key passage in Mark 7, where it is written that the Pharisees complained to Jesus, “Why don’t your disciples live according to the tradition of the elders instead of eating their food with ‘unclean’ hands?” (v 5, <span>niv<\/span>). Christ’s reply counters their criticism with a serious indictment: “You have let go of the commands of God and are holding on to the traditions of men. . . . Thus you nullify the word of God by your tradition that you have handed down” (vv 8, 13 ; cf. Mt 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The importance the Pharisees attributed to their interpretations of the law compromised the authority of God’s own revelation. To make matters worse, the genius of those interpretations was to distort the doctrine of grace by relaxing the divine standards. The very example used by Jesus in Mark 7:10-12 indicates that a rabbinic regulation—the Corban—made it possible for people to ignore the fifth commandment and feel justified in so doing.<\/p>\n<p>The Pharisaic regulations were numerous and aggravating, but at least they could be fulfilled. Those who followed scrupulously the rabbinic traditions were in danger of concluding that their conduct satisfied God’s demands (cf. Paul’s description of his own preconversion attitude, Phil 3:6). And a muted sense of one’s sin goes hand in hand with a false sense of spiritual security; the need to depend on God’s mercy no longer appears crucial. This is, of course, the point of the parable of the publican and the Pharisee (Lk 18:9-14). In contrast, Jesus calls for a much higher righteousness than that of the Pharisees: “Be perfect, as your Father in heaven is perfect” (Mt 5:48; cf. v 20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Essenes; Jew; Judaism; Sadducees; Talmud; Torah; Tradition; Tradition, Oral.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHARISEES Religious sect active in Palestine during the NT period. The Pharisees are consistently depicted in the Gospels as Jesus’ antagonists. It is commonly held that the Pharisees represented mainstream Judaism early in the first century and that they were characterized by a variety of morally objectionable features. Accordingly, most Bible dictionaries and similar works of reference depict the Pharisees as greedy, hypocritical, lacking a sense of justice, overly concerned with fulfilling...","summary_en":"PHARISEES Religious sect active in Palestine during the NT period. The Pharisees are consistently depicted in the Gospels as Jesus’ antagonists. It is commonly held that the Pharisees represented mainstream Judaism early in the first century and that they were characterized by a variety of morally objectionable features. Accordingly, most Bible dictionaries and similar works of reference depict the Pharisees as greedy, hypocritical, lacking a sense of justice, overly concerned with fulfilling...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38945,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zealot","title_en":"Zealot","content_ro":"<h3>ZEALOT<\/h3>\n<p>Term used for the second Simon among the Twelve to distinguish him from Simon Peter (Lk 6:15; Acts 1:13). Matthew (Mt 10:4) and Mark (Mk 3:18) use “Cananaean”—Greek and Aramaic equivalents for “zealous defender, enthusiast, one eager to acquire, fanatic” (from root words meaning “burn with zeal, or jealousy; desire eagerly”; Ex 34:14; 2 Macc 4:2). In this general sense, Christ showed zeal for God’s house. Some were “zealots” for spiritual gifts, good works, goodness, and the law, as Paul was for the tradition of the fathers and for God (Jn 2:17; Acts 21:20; 22:3; 1 Cor 14:12; Gal 1:14; Ti 2:14). So, Simon was distinguished from Peter and the others by his religious zeal.<\/p>\n<p>By the time Luke wrote, the title “Zealot” had become attached especially to a militant, anti-Roman, revolutionary faction, equally religious and political in motivation. This party may have been founded in <span>AD<\/span> 6, following the death of Herod the Great, by Judas the Galilean and Zadduk the Pharisee. The movement was rooted in Maccabean resistance to foreign rule and infiltration (1 Macc 2:15-28). Zealot opposition to Roman rule was rooted in zeal for the Torah and for God the only King. The Zealot regarded himself as an agent of divine judgment and redemption, resolutely and fearlessly contending against idolatry, apostasy, and collaboration. The Zealots thought that the Messiah would become their leader.<\/p>\n<p>As hostility between Rome and Judea sharpened, the religious motivation was channeled by nationalist feeling into a “holy war.” Whereas the Maccabees had been forced to take arms in self-defense, the Zealots became increasingly militaristic. Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.1-6; <em>War<\/em> 4.3.9), with some prejudice, calls them brigands and robbers. Their Latin name was <em>sicarii,<\/em> assassins, but supporters would call them patriotic guerrillas. They reached preeminence in the revolt against Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 66–70). Their last refuge and stronghold, at Masada, was overcome in <span>AD<\/span> 73, when the surviving 960 committed suicide.<\/p>\n<p>Simon probably was, or had been, a member of this movement’s earlier phase, around <span>AD<\/span> 30. It is less probable that Judas Iscariot (possibly Sicarius) and the “sons of thunder” (Mk 3:17) were. Judas the Galilean (Acts 5:37-38), and even Paul (21:38), were considered Zealots.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> First Jewish Revolt; Judaism.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEALOT<\/h3>\n<p>Term used for the second Simon among the Twelve to distinguish him from Simon Peter (Lk 6:15; Acts 1:13). Matthew (Mt 10:4) and Mark (Mk 3:18) use “Cananaean”—Greek and Aramaic equivalents for “zealous defender, enthusiast, one eager to acquire, fanatic” (from root words meaning “burn with zeal, or jealousy; desire eagerly”; Ex 34:14; 2 Macc 4:2). In this general sense, Christ showed zeal for God’s house. Some were “zealots” for spiritual gifts, good works, goodness, and the law, as Paul was for the tradition of the fathers and for God (Jn 2:17; Acts 21:20; 22:3; 1 Cor 14:12; Gal 1:14; Ti 2:14). So, Simon was distinguished from Peter and the others by his religious zeal.<\/p>\n<p>By the time Luke wrote, the title “Zealot” had become attached especially to a militant, anti-Roman, revolutionary faction, equally religious and political in motivation. This party may have been founded in <span>AD<\/span> 6, following the death of Herod the Great, by Judas the Galilean and Zadduk the Pharisee. The movement was rooted in Maccabean resistance to foreign rule and infiltration (1 Macc 2:15-28). Zealot opposition to Roman rule was rooted in zeal for the Torah and for God the only King. The Zealot regarded himself as an agent of divine judgment and redemption, resolutely and fearlessly contending against idolatry, apostasy, and collaboration. The Zealots thought that the Messiah would become their leader.<\/p>\n<p>As hostility between Rome and Judea sharpened, the religious motivation was channeled by nationalist feeling into a “holy war.” Whereas the Maccabees had been forced to take arms in self-defense, the Zealots became increasingly militaristic. Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.1-6; <em>War<\/em> 4.3.9), with some prejudice, calls them brigands and robbers. Their Latin name was <em>sicarii,<\/em> assassins, but supporters would call them patriotic guerrillas. They reached preeminence in the revolt against Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 66–70). Their last refuge and stronghold, at Masada, was overcome in <span>AD<\/span> 73, when the surviving 960 committed suicide.<\/p>\n<p>Simon probably was, or had been, a member of this movement’s earlier phase, around <span>AD<\/span> 30. It is less probable that Judas Iscariot (possibly Sicarius) and the “sons of thunder” (Mk 3:17) were. Judas the Galilean (Acts 5:37-38), and even Paul (21:38), were considered Zealots.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> First Jewish Revolt; Judaism.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEALOT Term used for the second Simon among the Twelve to distinguish him from Simon Peter (Lk 6:15; Acts 1:13). Matthew (Mt 10:4) and Mark (Mk 3:18) use “Cananaean”—Greek and Aramaic equivalents for “zealous defender, enthusiast, one eager to acquire, fanatic” (from root words meaning “burn with zeal, or jealousy; desire eagerly”; Ex 34:14; 2 Macc 4:2). In this general sense, Christ showed zeal for God’s house. Some were “zealots” for spiritual gifts, good works, goodness, and the law, as Pa...","summary_en":"ZEALOT Term used for the second Simon among the Twelve to distinguish him from Simon Peter (Lk 6:15; Acts 1:13). Matthew (Mt 10:4) and Mark (Mk 3:18) use “Cananaean”—Greek and Aramaic equivalents for “zealous defender, enthusiast, one eager to acquire, fanatic” (from root words meaning “burn with zeal, or jealousy; desire eagerly”; Ex 34:14; 2 Macc 4:2). In this general sense, Christ showed zeal for God’s house. Some were “zealots” for spiritual gifts, good works, goodness, and the law, as Pa...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57919,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:14","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>zeal for the traditions of my ancestors:<\/em> Cp. Mark 7:6-13.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>zeal for the traditions of my ancestors:<\/em> Cp. Mark 7:6-13.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:14 zeal for the traditions of my ancestors: Cp. Mark 7:6-13.","summary_en":"1:14 zeal for the traditions of my ancestors: Cp. Mark 7:6-13.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85545,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:14","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>zeal for the traditions of my ancestors:<\/em> Cp. Mark 7:6-13.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>zeal for the traditions of my ancestors:<\/em> Cp. Mark 7:6-13.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:14 zeal for the traditions of my ancestors: Cp. Mark 7:6-13.","summary_en":"1:14 zeal for the traditions of my ancestors: Cp. Mark 7:6-13.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113171,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:14","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>zeal for the traditions of my ancestors:<\/em> Cp. Mark 7:6-13.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>zeal for the traditions of my ancestors:<\/em> Cp. Mark 7:6-13.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:14 zeal for the traditions of my ancestors: Cp. Mark 7:6-13.","summary_en":"1:14 zeal for the traditions of my ancestors: Cp. Mark 7:6-13.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140797,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:14","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>zeal for the traditions of my ancestors:<\/em> Cp. Mark 7:6-13.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>zeal for the traditions of my ancestors:<\/em> Cp. Mark 7:6-13.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:14 zeal for the traditions of my ancestors: Cp. Mark 7:6-13.","summary_en":"1:14 zeal for the traditions of my ancestors: Cp. Mark 7:6-13.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":2409,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Apostleship Apostle","title_en":"Apostleship Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP<\/h3>\n<p>Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and conceptual backgrounds.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word for “apostle” is not used outside the NT in the same sense as it is in the NT. It is derived from the verb “to send” and is at home in the language of the sea meaning a particular “ship” or “group of ships,” a “marine expedition” or “the leader” of such. Its usage is almost always impersonal and thoroughly passive. There is no hint of personal initiative or authorization, merely the connotation of something being sent. Later papyri use the word to mean “bill” or “invoice” or even a “passport,” continuing to reflect the vocabulary of maritime affairs.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, the word was used to designate those who had been sent by Jesus with the proclamation of the gospel. From among the wider group of those who followed him, Jesus selected 12 men (Mt 10:1-4; Mk 3:13-19; Lk 6:12-16) who maintained with him a particularly close relationship, receiving private instruction and witnessing his miracles and controversy with the Jewish authorities. On one occasion, Jesus sent these men out to preach the message of repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick; that is, to minister in ways that were characteristic of his own work (Mt 10:1-15; Mk 6:7-13, 30; Lk 9:1-6). The same relationship is expressed in the saying “He who hears you hears me, and he who rejects you rejects me, and he who rejects me rejects him who sent me” (Lk 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 10:40). It is clear that the Twelve are not merely to pass Jesus’ teaching on but to represent his very person. After the resurrection, Jesus commissioned the Twelve (Mt 28; Lk 24; Jn 20–21) to proclaim God’s act in Christ on behalf of all men. Only those who had been with Jesus from the beginning of his ministry to his resurrection were qualified to be his apostolic witnesses (Acts 1:21-22). Paul qualified because he had seen the risen Christ (1 Cor 15:4-10).<\/p>\n<p>The Pauline writings demonstrate two characteristic usages of the word “apostle.” On occasion, it refers to persons authorized by local congregations and entrusted with the safe delivery of specific gifts for other members of the Christian community (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). More important are those passages where “apostle” takes on a more technical sense through the qualifying phrase “of Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 11:13; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 2:6). The “sent one” is the “sent one of Jesus Christ” (Rom 16:7; 1 Cor 9:1, 5; 12:28; Gal 1:17-19). In the statements where Paul claims his own right to this title, he argues along lines assuming the same basic apostolic concept that Jesus had. He consistently links this claim to a specific event in the past in which the risen Lord had appeared to him (1 Cor 9:1; Gal 1:12, 16). This appearance he ranked alongside those of the resurrection appearances (1 Cor 15:3-8). Paul understood his experience outside Damascus (cf. Acts 9:1-19a; 22:6-16; 26:12-18; Gal 1:17) as a lifelong commission to preach the now-resurrected One (1 Cor 1:17; 2:1-2) chiefly among the Gentiles (Acts 9:15; 22:15; 26:17, 23; Gal 1:15-16). It was through his preaching ministry that Christ continued to work, creating the new people of God (1 Cor 9:1-2; Gal 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP<\/h3>\n<p>Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and conceptual backgrounds.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word for “apostle” is not used outside the NT in the same sense as it is in the NT. It is derived from the verb “to send” and is at home in the language of the sea meaning a particular “ship” or “group of ships,” a “marine expedition” or “the leader” of such. Its usage is almost always impersonal and thoroughly passive. There is no hint of personal initiative or authorization, merely the connotation of something being sent. Later papyri use the word to mean “bill” or “invoice” or even a “passport,” continuing to reflect the vocabulary of maritime affairs.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, the word was used to designate those who had been sent by Jesus with the proclamation of the gospel. From among the wider group of those who followed him, Jesus selected 12 men (Mt 10:1-4; Mk 3:13-19; Lk 6:12-16) who maintained with him a particularly close relationship, receiving private instruction and witnessing his miracles and controversy with the Jewish authorities. On one occasion, Jesus sent these men out to preach the message of repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick; that is, to minister in ways that were characteristic of his own work (Mt 10:1-15; Mk 6:7-13, 30; Lk 9:1-6). The same relationship is expressed in the saying “He who hears you hears me, and he who rejects you rejects me, and he who rejects me rejects him who sent me” (Lk 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 10:40). It is clear that the Twelve are not merely to pass Jesus’ teaching on but to represent his very person. After the resurrection, Jesus commissioned the Twelve (Mt 28; Lk 24; Jn 20–21) to proclaim God’s act in Christ on behalf of all men. Only those who had been with Jesus from the beginning of his ministry to his resurrection were qualified to be his apostolic witnesses (Acts 1:21-22). Paul qualified because he had seen the risen Christ (1 Cor 15:4-10).<\/p>\n<p>The Pauline writings demonstrate two characteristic usages of the word “apostle.” On occasion, it refers to persons authorized by local congregations and entrusted with the safe delivery of specific gifts for other members of the Christian community (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). More important are those passages where “apostle” takes on a more technical sense through the qualifying phrase “of Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 11:13; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 2:6). The “sent one” is the “sent one of Jesus Christ” (Rom 16:7; 1 Cor 9:1, 5; 12:28; Gal 1:17-19). In the statements where Paul claims his own right to this title, he argues along lines assuming the same basic apostolic concept that Jesus had. He consistently links this claim to a specific event in the past in which the risen Lord had appeared to him (1 Cor 9:1; Gal 1:12, 16). This appearance he ranked alongside those of the resurrection appearances (1 Cor 15:3-8). Paul understood his experience outside Damascus (cf. Acts 9:1-19a; 22:6-16; 26:12-18; Gal 1:17) as a lifelong commission to preach the now-resurrected One (1 Cor 1:17; 2:1-2) chiefly among the Gentiles (Acts 9:15; 22:15; 26:17, 23; Gal 1:15-16). It was through his preaching ministry that Christ continued to work, creating the new people of God (1 Cor 9:1-2; Gal 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and con...","summary_en":"APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and con...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6501,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","title_en":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","content_ro":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","summary_en":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13088,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Galatians","title_en":"Letter to the Galatians","content_ro":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","summary_en":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29104,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57920,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> <em>even before I was born:<\/em> Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • <em>God chose me and called me:<\/em> For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to <em>proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles<\/em> (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • <em>to reveal his Son to me<\/em> (or <em>in me<\/em>): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); <em>in me<\/em> might also suggest an internal revelation (cp. Gal 2:20; 4:6-7) and implies that Paul’s changed heart revealed Christ to others.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> <em>even before I was born:<\/em> Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • <em>God chose me and called me:<\/em> For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to <em>proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles<\/em> (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • <em>to reveal his Son to me<\/em> (or <em>in me<\/em>): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); <em>in me<\/em> might also suggest an internal revelation (cp. Gal 2:20; 4:6-7) and implies that Paul’s changed heart revealed Christ to others.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15-16 even before I was born: Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • God chose me and called me: For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • to reveal his Son to me (or in me): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); in me m...","summary_en":"1:15-16 even before I was born: Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • God chose me and called me: For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • to reveal his Son to me (or in me): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); in me m...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85546,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> <em>even before I was born:<\/em> Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • <em>God chose me and called me:<\/em> For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to <em>proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles<\/em> (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • <em>to reveal his Son to me<\/em> (or <em>in me<\/em>): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); <em>in me<\/em> might also suggest an internal revelation (cp. Gal 2:20; 4:6-7) and implies that Paul’s changed heart revealed Christ to others.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> <em>even before I was born:<\/em> Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • <em>God chose me and called me:<\/em> For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to <em>proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles<\/em> (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • <em>to reveal his Son to me<\/em> (or <em>in me<\/em>): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); <em>in me<\/em> might also suggest an internal revelation (cp. Gal 2:20; 4:6-7) and implies that Paul’s changed heart revealed Christ to others.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15-16 even before I was born: Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • God chose me and called me: For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • to reveal his Son to me (or in me): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); in me m...","summary_en":"1:15-16 even before I was born: Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • God chose me and called me: For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • to reveal his Son to me (or in me): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); in me m...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113172,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> <em>even before I was born:<\/em> Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • <em>God chose me and called me:<\/em> For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to <em>proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles<\/em> (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • <em>to reveal his Son to me<\/em> (or <em>in me<\/em>): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); <em>in me<\/em> might also suggest an internal revelation (cp. Gal 2:20; 4:6-7) and implies that Paul’s changed heart revealed Christ to others.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> <em>even before I was born:<\/em> Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • <em>God chose me and called me:<\/em> For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to <em>proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles<\/em> (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • <em>to reveal his Son to me<\/em> (or <em>in me<\/em>): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); <em>in me<\/em> might also suggest an internal revelation (cp. Gal 2:20; 4:6-7) and implies that Paul’s changed heart revealed Christ to others.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15-16 even before I was born: Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • God chose me and called me: For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • to reveal his Son to me (or in me): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); in me m...","summary_en":"1:15-16 even before I was born: Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • God chose me and called me: For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • to reveal his Son to me (or in me): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); in me m...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140798,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> <em>even before I was born:<\/em> Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • <em>God chose me and called me:<\/em> For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to <em>proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles<\/em> (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • <em>to reveal his Son to me<\/em> (or <em>in me<\/em>): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); <em>in me<\/em> might also suggest an internal revelation (cp. Gal 2:20; 4:6-7) and implies that Paul’s changed heart revealed Christ to others.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15-16<\/strong> <em>even before I was born:<\/em> Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • <em>God chose me and called me:<\/em> For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to <em>proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles<\/em> (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • <em>to reveal his Son to me<\/em> (or <em>in me<\/em>): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); <em>in me<\/em> might also suggest an internal revelation (cp. Gal 2:20; 4:6-7) and implies that Paul’s changed heart revealed Christ to others.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15-16 even before I was born: Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • God chose me and called me: For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • to reveal his Son to me (or in me): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); in me m...","summary_en":"1:15-16 even before I was born: Cp. Jer 1:5; see also Ps 139:13-16; Isa 49:1-6; Rom 9:10-13. • God chose me and called me: For the account of Paul’s conversion, see Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:9-23. • Paul’s calling was specifically to proclaim the Good News about Jesus to the Gentiles (Gal 2:7), and he even educated other apostles in what that means (e.g., 2:11-21). • to reveal his Son to me (or in me): This might refer to Paul’s encounter with Christ (Acts 9:1-19; cp. 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8); in me m...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":5240,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Blood","title_en":"Blood","content_ro":"<h3>BLOOD<\/h3>\n<p>Fluid that circulates through the body of a person or a vertebrate animal. Aside from reference to the common physical substance, the term “blood” has a number of metaphorical uses in the Bible. At times, it refers to a red color: “the sun will be turned into darkness, and the moon will turn bloodred” (Acts 2:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “blood of the grape” means wine (Dt 32:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the NT the expression “flesh and blood” refers to human life, to “natural” humanity: “Flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father who is in heaven” (Mt 16:17, <span>rsv<\/span>; see also 1 Cor 15:50; Gal 1:16; Eph 6:12). After betraying Jesus, Judas recognized that he had “sinned in betraying innocent blood” (Mt 27:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). In such passages “blood” has reference to life lived at the human level, natural life as opposed to spiritual or divine life.<\/p>\n<p>The term “blood” is also used in the sense of shedding blood, that is, in killing or murder. Psalm 9:12 speaks of one “who avenges blood.” Genesis 37:26 refers to the brothers who concealed Joseph’s blood, that is, his murder. To be “burdened with the blood of another” (Prv 28:17, <span>rsv<\/span>) means to be guilty of murder. At the crucifixion Pilate said, “I am innocent of the blood of this man” (Mt 27:24-25). Thus, the idea of violent death is regularly connected with blood.<\/p>\n<p>The logic of such expressions becomes particularly clear when one sees how closely life is associated with blood. Three passages specifically tie the two together. “Only you shall not eat flesh with its life, that is, its blood” (Gn 9:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). “For the life of the flesh is in the blood” (Lv 17:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). “The only restriction is never to eat the blood, for the blood is the life” (Dt 12:23, <span>tlb<\/span>). Because God is the author of all life, any shedding of blood (any killing) is a serious matter. A certain sanctity associated with blood forms the basis for prohibitions against eating it. (Compare what the apostles said in Acts 15:20.) Blood stands for the “life principle” that is from God.<\/p>\n<p>Because of its association with life, blood takes on a special significance in the sacrificial motif. On the Day of Atonement (Lv 16), the blood of a bull and of a goat was sprinkled upon the altar as a “covering” of the people’s sin. Life was poured out in death. Animal life was given up on behalf of the life of the people. Judgment and atonement were carried out through a transfer of the sin of the people to the animal sacrifice. Transference is depicted also by the scapegoat in the same ceremony (Lv 16:20-22). In the first Passover (Ex 12:1-13), the blood bore the same meaning. Animal blood posted on each door was a sign that a death had already taken place, so the angel of death passed over.<\/p>\n<p>Further, because life is connected with blood, blood becomes the supreme offering to God. In the ratification of the covenant (Ex 24), Moses poured half the sacrificial blood on the altar; after reading the covenant to the people and receiving their affirmative response, he sprinkled the rest of the blood on them and said, “This blood confirms the covenant the <span>Lord<\/span> has made with you in giving you these laws” (Ex 24:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Sprinkling blood on both the altar and the people bound God and the Israelites together in covenant relationship. In the sacrifices of Israel, blood stood for death and depending on the context, might also stand for judgment, sacrifice, substitution, or redemption. Life with God was made possible by blood.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, apart from medical references (e.g., Mt 9:20) and references to murder (e.g., Acts 22:20), the primary reference is to the blood of Christ, an allusion to the OT motifs. The synoptic Gospels show that at the Last Supper Jesus spoke of his blood with reference to a new covenant (Mt 26:28; Mk 14:24; Lk 22:20). The language surrounding those sayings reveals the sacrificial motif; Jesus was speaking of his death and its redemptive significance. The fourth Gospel expresses the same theology in different terms and in a different context: “Unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you cannot have eternal life within you” (Jn 6:53, <span>nlt<\/span>). The believer is said to participate by faith in the death and resurrection of the Lord (see also 1 Cor 10:16).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul’s letters likewise associate blood with Christ’s death, so much so that the word becomes—like the term “cross”—synonymous with the death of Christ in its saving significance: making peace “by means of his blood on the cross” (Col 1:20, <span>nlt<\/span>); and in a passage on reconciliation: “though you once were far away from God, now you have been brought near to him because of the blood of Christ” (Eph 2:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). “Blood” and “cross” both stand for the death of Jesus in reconciling Jew and Gentile to God and in the creation of a new humanity. Paul evidently had in mind the sacrifice of the Day of Atonement when he said that God purposed that Christ be an atoning sacrifice by his blood (Rom 3:25). His vocabulary (from Lv 16) focused on the most important sacrifice of Jewish tradition.<\/p>\n<p>Peter made reference to the blood of the covenant (Ex 24) when he described Christian exiles as having been sprinkled with the blood of Christ (1 Pt 1:2). He reminded his readers that they had been redeemed by that blood (v 19). In calling Christ the “spotless lamb of God,” he may have had in mind either the servant of Isaiah 53 or the Passover lamb, both of which had redemptive significance in his readers’ minds. Finally, to the writer of Hebrews the whole OT system of sacrifices found its ultimate fulfillment in the blood of Christ, that is, in his sacrificial death (Heb 9:7-28; 13:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, NT references to the blood of Christ point to the culminating and comprehensive redemption achieved by God in the death of his Son (Heb 10:20). Both justice and justification were thus achieved (Rom 3:26). The blood of Christ is therefore called the “once for all” means of redemption (Heb 9:26). <em>See<\/em> Atonement; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BLOOD<\/h3>\n<p>Fluid that circulates through the body of a person or a vertebrate animal. Aside from reference to the common physical substance, the term “blood” has a number of metaphorical uses in the Bible. At times, it refers to a red color: “the sun will be turned into darkness, and the moon will turn bloodred” (Acts 2:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “blood of the grape” means wine (Dt 32:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the NT the expression “flesh and blood” refers to human life, to “natural” humanity: “Flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father who is in heaven” (Mt 16:17, <span>rsv<\/span>; see also 1 Cor 15:50; Gal 1:16; Eph 6:12). After betraying Jesus, Judas recognized that he had “sinned in betraying innocent blood” (Mt 27:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). In such passages “blood” has reference to life lived at the human level, natural life as opposed to spiritual or divine life.<\/p>\n<p>The term “blood” is also used in the sense of shedding blood, that is, in killing or murder. Psalm 9:12 speaks of one “who avenges blood.” Genesis 37:26 refers to the brothers who concealed Joseph’s blood, that is, his murder. To be “burdened with the blood of another” (Prv 28:17, <span>rsv<\/span>) means to be guilty of murder. At the crucifixion Pilate said, “I am innocent of the blood of this man” (Mt 27:24-25). Thus, the idea of violent death is regularly connected with blood.<\/p>\n<p>The logic of such expressions becomes particularly clear when one sees how closely life is associated with blood. Three passages specifically tie the two together. “Only you shall not eat flesh with its life, that is, its blood” (Gn 9:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). “For the life of the flesh is in the blood” (Lv 17:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). “The only restriction is never to eat the blood, for the blood is the life” (Dt 12:23, <span>tlb<\/span>). Because God is the author of all life, any shedding of blood (any killing) is a serious matter. A certain sanctity associated with blood forms the basis for prohibitions against eating it. (Compare what the apostles said in Acts 15:20.) Blood stands for the “life principle” that is from God.<\/p>\n<p>Because of its association with life, blood takes on a special significance in the sacrificial motif. On the Day of Atonement (Lv 16), the blood of a bull and of a goat was sprinkled upon the altar as a “covering” of the people’s sin. Life was poured out in death. Animal life was given up on behalf of the life of the people. Judgment and atonement were carried out through a transfer of the sin of the people to the animal sacrifice. Transference is depicted also by the scapegoat in the same ceremony (Lv 16:20-22). In the first Passover (Ex 12:1-13), the blood bore the same meaning. Animal blood posted on each door was a sign that a death had already taken place, so the angel of death passed over.<\/p>\n<p>Further, because life is connected with blood, blood becomes the supreme offering to God. In the ratification of the covenant (Ex 24), Moses poured half the sacrificial blood on the altar; after reading the covenant to the people and receiving their affirmative response, he sprinkled the rest of the blood on them and said, “This blood confirms the covenant the <span>Lord<\/span> has made with you in giving you these laws” (Ex 24:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Sprinkling blood on both the altar and the people bound God and the Israelites together in covenant relationship. In the sacrifices of Israel, blood stood for death and depending on the context, might also stand for judgment, sacrifice, substitution, or redemption. Life with God was made possible by blood.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, apart from medical references (e.g., Mt 9:20) and references to murder (e.g., Acts 22:20), the primary reference is to the blood of Christ, an allusion to the OT motifs. The synoptic Gospels show that at the Last Supper Jesus spoke of his blood with reference to a new covenant (Mt 26:28; Mk 14:24; Lk 22:20). The language surrounding those sayings reveals the sacrificial motif; Jesus was speaking of his death and its redemptive significance. The fourth Gospel expresses the same theology in different terms and in a different context: “Unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you cannot have eternal life within you” (Jn 6:53, <span>nlt<\/span>). The believer is said to participate by faith in the death and resurrection of the Lord (see also 1 Cor 10:16).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul’s letters likewise associate blood with Christ’s death, so much so that the word becomes—like the term “cross”—synonymous with the death of Christ in its saving significance: making peace “by means of his blood on the cross” (Col 1:20, <span>nlt<\/span>); and in a passage on reconciliation: “though you once were far away from God, now you have been brought near to him because of the blood of Christ” (Eph 2:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). “Blood” and “cross” both stand for the death of Jesus in reconciling Jew and Gentile to God and in the creation of a new humanity. Paul evidently had in mind the sacrifice of the Day of Atonement when he said that God purposed that Christ be an atoning sacrifice by his blood (Rom 3:25). His vocabulary (from Lv 16) focused on the most important sacrifice of Jewish tradition.<\/p>\n<p>Peter made reference to the blood of the covenant (Ex 24) when he described Christian exiles as having been sprinkled with the blood of Christ (1 Pt 1:2). He reminded his readers that they had been redeemed by that blood (v 19). In calling Christ the “spotless lamb of God,” he may have had in mind either the servant of Isaiah 53 or the Passover lamb, both of which had redemptive significance in his readers’ minds. Finally, to the writer of Hebrews the whole OT system of sacrifices found its ultimate fulfillment in the blood of Christ, that is, in his sacrificial death (Heb 9:7-28; 13:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, NT references to the blood of Christ point to the culminating and comprehensive redemption achieved by God in the death of his Son (Heb 10:20). Both justice and justification were thus achieved (Rom 3:26). The blood of Christ is therefore called the “once for all” means of redemption (Heb 9:26). <em>See<\/em> Atonement; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BLOOD Fluid that circulates through the body of a person or a vertebrate animal. Aside from reference to the common physical substance, the term “blood” has a number of metaphorical uses in the Bible. At times, it refers to a red color: “the sun will be turned into darkness, and the moon will turn bloodred” (Acts 2:20, nlt). The “blood of the grape” means wine (Dt 32:14, rsv). In the NT the expression “flesh and blood” refers to human life, to “natural” humanity: “Flesh and blood has not reve...","summary_en":"BLOOD Fluid that circulates through the body of a person or a vertebrate animal. Aside from reference to the common physical substance, the term “blood” has a number of metaphorical uses in the Bible. At times, it refers to a red color: “the sun will be turned into darkness, and the moon will turn bloodred” (Acts 2:20, nlt). The “blood of the grape” means wine (Dt 32:14, rsv). In the NT the expression “flesh and blood” refers to human life, to “natural” humanity: “Flesh and blood has not reve...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14598,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gospel","title_en":"Gospel","content_ro":"<h3>GOSPEL<\/h3>\n<p>Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon <em>godspell<\/em> denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.”<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelMessageofIsaiah\">The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p>Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his saving action except in his own nature. Israel’s deliverance is undeserved; she is no more worthy of the divine love now than when she went into captivity. In whatever measure she has paid the just due for her past sins (Is 40:2), she remains a sinful people (42:25; 46:12-13; 48:1). It is only by God’s grace that she is saved (55:1-7). By God’s design, Israel’s salvation depends not upon her own righteousness but upon his (41:10; 45:24; 46:13; 51:5-6). There being no righteousness to reward, the Lord acts to <em>create<\/em> righteousness in Israel (45:8; 61:3, 10-11). Yet as these references indicate, salvation is not accomplished at the expense of justice. The penalty for Israel’s sins is to be paid in full. God’s mercy is not hereby called into question. On the contrary, it is precisely here that his mercy is most poignantly expressed, for the penalty is exacted not from his people but from the Servant appointed to stand in their place (53:4-12). Through the Servant’s work, many shall be justified (53:11). The coming of the Evangelist—the preacher of the good news—is predicted in Isaiah 61. He is called the anointed One (v 1) who proclaims the year of the Lord’s favor (v 2). God will be glorified through his preaching (v 3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelintheNewTestament\">The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In only two places (Gal 3:8; Heb 4:2, 6) does the NT speak of the proclamation of the gospel prior to the Christian era. This is quite remarkable, given (1) the unmistakable presence of the gospel in the OT, (2) the extent of gospel terminology in the NT (in the Greek the noun appears 76 times; and the verb, 54), and (3) the fact that the NT presents Christ as the fulfillment of the OT and draws heavily on the OT to interpret his person and work. Not only is it remarkable; it is very significant. It indicates that the NT usage depends not only upon the <em>character<\/em> of the message (truth about salvation) but also upon <em>historical events.<\/em> Almost without exception, the NT restricts its application of gospel terminology to proclamations made during the time of fulfillment—the age in which the salvation promised in the OT is actually accomplished. The NT is preoccupied, not with promises of salvation, but with news of salvation. According to Mark 1:1-4, the gospel “begins” not in the OT but with John the Baptist, in whose work OT prophecy is fulfilled. In Romans 1:1-5 the gospel is represented as a blessing promised in the OT but not actually given until Jesus comes (see also Acts 13:32-33).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGoodNewsofChristsComing\">The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n<p>The promised birth of John the Baptist is good news (Lk 1:19), not only for his parents (vv 7, 24-25) but for all the people: John is sent to prepare them for Messiah’s coming (vv 14-17, 67-79). John’s own preaching is gospel (3:18) for the same reason. The Messiah would be coming to execute judgment, a process that involves both condemnation and salvation (vv 3-17). John’s message is gospel for sinners in that they are warned of impending doom and urged to repent before the ax falls (vv 7-9); it is gospel for the repentant in that they are promised forgiveness (v 3) and membership in Messiah’s community (v 17). The birth of the Savior himself is announced as good news bringing great joy (2:10-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelaccordingtoJesus\">The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Kingdom of God<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was authorized by God and anointed by the Spirit to proclaim the gospel (Mk 1:14; Lk 4:18). At the heart of his preaching stands the announcement “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel” (Mk 1:15). (For further references to this gospel, see Mt 4:23; 9:35; 24:14; 26:13; Mk 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; Lk 4:43; 8:1; 16:16.) The message is good news for several reasons: (1) The kingdom is coming. The God whom Jesus proclaims is sovereign over all he has made. Yet paradoxically his rule is incomplete: his will is not done on earth as it is in heaven; wrong, not right, prevails. But these conditions are not final, according to Jesus. With the coming of the kingdom, God’s rule will be completed; wrong will be judged, righteousness established, and his people blessed. (2) The kingdom is <em>now<\/em> being inaugurated. “The time is fulfilled,” declares Jesus (Mk 1:15a). The time appointed for the fulfillment of the OT promises has arrived. (3) The consummation of the kingdom is therefore no longer a distant prospect; the full realization of God’s rule is “at hand” (Mk 1:15b). (4) God is establishing his rule for a saving purpose. This is implied in Jesus’ call to repentance (Mk 1:15c). It is especially clear in the passages to which we now turn.<\/p>\n<h5>The Salvation of the Poor<\/h5>\n<p>Invited to read the Scripture in the synagogue at Nazareth, Jesus turns to Isaiah 61: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord” (Lk 4:18-19, <span>rsv<\/span>). Having read the prophecy, Jesus announces its fulfillment in his own ministry (v 21). Included among those whom Jesus has come to free are the physically infirm, such as the blind (v 18) and the leprous (v 27) (cf. the references to healing miracles in vv 23, 33-41; the close connection between evangelizing and healing in Mt 4:23; 9:35; 11:5; Lk 7:21-22; 9:6; and the description in Mt 12:22-29; Lk 13:11-16, of the physically afflicted as captives of Satan now liberated by Jesus). Also included are the materially poor—people like the widow helped by Elijah during the famine (Lk 4:25-26). It is the literally poor and hungry whom Jesus pronounces “blessed” in Luke 6:20-21. Yet it is primarily “spiritual” poverty that is in view. Still applying Isaiah 61, Jesus speaks in Matthew 5:3 of the “poor in spirit.” These are people broken and grieved by misery and poverty, oppression and injustice, suffering and death, national apostasy and personal sin—people who in their extremity turn to God and longingly wait for him to bring forth justice, bestow his mercy, and establish his kingdom. It is to just such people that Jesus brings good news (Mt 5:3-10). God sent him to usher in the kingdom, to rescue the lost, to liberate the enslaved, to cure the afflicted, to bind up hearts that are broken, and to forgive the guilty (Mk 2:5, 10, 17; 10:45; Lk 4:18-21; 7:48-49; 15:1-32; 19:10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gift of Grace<\/h5>\n<p>The coming of the kingdom is not the effect or the reward of human effort but God’s answer to the human predicament—the gift of his favor (Lk 12:32). Correspondingly, the explanation for the salvation of the poor lies nowhere but in God’s own character. As the prodigal himself recognized, he hardly deserved to be his father’s servant, much less his son. Nothing he did, not even his repentance, accounted for the father’s love (15:11-32). In the parable of Matthew 20:1-16, it is owing entirely to the goodness of the employer that the last workers to be hired receive a full day’s wages. The first debtor in the story of Matthew 18:23-35 earned nothing but the right to be sold into slavery; instead, the king canceled his enormous debt. The publican, who had nothing to offer God but a confession of sin and plea for mercy, went home justified (Lk 18:13-14). The same holds true for the more virtuous among the poor, such as the persons described in Matthew 5:7-10. Their virtue is real, not imagined. Yet in keeping God’s commands, they do not put him in their debt; they are simply doing their duty (Lk 17:7-10). Furthermore, even the most merciful need divine mercy (Mt 5:7). For even those most zealous to obey God’s law are unable to fulfill all its requirements (cf. 11:28-30). The first servant in Matthew 18:23-35 owes far more money than someone in such a situation could possibly pay—which serves to magnify the generosity of the king. Grace depends for its exercise upon the inability of its objects (Lk 14:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>The Call to Salvation<\/h5>\n<p>The Israelites are without exception a sinful people, all of them needing the salvation that Jesus brings (Mt 1:21; Lk 1:77). In demonstration of God’s grace, Jesus proclaimed his gospel to the entire nation (Mt 4:23; 9:35; 15:24; Lk 4:43; 9:6; 20:1). From the most respectable to the least, all are summoned to submit to God’s rule, all are invited to come and partake freely of the banquet he has spread (Lk 14:16-24). But the gift of salvation must be received if it is to be experienced (Mk 10:15). And while it is indeed a gift that costs nothing, it is also a priceless treasure for which a wise person will freely sacrifice everything else (Mt 13:44-46), a sacrifice exceeded only by the cost of rejecting the gospel (Mt 11:20-24; Mk 8:34-39; Lk 14:24, 33). “Repent and believe in the gospel,” Jesus commands (Mk 1:15). The self-righteous and the self-sufficient must be jolted out of their false sense of security and humbly recognize their need for God (Lk 6:24-26). Only then will Jesus’ message to the poor be seen as gospel. An announcement of liberation (4:18-19) is good news only to people who are enslaved and know they are. The command applies also to the destitute and the afflicted. Those among them who bemoan their lot must repent of their sins. But something further is needed for the response to be complete: a person cannot believe Jesus’ gospel without a commitment to the <em>Person<\/em> of Christ (Jn 3:16). Even those who are already “poor in spirit,” in the sense defined earlier, are not really “blessed” until they acknowledge the truth of Jesus’ claims (Mt 11:6) and commit themselves to a life of obedience on his terms (7:21-27). This prepares us for the next point.<\/p>\n<h5>Summary<\/h5>\n<p>Throughout Jesus’ earthly ministry, the theme of his gospel remains the dawning of God’s kingdom (Mt 4:23; 24:14; Lk 4:43; 16:16), a message that is preached almost exclusively to Jews (Mt 10:5-6; 15:24). Yet Jesus also provides glimpses into what the gospel was to become once his work on earth was accomplished: (1) In Mark 8:35 and 10:29 Jesus speaks of individuals who needed to make great sacrifices “for my sake and for the gospel.” While distinguished from each other, the person of Jesus and the gospel are here associated in the closest possible way. The time was approaching when the Proclaimer of the gospel would become the Proclaimed. (2) In Mark 13:10 and Matthew 24:14 (and the textually doubtful Mk 16:15) Jesus foretells the preaching of the gospel of the kingdom to the gentile nations. (3) In Mark 14, having interpreted a woman’s action (v 3) as an anointing of his body beforehand for burial (v 8), Jesus declares, “And truly, I say to you, wherever the gospel is preached in the whole world, what she has done will be told in memory of her” (v 9, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 26:13). This statement strongly implies that both the person of Jesus and the event of his death will figure prominently in the message that is to be proclaimed; otherwise, it is strange that the gospel and this particular act should be so solemnly bound together. Thus, here in the text already is an indication of how crucial Jesus’ death is both for the provision of the salvation announced in his gospel (cf. Mk 14:22-24) and for the launching of the evangelistic mission to the Gentiles (Mt 20:28 is vital for explaining the shift from Mt 15:24 to 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelafterJesusResurrection\">The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\n<p>After the resurrection of Jesus, the gospel was proclaimed by his eyewitnesses. The contents of this gospel are recorded in the book of Acts and in Paul’s letters. Of the 43 instances of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">euangelizomai<\/span> (“evangelize”) beyond the Gospels, 15 occur in Acts and 21 in Paul’s writings; of the 64 instances of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">euangelion<\/span> (“gospel”), 2 occur in Acts and no fewer than 60 in Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Having risen from the dead, Jesus Christ again evangelizes (Eph 2:16-17), doing so now through his appointed representatives (Rom 15:16-18; 1 Cor 1:17; 9:12-18; Gal 4:13-14; Eph 4:11; 2 Tm 1:9-11). More than that, Christ has become the central theme of the gospel; the Proclaimer is now the Proclaimed. This is repeatedly affirmed in Acts (5:42; 8:4-5, 35; 11:20; 17:18) and in Paul’s writings (Rom 1:1-4; 10:8-17; 15:19-20; 2 Cor 4:4-6; 11:4; Gal 1:16; Eph 3:8; Phil 1:15-18; 2 Tm 2:8). The NT always speaks of <em>the gospel<\/em>—never the gospels—of Christ. A second gospel is as inconceivable and as unnecessary as a second Christ. This is the one gospel that God authorizes (e.g., Rom 1:1-17) and proclaims (e.g., 2 Thes 2:13-14). Galatians 2:7-9 speaks not of two gospels but of two mission fields. Paul (the apostle to the uncircumcised) and Peter (the apostle to the circumcised) are both entrusted with “the gospel of Christ” (Gal 1:7; cf. 1 Cor 15:1-11), the message that God has ordained for the salvation of Jews and Gentiles alike (Rom 1:16). The “different gospel” that Paul denounces in Galatians 1:6-9 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is not another gospel about Jesus but a message about “another Jesus”—not the real one, but one who exists only in the minds and the messages of those who proclaim him. To preach the true Christ is to preach the true gospel, however questionable one’s motives (Phil 1:15-18, 27), and to respond rightly to the gospel is to turn to Christ (Acts 11:20-21; Rom 10:8-17; Gal 2:14-16).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Witness to Saving Events<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel bears witness to every aspect of Christ’s saving work, from his birth (Rom 1:3; 2 Tm 2:8) and public ministry (Mk 1:1; Acts 10:36-38) to his second coming (Col 1:5, 23; cf. 3:1-4; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and the last judgment (Rom 2:16). But it is the death and the resurrection of Christ that are most crucial for the accomplishment of salvation, and that are therefore most prominent in the gospel’s witness. These are the events with which Mark’s proclamation climaxes (chs 15–16), and for which everything else prepares (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34; 12:6-8); special stress is placed upon Jesus’ death as the means of salvation from sin (10:45; 14:3-9, 22-24). In Paul’s gospel, too, the death and resurrection of Jesus are central (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:1-4), with the cross occupying the very center (1 Cor 1:17–2:5). Had Christ not risen from the dead, Paul argues, the preaching of the cross would be a waste of time (1 Cor 15:14, 17; cf. Rom 6:3-11). However, now that Christ has risen, his death deserves special emphasis as the place where God provides atonement for sins (Rom 3:21-26; 5:6-11; 2 Cor 5:14-21; Eph 1:7). The gospel according to Acts proclaims Jesus’ death (Acts 8:25; 20:24, 28; cf. 10:36-43) and preeminently his resurrection, the event by which he conquered death and was exalted as Lord and coming Judge (10:36-43; 13:32-33; 17:18, 31). According to 1 Peter, the bearers of the gospel (1 Pt 1:12) concentrated, as had the OT prophets, on “the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory” (1:11; cf. 1:18-19; 2:21-24; 3:18-22).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Power for Salvation<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel is much more than a report of past events and an exposition of doctrine. Paul declares in 1 Corinthians 1:17-18 and again in Romans 1:16 that the gospel is “the power of God”—not merely a witness to his power but an <em>expression<\/em> of his power. Thus, it cannot be fettered (2 Tm 2:8-9). “Our gospel came to you not only in word, but also in power,” Paul writes in 1 Thessalonians 1:5. His point is not that the gospel was accompanied by mighty works (though this happened; cf. Rom 15:18-19), but that the gospel itself is a mighty work. God makes it so through his Holy Spirit (Rom 15:18-19; 1 Cor 2:1-5; 1 Thes 1:6). Furthermore, God’s singular purpose in exercising his power is to change people’s lives, to liberate them from sin and death, and to reconcile them to himself—in short, to save them. The gospel has power to effect the salvation it announces and to impart the life it promises (e.g., Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-18; 15:1-2; Eph 1:13; 2 Thes 2:13-14; 2 Tm 1:8-11; 1 Pt 1:23-25). If people are to experience salvation, they must hear and believe the gospel. It is precisely in and through this message that the saving power manifested in the person and work of Christ (especially in his death and resurrection) is conveyed to men and made effective in their lives. Similarly it is in association with the gospel, or as a direct result of the reception of the gospel, that the Holy Spirit is imparted to believers (Acts 10:36-44; 15:7-8; 2 Cor 11:4; Gal 3:1-2). In short, the gospel is the decisive place of encounter between the sinner and God the Savior.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Grace<\/h5>\n<p>According to Peter’s testimony at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:7-11), an essential part of the gospel—for Gentiles and Jews alike—is salvation “through the grace of the Lord Jesus.” Toward the close of his missionary career, Paul states that his basic concern has been “to testify to the gospel of the grace of God” (Acts 20:24, <span>rsv<\/span>). This statement can be understood only in relation to Paul’s concept of the righteousness of God, particularly as set forth in Romans. Paul is here not merely expounding a divine attribute. Rather, he is dramatizing a divine activity—the manifestation of God’s righteousness now, “in the present time” (Rom 3:26), in the new age inaugurated by the coming of Jesus. The manifestation is twofold. Viewing the two aspects together, and doing so in the light of the gospel declared by Isaiah and by Jesus (both of whom strongly influenced Paul), respectively, will help us to understand why Paul speaks of “the gospel of the grace of God.”<\/p>\n<p>First, the gospel is a <em>witness<\/em> to God’s grace. In offering his Son as a sacrifice for sins (Rom 3:25a), God demonstrates his righteousness (vv 25b-26). That is, in the death of Jesus sins formerly “passed over” (v 25c) become the object of God’s wrath (cf. 1:18) and judgment. Yet in the very place where God deals justly and decisively with sins, he shows his grace to sinners. For the judgment against sin is focused not upon the sinners themselves but upon the One appointed to act on their behalf and to stand in their place (Rom 4:25; 5:6, 11; cf. 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 3:13). On this basis, sinners are freely pardoned (Rom 3:24). “The grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11) toward the sinful is also in evidence, for he willingly bears their iniquities and suffers the consequences of their wrongdoing (Gal 2:20; cf. 2 Cor 8:9; Phil 2:6-8).<\/p>\n<p>Second, the gospel is a <em>channel<\/em> of God’s grace. “The righteousness of God is revealed” in the gospel, says Paul (Rom 1:17). By this he means, not that the gospel talks about the righteousness of God (though it does), but that God’s righteousness is actively at work in the gospel. This activity in turn explains how the gospel becomes “the power of God for salvation” (v 16). And just how does God demonstrate his righteousness at this stage? In short, by bestowing it as a free gift on sinful human beings. It remains the righteousness of God, but by God’s grace, it is a righteousness in which humans may share. Furthermore, partaking of God’s righteousness depends on being personally united with Jesus Christ. In Paul’s view the saved person is one who has been acquitted, justified, “declared righteous” by God the judge. The basis for the verdict is not that I in myself am righteous (God justifies the ungodly, Rom 4:5). Nor does God treat me as though I were righteous. According to Paul I am declared righteous because I really <em>am<\/em> righteous—not in myself but in Christ (1 Cor 1:30; 2 Cor 5:21; Phil 3:9). This union is established through the revelation—and the free offer—of God’s righteousness in the gospel (Rom 1:16-17).<\/p>\n<h5>Responding to the Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel calls for a threefold response:<\/p>\n<p>1. <em>Believing.<\/em> The gospel, says Paul, is “the power of God for salvation to every one who has faith” (Rom 1:16). For Paul, faith is the abandonment of all reliance upon “works of law” for justification (3:28) and utter dependence upon the grace of God as demonstrated in the work of Christ, especially his death (v 25). Accordingly, the “different gospel” of Galatians 1:6 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is spurious, for it preaches salvation by personal merit rather than (or together with) the work of Christ (cf. Gal 2:16). Ultimately faith rests upon God (Rom 4:24; 1 Thes 1:8-9) and upon Christ (Rom 3:22, 26; Gal 2:16, 20). Yet it is imperative that one believe the gospel also (Acts 8:12; 11:20-21; 15:7; Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-24; Phil 1:27; Heb 4:2), for it is just by this means that God’s salvation is made known and mediated. Moreover, believing the gospel entails repentance (Acts 14:15; 20:21, 24; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and obedience (Rom 1:5; 15:16-18; Heb 4:6). Those who refuse to obey the gospel are imperiling their lives (2 Thes 1:5-10; 1 Pt 4:17).<\/p>\n<p>2. <em>Growing.<\/em> The Gospel is more than a message to be received—it is also a place in which to stand (1 Cor 15:1-2). It is sustainer of life as well as giver of life. One grows as a Christian not by turning from the gospel to other things (to turn away from the gospel is to abandon God and Christ, Gal 1:6), but by going ever more deeply into the gospel. In Romans 1:15 Paul expresses his eagerness to proclaim the gospel to the Christians in Rome. In the following chapters, anticipating his visit, he offers one of his most profound expositions of the gospel—one whose truth has never been fathomed and whose power has never been exhausted.<\/p>\n<p>3. <em>Hoping.<\/em> “The hope of the gospel” (Col 1:23) includes not only the return of Christ and the glory of heaven (Col 1:5; 3:1-4; 2 Thes 2:14-16) but the final judgment as well. For those who embrace the gospel, the last judgment holds no terrors, because the Judge is the very one who rescues them from the wrath to come (1 Thes 1:10). Those who are united to him need not dread condemnation now or at the end (Rom 8:1). Instead, the last judgment will mark their final vindication (1 Cor 4:5; Gal 5:5). Accordingly, this theme is not just a corollary but an integral part of the Good News (Rom 2:16). Those who have died since believing the gospel (1 Pt 4:6) may seem to have suffered a fate common to all people, or even the condemnation reserved for the lawless; in fact, their response to the gospel assures them of approval by the coming Lord (4:5-6; 5:4) and of a share in the imperishable inheritance of heaven (1:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOSPEL<\/h3>\n<p>Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon <em>godspell<\/em> denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.”<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<p>• The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelMessageofIsaiah\">The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p>Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his saving action except in his own nature. Israel’s deliverance is undeserved; she is no more worthy of the divine love now than when she went into captivity. In whatever measure she has paid the just due for her past sins (Is 40:2), she remains a sinful people (42:25; 46:12-13; 48:1). It is only by God’s grace that she is saved (55:1-7). By God’s design, Israel’s salvation depends not upon her own righteousness but upon his (41:10; 45:24; 46:13; 51:5-6). There being no righteousness to reward, the Lord acts to <em>create<\/em> righteousness in Israel (45:8; 61:3, 10-11). Yet as these references indicate, salvation is not accomplished at the expense of justice. The penalty for Israel’s sins is to be paid in full. God’s mercy is not hereby called into question. On the contrary, it is precisely here that his mercy is most poignantly expressed, for the penalty is exacted not from his people but from the Servant appointed to stand in their place (53:4-12). Through the Servant’s work, many shall be justified (53:11). The coming of the Evangelist—the preacher of the good news—is predicted in Isaiah 61. He is called the anointed One (v 1) who proclaims the year of the Lord’s favor (v 2). God will be glorified through his preaching (v 3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelintheNewTestament\">The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In only two places (Gal 3:8; Heb 4:2, 6) does the NT speak of the proclamation of the gospel prior to the Christian era. This is quite remarkable, given (1) the unmistakable presence of the gospel in the OT, (2) the extent of gospel terminology in the NT (in the Greek the noun appears 76 times; and the verb, 54), and (3) the fact that the NT presents Christ as the fulfillment of the OT and draws heavily on the OT to interpret his person and work. Not only is it remarkable; it is very significant. It indicates that the NT usage depends not only upon the <em>character<\/em> of the message (truth about salvation) but also upon <em>historical events.<\/em> Almost without exception, the NT restricts its application of gospel terminology to proclamations made during the time of fulfillment—the age in which the salvation promised in the OT is actually accomplished. The NT is preoccupied, not with promises of salvation, but with news of salvation. According to Mark 1:1-4, the gospel “begins” not in the OT but with John the Baptist, in whose work OT prophecy is fulfilled. In Romans 1:1-5 the gospel is represented as a blessing promised in the OT but not actually given until Jesus comes (see also Acts 13:32-33).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGoodNewsofChristsComing\">The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n<p>The promised birth of John the Baptist is good news (Lk 1:19), not only for his parents (vv 7, 24-25) but for all the people: John is sent to prepare them for Messiah’s coming (vv 14-17, 67-79). John’s own preaching is gospel (3:18) for the same reason. The Messiah would be coming to execute judgment, a process that involves both condemnation and salvation (vv 3-17). John’s message is gospel for sinners in that they are warned of impending doom and urged to repent before the ax falls (vv 7-9); it is gospel for the repentant in that they are promised forgiveness (v 3) and membership in Messiah’s community (v 17). The birth of the Savior himself is announced as good news bringing great joy (2:10-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelaccordingtoJesus\">The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Kingdom of God<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was authorized by God and anointed by the Spirit to proclaim the gospel (Mk 1:14; Lk 4:18). At the heart of his preaching stands the announcement “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel” (Mk 1:15). (For further references to this gospel, see Mt 4:23; 9:35; 24:14; 26:13; Mk 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; Lk 4:43; 8:1; 16:16.) The message is good news for several reasons: (1) The kingdom is coming. The God whom Jesus proclaims is sovereign over all he has made. Yet paradoxically his rule is incomplete: his will is not done on earth as it is in heaven; wrong, not right, prevails. But these conditions are not final, according to Jesus. With the coming of the kingdom, God’s rule will be completed; wrong will be judged, righteousness established, and his people blessed. (2) The kingdom is <em>now<\/em> being inaugurated. “The time is fulfilled,” declares Jesus (Mk 1:15a). The time appointed for the fulfillment of the OT promises has arrived. (3) The consummation of the kingdom is therefore no longer a distant prospect; the full realization of God’s rule is “at hand” (Mk 1:15b). (4) God is establishing his rule for a saving purpose. This is implied in Jesus’ call to repentance (Mk 1:15c). It is especially clear in the passages to which we now turn.<\/p>\n<h5>The Salvation of the Poor<\/h5>\n<p>Invited to read the Scripture in the synagogue at Nazareth, Jesus turns to Isaiah 61: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord” (Lk 4:18-19, <span>rsv<\/span>). Having read the prophecy, Jesus announces its fulfillment in his own ministry (v 21). Included among those whom Jesus has come to free are the physically infirm, such as the blind (v 18) and the leprous (v 27) (cf. the references to healing miracles in vv 23, 33-41; the close connection between evangelizing and healing in Mt 4:23; 9:35; 11:5; Lk 7:21-22; 9:6; and the description in Mt 12:22-29; Lk 13:11-16, of the physically afflicted as captives of Satan now liberated by Jesus). Also included are the materially poor—people like the widow helped by Elijah during the famine (Lk 4:25-26). It is the literally poor and hungry whom Jesus pronounces “blessed” in Luke 6:20-21. Yet it is primarily “spiritual” poverty that is in view. Still applying Isaiah 61, Jesus speaks in Matthew 5:3 of the “poor in spirit.” These are people broken and grieved by misery and poverty, oppression and injustice, suffering and death, national apostasy and personal sin—people who in their extremity turn to God and longingly wait for him to bring forth justice, bestow his mercy, and establish his kingdom. It is to just such people that Jesus brings good news (Mt 5:3-10). God sent him to usher in the kingdom, to rescue the lost, to liberate the enslaved, to cure the afflicted, to bind up hearts that are broken, and to forgive the guilty (Mk 2:5, 10, 17; 10:45; Lk 4:18-21; 7:48-49; 15:1-32; 19:10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gift of Grace<\/h5>\n<p>The coming of the kingdom is not the effect or the reward of human effort but God’s answer to the human predicament—the gift of his favor (Lk 12:32). Correspondingly, the explanation for the salvation of the poor lies nowhere but in God’s own character. As the prodigal himself recognized, he hardly deserved to be his father’s servant, much less his son. Nothing he did, not even his repentance, accounted for the father’s love (15:11-32). In the parable of Matthew 20:1-16, it is owing entirely to the goodness of the employer that the last workers to be hired receive a full day’s wages. The first debtor in the story of Matthew 18:23-35 earned nothing but the right to be sold into slavery; instead, the king canceled his enormous debt. The publican, who had nothing to offer God but a confession of sin and plea for mercy, went home justified (Lk 18:13-14). The same holds true for the more virtuous among the poor, such as the persons described in Matthew 5:7-10. Their virtue is real, not imagined. Yet in keeping God’s commands, they do not put him in their debt; they are simply doing their duty (Lk 17:7-10). Furthermore, even the most merciful need divine mercy (Mt 5:7). For even those most zealous to obey God’s law are unable to fulfill all its requirements (cf. 11:28-30). The first servant in Matthew 18:23-35 owes far more money than someone in such a situation could possibly pay—which serves to magnify the generosity of the king. Grace depends for its exercise upon the inability of its objects (Lk 14:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>The Call to Salvation<\/h5>\n<p>The Israelites are without exception a sinful people, all of them needing the salvation that Jesus brings (Mt 1:21; Lk 1:77). In demonstration of God’s grace, Jesus proclaimed his gospel to the entire nation (Mt 4:23; 9:35; 15:24; Lk 4:43; 9:6; 20:1). From the most respectable to the least, all are summoned to submit to God’s rule, all are invited to come and partake freely of the banquet he has spread (Lk 14:16-24). But the gift of salvation must be received if it is to be experienced (Mk 10:15). And while it is indeed a gift that costs nothing, it is also a priceless treasure for which a wise person will freely sacrifice everything else (Mt 13:44-46), a sacrifice exceeded only by the cost of rejecting the gospel (Mt 11:20-24; Mk 8:34-39; Lk 14:24, 33). “Repent and believe in the gospel,” Jesus commands (Mk 1:15). The self-righteous and the self-sufficient must be jolted out of their false sense of security and humbly recognize their need for God (Lk 6:24-26). Only then will Jesus’ message to the poor be seen as gospel. An announcement of liberation (4:18-19) is good news only to people who are enslaved and know they are. The command applies also to the destitute and the afflicted. Those among them who bemoan their lot must repent of their sins. But something further is needed for the response to be complete: a person cannot believe Jesus’ gospel without a commitment to the <em>Person<\/em> of Christ (Jn 3:16). Even those who are already “poor in spirit,” in the sense defined earlier, are not really “blessed” until they acknowledge the truth of Jesus’ claims (Mt 11:6) and commit themselves to a life of obedience on his terms (7:21-27). This prepares us for the next point.<\/p>\n<h5>Summary<\/h5>\n<p>Throughout Jesus’ earthly ministry, the theme of his gospel remains the dawning of God’s kingdom (Mt 4:23; 24:14; Lk 4:43; 16:16), a message that is preached almost exclusively to Jews (Mt 10:5-6; 15:24). Yet Jesus also provides glimpses into what the gospel was to become once his work on earth was accomplished: (1) In Mark 8:35 and 10:29 Jesus speaks of individuals who needed to make great sacrifices “for my sake and for the gospel.” While distinguished from each other, the person of Jesus and the gospel are here associated in the closest possible way. The time was approaching when the Proclaimer of the gospel would become the Proclaimed. (2) In Mark 13:10 and Matthew 24:14 (and the textually doubtful Mk 16:15) Jesus foretells the preaching of the gospel of the kingdom to the gentile nations. (3) In Mark 14, having interpreted a woman’s action (v 3) as an anointing of his body beforehand for burial (v 8), Jesus declares, “And truly, I say to you, wherever the gospel is preached in the whole world, what she has done will be told in memory of her” (v 9, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 26:13). This statement strongly implies that both the person of Jesus and the event of his death will figure prominently in the message that is to be proclaimed; otherwise, it is strange that the gospel and this particular act should be so solemnly bound together. Thus, here in the text already is an indication of how crucial Jesus’ death is both for the provision of the salvation announced in his gospel (cf. Mk 14:22-24) and for the launching of the evangelistic mission to the Gentiles (Mt 20:28 is vital for explaining the shift from Mt 15:24 to 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheGospelafterJesusResurrection\">The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\n<p>After the resurrection of Jesus, the gospel was proclaimed by his eyewitnesses. The contents of this gospel are recorded in the book of Acts and in Paul’s letters. Of the 43 instances of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">euangelizomai<\/span> (“evangelize”) beyond the Gospels, 15 occur in Acts and 21 in Paul’s writings; of the 64 instances of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">euangelion<\/span> (“gospel”), 2 occur in Acts and no fewer than 60 in Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Having risen from the dead, Jesus Christ again evangelizes (Eph 2:16-17), doing so now through his appointed representatives (Rom 15:16-18; 1 Cor 1:17; 9:12-18; Gal 4:13-14; Eph 4:11; 2 Tm 1:9-11). More than that, Christ has become the central theme of the gospel; the Proclaimer is now the Proclaimed. This is repeatedly affirmed in Acts (5:42; 8:4-5, 35; 11:20; 17:18) and in Paul’s writings (Rom 1:1-4; 10:8-17; 15:19-20; 2 Cor 4:4-6; 11:4; Gal 1:16; Eph 3:8; Phil 1:15-18; 2 Tm 2:8). The NT always speaks of <em>the gospel<\/em>—never the gospels—of Christ. A second gospel is as inconceivable and as unnecessary as a second Christ. This is the one gospel that God authorizes (e.g., Rom 1:1-17) and proclaims (e.g., 2 Thes 2:13-14). Galatians 2:7-9 speaks not of two gospels but of two mission fields. Paul (the apostle to the uncircumcised) and Peter (the apostle to the circumcised) are both entrusted with “the gospel of Christ” (Gal 1:7; cf. 1 Cor 15:1-11), the message that God has ordained for the salvation of Jews and Gentiles alike (Rom 1:16). The “different gospel” that Paul denounces in Galatians 1:6-9 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is not another gospel about Jesus but a message about “another Jesus”—not the real one, but one who exists only in the minds and the messages of those who proclaim him. To preach the true Christ is to preach the true gospel, however questionable one’s motives (Phil 1:15-18, 27), and to respond rightly to the gospel is to turn to Christ (Acts 11:20-21; Rom 10:8-17; Gal 2:14-16).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Witness to Saving Events<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel bears witness to every aspect of Christ’s saving work, from his birth (Rom 1:3; 2 Tm 2:8) and public ministry (Mk 1:1; Acts 10:36-38) to his second coming (Col 1:5, 23; cf. 3:1-4; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and the last judgment (Rom 2:16). But it is the death and the resurrection of Christ that are most crucial for the accomplishment of salvation, and that are therefore most prominent in the gospel’s witness. These are the events with which Mark’s proclamation climaxes (chs 15–16), and for which everything else prepares (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34; 12:6-8); special stress is placed upon Jesus’ death as the means of salvation from sin (10:45; 14:3-9, 22-24). In Paul’s gospel, too, the death and resurrection of Jesus are central (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:1-4), with the cross occupying the very center (1 Cor 1:17–2:5). Had Christ not risen from the dead, Paul argues, the preaching of the cross would be a waste of time (1 Cor 15:14, 17; cf. Rom 6:3-11). However, now that Christ has risen, his death deserves special emphasis as the place where God provides atonement for sins (Rom 3:21-26; 5:6-11; 2 Cor 5:14-21; Eph 1:7). The gospel according to Acts proclaims Jesus’ death (Acts 8:25; 20:24, 28; cf. 10:36-43) and preeminently his resurrection, the event by which he conquered death and was exalted as Lord and coming Judge (10:36-43; 13:32-33; 17:18, 31). According to 1 Peter, the bearers of the gospel (1 Pt 1:12) concentrated, as had the OT prophets, on “the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory” (1:11; cf. 1:18-19; 2:21-24; 3:18-22).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Power for Salvation<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel is much more than a report of past events and an exposition of doctrine. Paul declares in 1 Corinthians 1:17-18 and again in Romans 1:16 that the gospel is “the power of God”—not merely a witness to his power but an <em>expression<\/em> of his power. Thus, it cannot be fettered (2 Tm 2:8-9). “Our gospel came to you not only in word, but also in power,” Paul writes in 1 Thessalonians 1:5. His point is not that the gospel was accompanied by mighty works (though this happened; cf. Rom 15:18-19), but that the gospel itself is a mighty work. God makes it so through his Holy Spirit (Rom 15:18-19; 1 Cor 2:1-5; 1 Thes 1:6). Furthermore, God’s singular purpose in exercising his power is to change people’s lives, to liberate them from sin and death, and to reconcile them to himself—in short, to save them. The gospel has power to effect the salvation it announces and to impart the life it promises (e.g., Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-18; 15:1-2; Eph 1:13; 2 Thes 2:13-14; 2 Tm 1:8-11; 1 Pt 1:23-25). If people are to experience salvation, they must hear and believe the gospel. It is precisely in and through this message that the saving power manifested in the person and work of Christ (especially in his death and resurrection) is conveyed to men and made effective in their lives. Similarly it is in association with the gospel, or as a direct result of the reception of the gospel, that the Holy Spirit is imparted to believers (Acts 10:36-44; 15:7-8; 2 Cor 11:4; Gal 3:1-2). In short, the gospel is the decisive place of encounter between the sinner and God the Savior.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Grace<\/h5>\n<p>According to Peter’s testimony at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:7-11), an essential part of the gospel—for Gentiles and Jews alike—is salvation “through the grace of the Lord Jesus.” Toward the close of his missionary career, Paul states that his basic concern has been “to testify to the gospel of the grace of God” (Acts 20:24, <span>rsv<\/span>). This statement can be understood only in relation to Paul’s concept of the righteousness of God, particularly as set forth in Romans. Paul is here not merely expounding a divine attribute. Rather, he is dramatizing a divine activity—the manifestation of God’s righteousness now, “in the present time” (Rom 3:26), in the new age inaugurated by the coming of Jesus. The manifestation is twofold. Viewing the two aspects together, and doing so in the light of the gospel declared by Isaiah and by Jesus (both of whom strongly influenced Paul), respectively, will help us to understand why Paul speaks of “the gospel of the grace of God.”<\/p>\n<p>First, the gospel is a <em>witness<\/em> to God’s grace. In offering his Son as a sacrifice for sins (Rom 3:25a), God demonstrates his righteousness (vv 25b-26). That is, in the death of Jesus sins formerly “passed over” (v 25c) become the object of God’s wrath (cf. 1:18) and judgment. Yet in the very place where God deals justly and decisively with sins, he shows his grace to sinners. For the judgment against sin is focused not upon the sinners themselves but upon the One appointed to act on their behalf and to stand in their place (Rom 4:25; 5:6, 11; cf. 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 3:13). On this basis, sinners are freely pardoned (Rom 3:24). “The grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11) toward the sinful is also in evidence, for he willingly bears their iniquities and suffers the consequences of their wrongdoing (Gal 2:20; cf. 2 Cor 8:9; Phil 2:6-8).<\/p>\n<p>Second, the gospel is a <em>channel<\/em> of God’s grace. “The righteousness of God is revealed” in the gospel, says Paul (Rom 1:17). By this he means, not that the gospel talks about the righteousness of God (though it does), but that God’s righteousness is actively at work in the gospel. This activity in turn explains how the gospel becomes “the power of God for salvation” (v 16). And just how does God demonstrate his righteousness at this stage? In short, by bestowing it as a free gift on sinful human beings. It remains the righteousness of God, but by God’s grace, it is a righteousness in which humans may share. Furthermore, partaking of God’s righteousness depends on being personally united with Jesus Christ. In Paul’s view the saved person is one who has been acquitted, justified, “declared righteous” by God the judge. The basis for the verdict is not that I in myself am righteous (God justifies the ungodly, Rom 4:5). Nor does God treat me as though I were righteous. According to Paul I am declared righteous because I really <em>am<\/em> righteous—not in myself but in Christ (1 Cor 1:30; 2 Cor 5:21; Phil 3:9). This union is established through the revelation—and the free offer—of God’s righteousness in the gospel (Rom 1:16-17).<\/p>\n<h5>Responding to the Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>The gospel calls for a threefold response:<\/p>\n<p>1. <em>Believing.<\/em> The gospel, says Paul, is “the power of God for salvation to every one who has faith” (Rom 1:16). For Paul, faith is the abandonment of all reliance upon “works of law” for justification (3:28) and utter dependence upon the grace of God as demonstrated in the work of Christ, especially his death (v 25). Accordingly, the “different gospel” of Galatians 1:6 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is spurious, for it preaches salvation by personal merit rather than (or together with) the work of Christ (cf. Gal 2:16). Ultimately faith rests upon God (Rom 4:24; 1 Thes 1:8-9) and upon Christ (Rom 3:22, 26; Gal 2:16, 20). Yet it is imperative that one believe the gospel also (Acts 8:12; 11:20-21; 15:7; Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-24; Phil 1:27; Heb 4:2), for it is just by this means that God’s salvation is made known and mediated. Moreover, believing the gospel entails repentance (Acts 14:15; 20:21, 24; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and obedience (Rom 1:5; 15:16-18; Heb 4:6). Those who refuse to obey the gospel are imperiling their lives (2 Thes 1:5-10; 1 Pt 4:17).<\/p>\n<p>2. <em>Growing.<\/em> The Gospel is more than a message to be received—it is also a place in which to stand (1 Cor 15:1-2). It is sustainer of life as well as giver of life. One grows as a Christian not by turning from the gospel to other things (to turn away from the gospel is to abandon God and Christ, Gal 1:6), but by going ever more deeply into the gospel. In Romans 1:15 Paul expresses his eagerness to proclaim the gospel to the Christians in Rome. In the following chapters, anticipating his visit, he offers one of his most profound expositions of the gospel—one whose truth has never been fathomed and whose power has never been exhausted.<\/p>\n<p>3. <em>Hoping.<\/em> “The hope of the gospel” (Col 1:23) includes not only the return of Christ and the glory of heaven (Col 1:5; 3:1-4; 2 Thes 2:14-16) but the final judgment as well. For those who embrace the gospel, the last judgment holds no terrors, because the Judge is the very one who rescues them from the wrath to come (1 Thes 1:10). Those who are united to him need not dread condemnation now or at the end (Rom 8:1). Instead, the last judgment will mark their final vindication (1 Cor 4:5; Gal 5:5). Accordingly, this theme is not just a corollary but an integral part of the Good News (Rom 2:16). Those who have died since believing the gospel (1 Pt 4:6) may seem to have suffered a fate common to all people, or even the condemnation reserved for the lawless; in fact, their response to the gospel assures them of approval by the coming Lord (4:5-6; 5:4) and of a share in the imperishable inheritance of heaven (1:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOSPEL Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.” Preview • The Gospel Message of Isaiah • The Gospel in the New Testament • The Good News of Christ’s Coming • The Gospel according to Jesus • The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection The Gospel Message of Isaiah Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his...","summary_en":"GOSPEL Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.” Preview • The Gospel Message of Isaiah • The Gospel in the New Testament • The Good News of Christ’s Coming • The Gospel according to Jesus • The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection The Gospel Message of Isaiah Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57921,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:16","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:16b-20<\/strong> Paul was taught by the Lord directly and <em>did not . . . consult with any human being,<\/em> even the other <em>apostles<\/em>. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:16b-20<\/strong> Paul was taught by the Lord directly and <em>did not . . . consult with any human being,<\/em> even the other <em>apostles<\/em>. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:16b-20 Paul was taught by the Lord directly and did not . . . consult with any human being, even the other apostles. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).","summary_en":"1:16b-20 Paul was taught by the Lord directly and did not . . . consult with any human being, even the other apostles. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85547,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:16","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:16b-20<\/strong> Paul was taught by the Lord directly and <em>did not . . . consult with any human being,<\/em> even the other <em>apostles<\/em>. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:16b-20<\/strong> Paul was taught by the Lord directly and <em>did not . . . consult with any human being,<\/em> even the other <em>apostles<\/em>. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:16b-20 Paul was taught by the Lord directly and did not . . . consult with any human being, even the other apostles. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).","summary_en":"1:16b-20 Paul was taught by the Lord directly and did not . . . consult with any human being, even the other apostles. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113173,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:16","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:16b-20<\/strong> Paul was taught by the Lord directly and <em>did not . . . consult with any human being,<\/em> even the other <em>apostles<\/em>. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:16b-20<\/strong> Paul was taught by the Lord directly and <em>did not . . . consult with any human being,<\/em> even the other <em>apostles<\/em>. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:16b-20 Paul was taught by the Lord directly and did not . . . consult with any human being, even the other apostles. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).","summary_en":"1:16b-20 Paul was taught by the Lord directly and did not . . . consult with any human being, even the other apostles. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140799,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:16","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:16b-20<\/strong> Paul was taught by the Lord directly and <em>did not . . . consult with any human being,<\/em> even the other <em>apostles<\/em>. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:16b-20<\/strong> Paul was taught by the Lord directly and <em>did not . . . consult with any human being,<\/em> even the other <em>apostles<\/em>. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:16b-20 Paul was taught by the Lord directly and did not . . . consult with any human being, even the other apostles. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).","summary_en":"1:16b-20 Paul was taught by the Lord directly and did not . . . consult with any human being, even the other apostles. Paul was independent from the other apostles yet in harmony with them (2:1-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":2398,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Apostleship Apostle","title_en":"Apostleship Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP<\/h3>\n<p>Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and conceptual backgrounds.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word for “apostle” is not used outside the NT in the same sense as it is in the NT. It is derived from the verb “to send” and is at home in the language of the sea meaning a particular “ship” or “group of ships,” a “marine expedition” or “the leader” of such. Its usage is almost always impersonal and thoroughly passive. There is no hint of personal initiative or authorization, merely the connotation of something being sent. Later papyri use the word to mean “bill” or “invoice” or even a “passport,” continuing to reflect the vocabulary of maritime affairs.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, the word was used to designate those who had been sent by Jesus with the proclamation of the gospel. From among the wider group of those who followed him, Jesus selected 12 men (Mt 10:1-4; Mk 3:13-19; Lk 6:12-16) who maintained with him a particularly close relationship, receiving private instruction and witnessing his miracles and controversy with the Jewish authorities. On one occasion, Jesus sent these men out to preach the message of repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick; that is, to minister in ways that were characteristic of his own work (Mt 10:1-15; Mk 6:7-13, 30; Lk 9:1-6). The same relationship is expressed in the saying “He who hears you hears me, and he who rejects you rejects me, and he who rejects me rejects him who sent me” (Lk 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 10:40). It is clear that the Twelve are not merely to pass Jesus’ teaching on but to represent his very person. After the resurrection, Jesus commissioned the Twelve (Mt 28; Lk 24; Jn 20–21) to proclaim God’s act in Christ on behalf of all men. Only those who had been with Jesus from the beginning of his ministry to his resurrection were qualified to be his apostolic witnesses (Acts 1:21-22). Paul qualified because he had seen the risen Christ (1 Cor 15:4-10).<\/p>\n<p>The Pauline writings demonstrate two characteristic usages of the word “apostle.” On occasion, it refers to persons authorized by local congregations and entrusted with the safe delivery of specific gifts for other members of the Christian community (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). More important are those passages where “apostle” takes on a more technical sense through the qualifying phrase “of Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 11:13; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 2:6). The “sent one” is the “sent one of Jesus Christ” (Rom 16:7; 1 Cor 9:1, 5; 12:28; Gal 1:17-19). In the statements where Paul claims his own right to this title, he argues along lines assuming the same basic apostolic concept that Jesus had. He consistently links this claim to a specific event in the past in which the risen Lord had appeared to him (1 Cor 9:1; Gal 1:12, 16). This appearance he ranked alongside those of the resurrection appearances (1 Cor 15:3-8). Paul understood his experience outside Damascus (cf. Acts 9:1-19a; 22:6-16; 26:12-18; Gal 1:17) as a lifelong commission to preach the now-resurrected One (1 Cor 1:17; 2:1-2) chiefly among the Gentiles (Acts 9:15; 22:15; 26:17, 23; Gal 1:15-16). It was through his preaching ministry that Christ continued to work, creating the new people of God (1 Cor 9:1-2; Gal 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP<\/h3>\n<p>Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and conceptual backgrounds.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word for “apostle” is not used outside the NT in the same sense as it is in the NT. It is derived from the verb “to send” and is at home in the language of the sea meaning a particular “ship” or “group of ships,” a “marine expedition” or “the leader” of such. Its usage is almost always impersonal and thoroughly passive. There is no hint of personal initiative or authorization, merely the connotation of something being sent. Later papyri use the word to mean “bill” or “invoice” or even a “passport,” continuing to reflect the vocabulary of maritime affairs.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, the word was used to designate those who had been sent by Jesus with the proclamation of the gospel. From among the wider group of those who followed him, Jesus selected 12 men (Mt 10:1-4; Mk 3:13-19; Lk 6:12-16) who maintained with him a particularly close relationship, receiving private instruction and witnessing his miracles and controversy with the Jewish authorities. On one occasion, Jesus sent these men out to preach the message of repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick; that is, to minister in ways that were characteristic of his own work (Mt 10:1-15; Mk 6:7-13, 30; Lk 9:1-6). The same relationship is expressed in the saying “He who hears you hears me, and he who rejects you rejects me, and he who rejects me rejects him who sent me” (Lk 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 10:40). It is clear that the Twelve are not merely to pass Jesus’ teaching on but to represent his very person. After the resurrection, Jesus commissioned the Twelve (Mt 28; Lk 24; Jn 20–21) to proclaim God’s act in Christ on behalf of all men. Only those who had been with Jesus from the beginning of his ministry to his resurrection were qualified to be his apostolic witnesses (Acts 1:21-22). Paul qualified because he had seen the risen Christ (1 Cor 15:4-10).<\/p>\n<p>The Pauline writings demonstrate two characteristic usages of the word “apostle.” On occasion, it refers to persons authorized by local congregations and entrusted with the safe delivery of specific gifts for other members of the Christian community (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). More important are those passages where “apostle” takes on a more technical sense through the qualifying phrase “of Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 11:13; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 2:6). The “sent one” is the “sent one of Jesus Christ” (Rom 16:7; 1 Cor 9:1, 5; 12:28; Gal 1:17-19). In the statements where Paul claims his own right to this title, he argues along lines assuming the same basic apostolic concept that Jesus had. He consistently links this claim to a specific event in the past in which the risen Lord had appeared to him (1 Cor 9:1; Gal 1:12, 16). This appearance he ranked alongside those of the resurrection appearances (1 Cor 15:3-8). Paul understood his experience outside Damascus (cf. Acts 9:1-19a; 22:6-16; 26:12-18; Gal 1:17) as a lifelong commission to preach the now-resurrected One (1 Cor 1:17; 2:1-2) chiefly among the Gentiles (Acts 9:15; 22:15; 26:17, 23; Gal 1:15-16). It was through his preaching ministry that Christ continued to work, creating the new people of God (1 Cor 9:1-2; Gal 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and con...","summary_en":"APOSTLE, APOSTLESHIP Official designation given to certain leading individuals in the NT churches. Apostleship is the more comprehensive term, denoting the functions of the one who serves in such a capacity. Questions concerning origin, function, and history of the NT apostolate are much debated; one cannot speak of anything like consensus of opinion uniting the various church traditions. Some light is shed on our understanding of the terms by an examination of the possible linguistic and con...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2471,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Arabs Arabia","title_en":"Arabs Arabia","content_ro":"<h3>ARABIA, ARABS<\/h3>\n<p>Peninsula in southwestern Asia, surrounded by sea on three sides and by the Fertile Crescent on the fourth. Politically, the Arabian peninsula is bounded on the north by the modern Hashemite kingdom of Jordan and by Iraq and on the south by the Indian Ocean. The Persian Gulf forms its eastern boundary and the Red Sea its western boundary. Its area is just over a million square miles (1,609,000 square kilometers), about one-third the area of the United States.<\/p>\n<p>Classical geographers such as Strabo followed the example set by the geographer Ptolemy in dividing Arabia into three divisions: <em>Arabia Petraea<\/em> (Rocky Arabia) in the northwest, which included Sinai, Edom, Moab, and Transjordan; <em>Arabia Deserta,<\/em> which included the Syrian Desert; and <em>Arabia Felix<\/em> (Happy Arabia), which included the southern section of the Arabian peninsula.<\/p>\n<p>When “Arabia” is used as a geographical term in the Bible, it sometimes includes both northern and southern sections. For example, 2 Chronicles 9:14 says that the kings of Arabia brought gold to Solomon as tribute. At other times the name Arabia refers only to the northwestern <em>Arabia Petraea.<\/em> For example, Paul said that after his conversion he went away to the deserts of Arabia (Gal 1:17) and referred to Mt Sinai (4:25), which is in that northwestern area. Many places named in the Bible as being in Arabia are more specifically in <em>Arabia Petraea.<\/em> Such sites include Buz, Dedan, Dumah, Ephah, the Hazor of Jeremiah 49:28-33, Massa, Mesha, and Midian. Hazarmaveth, Ophir, Sabtah, Sephar, Sheba, and Uzal are in the south. Havilah and Parvaim are perhaps in the northeast, and authorities debate the location of Seba. The land of Uz, mentioned in the book of Job, is considered by many scholars to be located in the area between Edom and northern Arabia.<\/p>\n<p>Arabia is thought by many to be one of the hottest countries. In some sections that conception is correct. The peninsula lies between seas on the east and west, but those bodies of water are too small to break the climatic continuity of the dry African-Asian continental masses. There are, however, some regions that enjoy temperate and semitropical climate. In the south much of the land is sufficiently elevated to avoid the intensity of tropical heat. The lowlands along the coast have a semitropical environment. Fogs and dews are common in the humid regions, but over inner Arabia the sun shines the year round, obscured only by an occasional sandstorm or an even rarer rain shower.<\/p>\n<p>Arabia has long been desired for natural resources. Pharaohs of the first dynasty operated turquoise mines in Sinai, and the gold of Ophir and the frankincense and myrrh of South Arabia were world renowned. The queen of Sheba brought such precious spices to Solomon (1 Kgs 10:2, 10), and trade between Israel and Arabia flourished. Solomon had a seaport at Ezion-geber on the Red Sea for his opulent commerce with Ophir (1 Kgs 9:26-28). King Jehoshaphat of Judah, who also received tribute from Arabs (2 Chr 17:11), tried to revive trade with Ophir but failed (1 Kgs 22:48).<\/p>\n<p>Tribes associated with Arabia played a significant role in biblical history. The Ishmaelites or Midianites who took Joseph to Egypt (Gn 37:25-36) were Arabians. So were the Amalekites who waged war with Moses in the wilderness of <em>Arabia Petraea<\/em> (Ex 17:8-16). Moses’ father-in-law, Jethro, was a Midianite (Ex 18:1). King Uzziah of Judah fought against Arabs (2 Chr 26:7); the Meunites mentioned in the same verse were probably also from Arabia. Geshem the Arab, known also from secular inscriptions, resisted the rebuilding of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 2:19; 6:1, 6).<\/p>\n<p>Kedar was an important North Arab tribe condemned in Isaiah’s message about Arabia (Is 21:13-17). Jeremiah also spoke against it, prophesying its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar, who conquered it (Jer 49:28-33). Close allies of the tribe of Kedar were the Nabatean Arabs (Is 60:7), who figure prominently in later history. They captured Petra, fulfilling the prophecy of Obadiah about Edom. References to Arabia and the Arabs in the Apocrypha and NT concern mostly the Nabatean Arabs (1 Macc 11:16; Gal 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>In southern Arabia four kingdoms developed: the Sabean, Minean, Qataban, and Hadramaut. Around 115 <span>BC<\/span> the Himyarite kingdom gained control of southern Arabia, keeping it until about <span>AD<\/span> 300. Three centuries later the Arabian peninsula witnessed the birth of Islam.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARABIA, ARABS<\/h3>\n<p>Peninsula in southwestern Asia, surrounded by sea on three sides and by the Fertile Crescent on the fourth. Politically, the Arabian peninsula is bounded on the north by the modern Hashemite kingdom of Jordan and by Iraq and on the south by the Indian Ocean. The Persian Gulf forms its eastern boundary and the Red Sea its western boundary. Its area is just over a million square miles (1,609,000 square kilometers), about one-third the area of the United States.<\/p>\n<p>Classical geographers such as Strabo followed the example set by the geographer Ptolemy in dividing Arabia into three divisions: <em>Arabia Petraea<\/em> (Rocky Arabia) in the northwest, which included Sinai, Edom, Moab, and Transjordan; <em>Arabia Deserta,<\/em> which included the Syrian Desert; and <em>Arabia Felix<\/em> (Happy Arabia), which included the southern section of the Arabian peninsula.<\/p>\n<p>When “Arabia” is used as a geographical term in the Bible, it sometimes includes both northern and southern sections. For example, 2 Chronicles 9:14 says that the kings of Arabia brought gold to Solomon as tribute. At other times the name Arabia refers only to the northwestern <em>Arabia Petraea.<\/em> For example, Paul said that after his conversion he went away to the deserts of Arabia (Gal 1:17) and referred to Mt Sinai (4:25), which is in that northwestern area. Many places named in the Bible as being in Arabia are more specifically in <em>Arabia Petraea.<\/em> Such sites include Buz, Dedan, Dumah, Ephah, the Hazor of Jeremiah 49:28-33, Massa, Mesha, and Midian. Hazarmaveth, Ophir, Sabtah, Sephar, Sheba, and Uzal are in the south. Havilah and Parvaim are perhaps in the northeast, and authorities debate the location of Seba. The land of Uz, mentioned in the book of Job, is considered by many scholars to be located in the area between Edom and northern Arabia.<\/p>\n<p>Arabia is thought by many to be one of the hottest countries. In some sections that conception is correct. The peninsula lies between seas on the east and west, but those bodies of water are too small to break the climatic continuity of the dry African-Asian continental masses. There are, however, some regions that enjoy temperate and semitropical climate. In the south much of the land is sufficiently elevated to avoid the intensity of tropical heat. The lowlands along the coast have a semitropical environment. Fogs and dews are common in the humid regions, but over inner Arabia the sun shines the year round, obscured only by an occasional sandstorm or an even rarer rain shower.<\/p>\n<p>Arabia has long been desired for natural resources. Pharaohs of the first dynasty operated turquoise mines in Sinai, and the gold of Ophir and the frankincense and myrrh of South Arabia were world renowned. The queen of Sheba brought such precious spices to Solomon (1 Kgs 10:2, 10), and trade between Israel and Arabia flourished. Solomon had a seaport at Ezion-geber on the Red Sea for his opulent commerce with Ophir (1 Kgs 9:26-28). King Jehoshaphat of Judah, who also received tribute from Arabs (2 Chr 17:11), tried to revive trade with Ophir but failed (1 Kgs 22:48).<\/p>\n<p>Tribes associated with Arabia played a significant role in biblical history. The Ishmaelites or Midianites who took Joseph to Egypt (Gn 37:25-36) were Arabians. So were the Amalekites who waged war with Moses in the wilderness of <em>Arabia Petraea<\/em> (Ex 17:8-16). Moses’ father-in-law, Jethro, was a Midianite (Ex 18:1). King Uzziah of Judah fought against Arabs (2 Chr 26:7); the Meunites mentioned in the same verse were probably also from Arabia. Geshem the Arab, known also from secular inscriptions, resisted the rebuilding of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 2:19; 6:1, 6).<\/p>\n<p>Kedar was an important North Arab tribe condemned in Isaiah’s message about Arabia (Is 21:13-17). Jeremiah also spoke against it, prophesying its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar, who conquered it (Jer 49:28-33). Close allies of the tribe of Kedar were the Nabatean Arabs (Is 60:7), who figure prominently in later history. They captured Petra, fulfilling the prophecy of Obadiah about Edom. References to Arabia and the Arabs in the Apocrypha and NT concern mostly the Nabatean Arabs (1 Macc 11:16; Gal 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>In southern Arabia four kingdoms developed: the Sabean, Minean, Qataban, and Hadramaut. Around 115 <span>BC<\/span> the Himyarite kingdom gained control of southern Arabia, keeping it until about <span>AD<\/span> 300. Three centuries later the Arabian peninsula witnessed the birth of Islam.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARABIA, ARABS Peninsula in southwestern Asia, surrounded by sea on three sides and by the Fertile Crescent on the fourth. Politically, the Arabian peninsula is bounded on the north by the modern Hashemite kingdom of Jordan and by Iraq and on the south by the Indian Ocean. The Persian Gulf forms its eastern boundary and the Red Sea its western boundary. Its area is just over a million square miles (1,609,000 square kilometers), about one-third the area of the United States. Classical geographe...","summary_en":"ARABIA, ARABS Peninsula in southwestern Asia, surrounded by sea on three sides and by the Fertile Crescent on the fourth. Politically, the Arabian peninsula is bounded on the north by the modern Hashemite kingdom of Jordan and by Iraq and on the south by the Indian Ocean. The Persian Gulf forms its eastern boundary and the Red Sea its western boundary. Its area is just over a million square miles (1,609,000 square kilometers), about one-third the area of the United States. Classical geographe...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13090,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Galatians","title_en":"Letter to the Galatians","content_ro":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","summary_en":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29113,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57922,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:17","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:17<\/strong> <em>those who were apostles before I was:<\/em> Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to <em>Arabia<\/em> is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:17<\/strong> <em>those who were apostles before I was:<\/em> Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to <em>Arabia<\/em> is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:17 those who were apostles before I was: Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to Arabia is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.","summary_en":"1:17 those who were apostles before I was: Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to Arabia is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85548,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:17","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:17<\/strong> <em>those who were apostles before I was:<\/em> Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to <em>Arabia<\/em> is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:17<\/strong> <em>those who were apostles before I was:<\/em> Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to <em>Arabia<\/em> is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:17 those who were apostles before I was: Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to Arabia is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.","summary_en":"1:17 those who were apostles before I was: Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to Arabia is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113174,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:17","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:17<\/strong> <em>those who were apostles before I was:<\/em> Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to <em>Arabia<\/em> is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:17<\/strong> <em>those who were apostles before I was:<\/em> Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to <em>Arabia<\/em> is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:17 those who were apostles before I was: Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to Arabia is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.","summary_en":"1:17 those who were apostles before I was: Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to Arabia is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140800,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:17","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:17<\/strong> <em>those who were apostles before I was:<\/em> Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to <em>Arabia<\/em> is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:17<\/strong> <em>those who were apostles before I was:<\/em> Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to <em>Arabia<\/em> is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:17 those who were apostles before I was: Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to Arabia is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.","summary_en":"1:17 those who were apostles before I was: Paul put his own apostleship in the same category as the original disciples (see 1 Cor 9:1; 15:5-9; cp. Acts 1:22; 10:41). • Paul’s trip to Arabia is not mentioned elsewhere; his understanding of the Good News was apparently formed during that time. Paul knew the Scriptures (see Acts 22:3), the claims of the first Christians (see Acts 8:1), and what others had told him since his conversion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":392,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","title_en":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","content_ro":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","summary_en":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6177,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Cephas","title_en":"Cephas","content_ro":"<h3>CEPHAS<\/h3>\n<p>Aramaic name of Simon Peter the apostle in John 1:42; 1 Corinthians 1:12; and Galatians 1:18. <em>See<\/em> Simon Peter.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CEPHAS<\/h3>\n<p>Aramaic name of Simon Peter the apostle in John 1:42; 1 Corinthians 1:12; and Galatians 1:18. <em>See<\/em> Simon Peter.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CEPHAS Aramaic name of Simon Peter the apostle in John 1:42; 1 Corinthians 1:12; and Galatians 1:18. See Simon Peter.","summary_en":"CEPHAS Aramaic name of Simon Peter the apostle in John 1:42; 1 Corinthians 1:12; and Galatians 1:18. See Simon Peter.","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6502,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","title_en":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","content_ro":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","summary_en":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13107,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Galatians","title_en":"Letter to the Galatians","content_ro":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","summary_en":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39837,"type":"chart","type_label":"Diagramă","type_icon":"📊","type_color":"#3b82f6","title_ro":"Two Possible Reconstructions","title_en":"Two Possible Reconstructions","content_ro":"<h3>Two Possible Reconstructions<\/h3>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><em>Reconstruction 1<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Reconstruction 2<\/em><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Acts 9:26-30<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Acts 9:26-30<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Acts 11:30<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Acts 11:30<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Acts 15:1-29<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Acts 15:1-29<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Galatians 1:18<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Galatians 1:18 omitted<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Galatians 2:1-10 omitted<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Galatians 2:1-10<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","content_en":"<h3>Two Possible Reconstructions<\/h3>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><em>Reconstruction 1<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Reconstruction 2<\/em><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Acts 9:26-30<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Acts 9:26-30<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Acts 11:30<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Acts 11:30<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Acts 15:1-29<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Acts 15:1-29<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Galatians 1:18<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Galatians 1:18 omitted<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Galatians 2:1-10 omitted<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Galatians 2:1-10<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","summary_ro":"Two Possible Reconstructions Reconstruction 1 Reconstruction 2 Acts 9:26-30 Acts 9:26-30 Acts 11:30 Acts 11:30 Acts 15:1-29 Acts 15:1-29 Galatians 1:18 Galatians 1:18 omitted Galatians 2:1-10 omitted Galatians 2:1-10","summary_en":"Two Possible Reconstructions Reconstruction 1 Reconstruction 2 Acts 9:26-30 Acts 9:26-30 Acts 11:30 Acts 11:30 Acts 15:1-29 Acts 15:1-29 Galatians 1:18 Galatians 1:18 omitted Galatians 2:1-10 omitted Galatians 2:1-10","source":"Charts\/Charts.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57923,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:18","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:18-20<\/strong> <em>Peter<\/em> and <em>James<\/em> had <em>fifteen days<\/em> to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:18-20<\/strong> <em>Peter<\/em> and <em>James<\/em> had <em>fifteen days<\/em> to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:18-20 Peter and James had fifteen days to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.","summary_en":"1:18-20 Peter and James had fifteen days to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57924,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:18","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:18<\/strong> <em>three years later<\/em> (or <em>in the third year<\/em>): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • <em>to get to know Peter:<\/em> Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • <em>Fifteen days<\/em> was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:18<\/strong> <em>three years later<\/em> (or <em>in the third year<\/em>): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • <em>to get to know Peter:<\/em> Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • <em>Fifteen days<\/em> was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:18 three years later (or in the third year): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • to get to know Peter: Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • Fifteen days was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.","summary_en":"1:18 three years later (or in the third year): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • to get to know Peter: Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • Fifteen days was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85549,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:18","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:18-20<\/strong> <em>Peter<\/em> and <em>James<\/em> had <em>fifteen days<\/em> to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:18-20<\/strong> <em>Peter<\/em> and <em>James<\/em> had <em>fifteen days<\/em> to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:18-20 Peter and James had fifteen days to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.","summary_en":"1:18-20 Peter and James had fifteen days to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85550,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:18","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:18<\/strong> <em>three years later<\/em> (or <em>in the third year<\/em>): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • <em>to get to know Peter:<\/em> Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • <em>Fifteen days<\/em> was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:18<\/strong> <em>three years later<\/em> (or <em>in the third year<\/em>): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • <em>to get to know Peter:<\/em> Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • <em>Fifteen days<\/em> was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:18 three years later (or in the third year): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • to get to know Peter: Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • Fifteen days was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.","summary_en":"1:18 three years later (or in the third year): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • to get to know Peter: Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • Fifteen days was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113175,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:18","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:18-20<\/strong> <em>Peter<\/em> and <em>James<\/em> had <em>fifteen days<\/em> to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:18-20<\/strong> <em>Peter<\/em> and <em>James<\/em> had <em>fifteen days<\/em> to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:18-20 Peter and James had fifteen days to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.","summary_en":"1:18-20 Peter and James had fifteen days to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113176,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:18","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:18<\/strong> <em>three years later<\/em> (or <em>in the third year<\/em>): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • <em>to get to know Peter:<\/em> Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • <em>Fifteen days<\/em> was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:18<\/strong> <em>three years later<\/em> (or <em>in the third year<\/em>): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • <em>to get to know Peter:<\/em> Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • <em>Fifteen days<\/em> was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:18 three years later (or in the third year): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • to get to know Peter: Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • Fifteen days was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.","summary_en":"1:18 three years later (or in the third year): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • to get to know Peter: Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • Fifteen days was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140801,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:18","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:18-20<\/strong> <em>Peter<\/em> and <em>James<\/em> had <em>fifteen days<\/em> to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:18-20<\/strong> <em>Peter<\/em> and <em>James<\/em> had <em>fifteen days<\/em> to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:18-20 Peter and James had fifteen days to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.","summary_en":"1:18-20 Peter and James had fifteen days to talk with Paul about his message, which was clearly in harmony with theirs. Paul did not receive a commission from the Jerusalem church—his apostleship did not derive from Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140802,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:18","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:18<\/strong> <em>three years later<\/em> (or <em>in the third year<\/em>): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • <em>to get to know Peter:<\/em> Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • <em>Fifteen days<\/em> was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:18<\/strong> <em>three years later<\/em> (or <em>in the third year<\/em>): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • <em>to get to know Peter:<\/em> Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • <em>Fifteen days<\/em> was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:18 three years later (or in the third year): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • to get to know Peter: Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • Fifteen days was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.","summary_en":"1:18 three years later (or in the third year): Either three years after Paul’s conversion or after his return from Arabia. This event is probably the visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. • to get to know Peter: Peter had something Paul did not: deep personal acquaintance with Jesus during Jesus’ earthly ministry. • Fifteen days was much too short a time for Paul to become dependent on Peter as his mentor, but plenty of time for the content of each man’s preaching to be thoroughly discussed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":42651,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus","title_en":"James, Brother of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","summary_en":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70277,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus","title_en":"James, Brother of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","summary_en":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97903,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus","title_en":"James, Brother of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","summary_en":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125529,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus","title_en":"James, Brother of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>James, Brother of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brothers (James and Jude) are known to have played significant roles in the early Christian community. James quickly rose to the position of leader of the church in Jerusalem. At the council in Jerusalem, James was instrumental in getting the Jewish church leaders to accept Gentile believers without requiring that they be circumcised—a decision of major importance for Paul and the early mission to Gentiles (Acts 15:13-21). Paul visited James in Jerusalem after his third missionary trip (Acts 21:18), just as he had done earlier, following his conversion (Gal 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>Like most Jewish Christians, James continued to observe the law of Moses. He emphasized the need for believers to observe certain key laws when among Jews (Acts 15:20-21; 21:18-25). James acknowledged the validity of Paul’s missionary calling and emphasis on salvation by faith alone (Gal 2:6-9), but many Jewish Christians did not. These Jewish believers—whom Paul does link with James on one occasion (see Gal 2:12)—demanded that Gentile converts be circumcised and observe the law of Moses in order to join the Christian community.<\/p>\n<p>James’s Jewish background is reflected in his letter, which is full of wise, practical advice for living, much of it in line with the traditional wisdom teaching of Jewish Scripture. One paragraph of his letter (Jas 5:1-6) reads very much like the work of the Old Testament prophets (e.g., cp. Amos 5:21-24; 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>James, titled “the Just” by his contemporaries, was apparently put to death for his faith by Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Josephus, <em>Antiquities<\/em> 20.9; Eusebius, <em>Church History<\/em> 2.23.4–18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18-25; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 2:9, 12; Jas 1:1–5:20; Jude 1:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","summary_en":"James, Brother of Jesus James, one of Jesus’ brothers (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal 1:19; cp. Jude 1:1), became the recognized leader of the church in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He is traditionally recognized as the author of the book of James. Though Jesus’ brothers were initially skeptical of his claims (John 7:2-5), they later became believers (Acts 1:14). James’s personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus (1 Cor 15:7) might have helped convince him. Two of Jesus’ brother...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":5806,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Jesus*, Brothers","title_en":"of Jesus*, Brothers","content_ro":"<h3>BROTHERS OF JESUS*<\/h3>\n<p>James, Joses (or Joseph), Simon, and Judas, identified in the NT as members of Jesus’ own family (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3). They are described as visiting Jesus with Mary, his mother (Mt 12:47-50; Mk 3:34-35; Lk 8:19-21), and hearing Jesus’ statement that all who did the will of God were brother, sister, and mother to him.<\/p>\n<p>They were well enough known in Nazareth that when Jesus returned to preach there, the people said, “Is not this the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon, and are not his sisters here with us?” (Mk 6:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In Matthew’s Gospel the order of the names of the last two brothers is reversed (Mt 13:55). When Jesus and his disciples went to Capernaum, they were accompanied by Mary and his brothers (Jn 2:12). Just before the Feast of Tabernacles the brothers visited Jesus to persuade him to go to Jerusalem for the festival. Although they were skeptical about his miracles, they said he should perform his feats in public to gain recognition (Jn 7:4). Jesus acknowledged opposition from within his family when he said, “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown and among his own family” (Mt 13:57, <span>nlt<\/span>). His brothers or other friends from home thought him to be losing touch with reality when crowds were first attracted to him (Mk 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of their earlier skepticism, however, the brothers became active members of the Jerusalem church during its earliest days. They are mentioned as being frequently at prayer in an upper room with Mary, showing a sharp reversal from their earlier lack of faith (Acts 1:14). One of the resurrection appearances was made to James (1 Cor 15:7). On Paul’s return to Jerusalem after his conversion, he met Peter and James, “the Lord’s brother,” but not the other apostles (Gal 1:19). When the apostle Peter was released from prison, he went to the home of Mary the mother of John Mark, and despite the excitement of the occasion, he immediately asked the group to “tell this to James and to the brethren” (Acts 12:17, <span>rsv<\/span>). A number of references in Acts show James as a strong, respected leader of the Jerusalem church (Acts 15:13-21; 21:18). In the council at Jerusalem, he expressed a strong opinion on the acceptance of Gentiles into the church; he was later visited by Paul, who told him about his ministry and the many conversions among the Gentiles. Although James is mentioned more often by name, all the brothers seem to have been well respected at that time. Thus, their actions were used as an example by Paul when he argued that it would be appropriate for him also to have a wife accompany him on his journeys, as Jesus’ brothers did (1 Cor 9:5).<\/p>\n<p>The author of the Epistle of James is generally assumed to be the Lord’s brother, although he does not identify himself specifically that way (1:1). It seems clear, though, that the author wrote as a recognized leader in the church; hence, to identify him as the Lord’s brother seems logical. The author of the Epistle of Jude identifies himself as the brother of James. The reference would most logically be to James, the leader mentioned in Acts and probably the author of the other epistle. The author thus seems to be the Judas named as the brother of the Lord in the Gospels (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the NT the group of the 12 apostles is consistently distinguished from the brothers of the Lord. Luke named the apostles and then said, “All these with one accord devoted themselves to prayer, together with the women and Mary the mother of Jesus, and with his brothers” (Acts 1:13-14). The apostle Paul pointed to the brothers of the Lord as a group separate from the apostles (1 Cor 9:5); each mention of them in the Gospels describes them as family members and distinct from the disciples.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> James (Person) #1; Joseph #7; Jude (Person); Mary #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BROTHERS OF JESUS*<\/h3>\n<p>James, Joses (or Joseph), Simon, and Judas, identified in the NT as members of Jesus’ own family (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3). They are described as visiting Jesus with Mary, his mother (Mt 12:47-50; Mk 3:34-35; Lk 8:19-21), and hearing Jesus’ statement that all who did the will of God were brother, sister, and mother to him.<\/p>\n<p>They were well enough known in Nazareth that when Jesus returned to preach there, the people said, “Is not this the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon, and are not his sisters here with us?” (Mk 6:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In Matthew’s Gospel the order of the names of the last two brothers is reversed (Mt 13:55). When Jesus and his disciples went to Capernaum, they were accompanied by Mary and his brothers (Jn 2:12). Just before the Feast of Tabernacles the brothers visited Jesus to persuade him to go to Jerusalem for the festival. Although they were skeptical about his miracles, they said he should perform his feats in public to gain recognition (Jn 7:4). Jesus acknowledged opposition from within his family when he said, “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown and among his own family” (Mt 13:57, <span>nlt<\/span>). His brothers or other friends from home thought him to be losing touch with reality when crowds were first attracted to him (Mk 3:21).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of their earlier skepticism, however, the brothers became active members of the Jerusalem church during its earliest days. They are mentioned as being frequently at prayer in an upper room with Mary, showing a sharp reversal from their earlier lack of faith (Acts 1:14). One of the resurrection appearances was made to James (1 Cor 15:7). On Paul’s return to Jerusalem after his conversion, he met Peter and James, “the Lord’s brother,” but not the other apostles (Gal 1:19). When the apostle Peter was released from prison, he went to the home of Mary the mother of John Mark, and despite the excitement of the occasion, he immediately asked the group to “tell this to James and to the brethren” (Acts 12:17, <span>rsv<\/span>). A number of references in Acts show James as a strong, respected leader of the Jerusalem church (Acts 15:13-21; 21:18). In the council at Jerusalem, he expressed a strong opinion on the acceptance of Gentiles into the church; he was later visited by Paul, who told him about his ministry and the many conversions among the Gentiles. Although James is mentioned more often by name, all the brothers seem to have been well respected at that time. Thus, their actions were used as an example by Paul when he argued that it would be appropriate for him also to have a wife accompany him on his journeys, as Jesus’ brothers did (1 Cor 9:5).<\/p>\n<p>The author of the Epistle of James is generally assumed to be the Lord’s brother, although he does not identify himself specifically that way (1:1). It seems clear, though, that the author wrote as a recognized leader in the church; hence, to identify him as the Lord’s brother seems logical. The author of the Epistle of Jude identifies himself as the brother of James. The reference would most logically be to James, the leader mentioned in Acts and probably the author of the other epistle. The author thus seems to be the Judas named as the brother of the Lord in the Gospels (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the NT the group of the 12 apostles is consistently distinguished from the brothers of the Lord. Luke named the apostles and then said, “All these with one accord devoted themselves to prayer, together with the women and Mary the mother of Jesus, and with his brothers” (Acts 1:13-14). The apostle Paul pointed to the brothers of the Lord as a group separate from the apostles (1 Cor 9:5); each mention of them in the Gospels describes them as family members and distinct from the disciples.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> James (Person) #1; Joseph #7; Jude (Person); Mary #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BROTHERS OF JESUS* James, Joses (or Joseph), Simon, and Judas, identified in the NT as members of Jesus’ own family (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3). They are described as visiting Jesus with Mary, his mother (Mt 12:47-50; Mk 3:34-35; Lk 8:19-21), and hearing Jesus’ statement that all who did the will of God were brother, sister, and mother to him. They were well enough known in Nazareth that when Jesus returned to preach there, the people said, “Is not this the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of Ja...","summary_en":"BROTHERS OF JESUS* James, Joses (or Joseph), Simon, and Judas, identified in the NT as members of Jesus’ own family (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3). They are described as visiting Jesus with Mary, his mother (Mt 12:47-50; Mk 3:34-35; Lk 8:19-21), and hearing Jesus’ statement that all who did the will of God were brother, sister, and mother to him. They were well enough known in Nazareth that when Jesus returned to preach there, the people said, “Is not this the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of Ja...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18370,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"James (Person)","title_en":"James (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. James, brother of Jesus; leading elder in the church at Jerusalem; author of the epistle bearing his name.<\/li>\n<p>The only two references to James in the Gospels mention him with his brothers Joseph (Greek Joses), Simon, and Judas (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3). This James may have been, after Jesus, the oldest of the brothers. The question has been raised about whether these were indeed full brothers of Jesus by Mary, for such a situation has created difficulty for those who cannot square it with their views on the perpetual virginity of Mary. But there seems to be no good reason to challenge the fact from Scripture. As with the other brothers, James apparently did not accept Jesus’ authority during his earthly life (Jn 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>There is no specific mention of James’s conversion; it may have dated from Jesus’ appearance to him and the others after Jesus’ resurrection (1 Cor 15:7). He became head of the church at Jerusalem (Acts 12:17; 21:18; Gal 2:9). Although Jesus had always taught the relative subordination of family ties (Mt 12:48-50; Mk 3:33-35; Lk 8:21), it is hard to believe that James’s authority was not somehow enhanced because of his relationship to the Master.<\/p>\n<p>James was regarded as an apostle (Gal 1:19), although he was not one of the Twelve. Some suggest he was a replacement for the martyred son of Zebedee; others infer his apostleship by widening the scope of that term to embrace both “the Twelve” and “all the apostles” (see the two separate categories cited in 1 Cor 15:5, 7).<\/p>\n<p>Tradition stated that James was appointed the first bishop of Jerusalem by the Lord himself as well as the apostles. What is certain is that he presided over the first Council of Jerusalem, called to consider the terms for admission of Gentiles into the Christian church, and he may have formulated the decree that met with the approval of all his colleagues and was sent to the churches of Antioch, Syria, and Cilicia (Acts 15:19-20). James evidently regarded his own special ministry as being to the Jews, and his was a mediating role in the controversy that arose in the young church around the place of the law for those who had become Christians, from both Gentile and Jewish origins.<\/p>\n<p>That he continued to have strong Jewish-Christian sympathies is apparent from the request made to Paul when the latter visited Jerusalem for the last time (Acts 21:18-25). This was also the last mention in Acts of James’s career. His name also occurs in the NT as the traditional author of the Epistle of James, where he describes himself as “a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1).<\/p>\n<p>According to Hegesippus (c. 180), James’s faithful adherence to the Jewish law and his austere lifestyle led to the designation “the Just.” It seems clear that James suffered martyrdom. Josephus places it in the year 61, when there was a Jewish uprising after the death of Festus the procurator and before his successor had been appointed.<\/p>\n<li>2. James, son of Alphaeus; one of the 12 apostles.<\/li>\n<p>James, son of Alphaeus, is always listed as one of the 12 apostles (Mt 10:3; Mk 3:18; Lk 6:15; Acts 1:13), but nothing is known for certain about him. Levi (also known as Matthew) is also described as the son of Alphaeus (Mk 2:14), but it is improbable that he and James were brothers. Many scholars have identified him with the one called “James the less” or “James the smaller.” The description “the less” seems to have been given to distinguish him from the son of Zebedee, and it may signify that he was either smaller or younger than Zebedee’s son (the Greek word can cover both interpretations).<\/p>\n<li>3. James, son of Zebedee. One of the 12 apostles; the first of them to be martyred (<span>AD<\/span> 44).<\/li>\n<p>James was a Galilean fisherman whose circumstances we can suppose to have been comfortable (Mk 1:19-20) and who was called to be one of the disciples at the same time as his brother John (Mt 4:21; Mk 1:19-20). It is reasonable to assume that he was older than John, both because he is nearly always mentioned first and because John is sometimes identified as “the brother of James” (Mt 10:2; 17:1; Mk 3:17; 5:37).<\/p>\n<p>James, John, and Simon Peter, who were part of a fishing partnership that included Andrew, Simon’s brother (Lk 5:10), were a trio who attained in some sense a place of primacy among the disciples. They are found at the center of things—for example, when Jairus’s daughter was raised (Mk 5:37; Lk 8:51), at the Transfiguration (Mt 17:1; Mk 9:2; Lk 9:28), on the Mount of Olives (Mk 13:3), and in the Garden of Gethsemane (Mt 26:37; Mk 14:33). It was James and John, moreover, who had earlier accompanied Jesus to the home of Simon and Andrew (Mk 1:29).<\/p>\n<p>James and John were given by Jesus the nickname Boanerges, or “sons of thunder” (Mk 3:17), when they were rebuked by the Lord for impetuous speech and for having totally misconceived the purpose of his coming. This may have been the consequence of the suggestion made by them that they should pray for the destruction of the Samaritan village, the inhabitants of which had rejected the Lord’s messengers (Lk 9:54; cf. Mk 9:38; Lk 9:49).<\/p>\n<p>The presumptuous and ill-considered thinking of the two brothers was obvious also when, after asking with his brother for a place of honor in the kingdom, James was corecipient of the prophecy that they would drink the cup their Master was to drink (Mk 10:35-40; cf. Mt 20:20-23). The two sons of Zebedee are also assumed to have been present with the other disciples when the risen Christ appeared by the Sea of Galilee (Jn 21:1), though curiously James’s name is nowhere mentioned in the fourth Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>We know nothing about James’s career subsequently until about the year 44, when Jesus’ prophecy was fulfilled: James was killed “by the sword” by Herod Agrippa I, and thus became the first of the Twelve whose martyrdom was referred to in the NT (Acts 12:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The wife of Zebedee was Salome (Mt 27:56; Mk 15:40), who may have been a sister of the Lord’s mother (Jn 19:25). If this were so, it would mean that James and John were first cousins of Jesus and that they may have considered themselves to have been in a privileged position.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. James, brother of Jesus; leading elder in the church at Jerusalem; author of the epistle bearing his name.<\/li>\n<p>The only two references to James in the Gospels mention him with his brothers Joseph (Greek Joses), Simon, and Judas (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3). This James may have been, after Jesus, the oldest of the brothers. The question has been raised about whether these were indeed full brothers of Jesus by Mary, for such a situation has created difficulty for those who cannot square it with their views on the perpetual virginity of Mary. But there seems to be no good reason to challenge the fact from Scripture. As with the other brothers, James apparently did not accept Jesus’ authority during his earthly life (Jn 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>There is no specific mention of James’s conversion; it may have dated from Jesus’ appearance to him and the others after Jesus’ resurrection (1 Cor 15:7). He became head of the church at Jerusalem (Acts 12:17; 21:18; Gal 2:9). Although Jesus had always taught the relative subordination of family ties (Mt 12:48-50; Mk 3:33-35; Lk 8:21), it is hard to believe that James’s authority was not somehow enhanced because of his relationship to the Master.<\/p>\n<p>James was regarded as an apostle (Gal 1:19), although he was not one of the Twelve. Some suggest he was a replacement for the martyred son of Zebedee; others infer his apostleship by widening the scope of that term to embrace both “the Twelve” and “all the apostles” (see the two separate categories cited in 1 Cor 15:5, 7).<\/p>\n<p>Tradition stated that James was appointed the first bishop of Jerusalem by the Lord himself as well as the apostles. What is certain is that he presided over the first Council of Jerusalem, called to consider the terms for admission of Gentiles into the Christian church, and he may have formulated the decree that met with the approval of all his colleagues and was sent to the churches of Antioch, Syria, and Cilicia (Acts 15:19-20). James evidently regarded his own special ministry as being to the Jews, and his was a mediating role in the controversy that arose in the young church around the place of the law for those who had become Christians, from both Gentile and Jewish origins.<\/p>\n<p>That he continued to have strong Jewish-Christian sympathies is apparent from the request made to Paul when the latter visited Jerusalem for the last time (Acts 21:18-25). This was also the last mention in Acts of James’s career. His name also occurs in the NT as the traditional author of the Epistle of James, where he describes himself as “a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1).<\/p>\n<p>According to Hegesippus (c. 180), James’s faithful adherence to the Jewish law and his austere lifestyle led to the designation “the Just.” It seems clear that James suffered martyrdom. Josephus places it in the year 61, when there was a Jewish uprising after the death of Festus the procurator and before his successor had been appointed.<\/p>\n<li>2. James, son of Alphaeus; one of the 12 apostles.<\/li>\n<p>James, son of Alphaeus, is always listed as one of the 12 apostles (Mt 10:3; Mk 3:18; Lk 6:15; Acts 1:13), but nothing is known for certain about him. Levi (also known as Matthew) is also described as the son of Alphaeus (Mk 2:14), but it is improbable that he and James were brothers. Many scholars have identified him with the one called “James the less” or “James the smaller.” The description “the less” seems to have been given to distinguish him from the son of Zebedee, and it may signify that he was either smaller or younger than Zebedee’s son (the Greek word can cover both interpretations).<\/p>\n<li>3. James, son of Zebedee. One of the 12 apostles; the first of them to be martyred (<span>AD<\/span> 44).<\/li>\n<p>James was a Galilean fisherman whose circumstances we can suppose to have been comfortable (Mk 1:19-20) and who was called to be one of the disciples at the same time as his brother John (Mt 4:21; Mk 1:19-20). It is reasonable to assume that he was older than John, both because he is nearly always mentioned first and because John is sometimes identified as “the brother of James” (Mt 10:2; 17:1; Mk 3:17; 5:37).<\/p>\n<p>James, John, and Simon Peter, who were part of a fishing partnership that included Andrew, Simon’s brother (Lk 5:10), were a trio who attained in some sense a place of primacy among the disciples. They are found at the center of things—for example, when Jairus’s daughter was raised (Mk 5:37; Lk 8:51), at the Transfiguration (Mt 17:1; Mk 9:2; Lk 9:28), on the Mount of Olives (Mk 13:3), and in the Garden of Gethsemane (Mt 26:37; Mk 14:33). It was James and John, moreover, who had earlier accompanied Jesus to the home of Simon and Andrew (Mk 1:29).<\/p>\n<p>James and John were given by Jesus the nickname Boanerges, or “sons of thunder” (Mk 3:17), when they were rebuked by the Lord for impetuous speech and for having totally misconceived the purpose of his coming. This may have been the consequence of the suggestion made by them that they should pray for the destruction of the Samaritan village, the inhabitants of which had rejected the Lord’s messengers (Lk 9:54; cf. Mk 9:38; Lk 9:49).<\/p>\n<p>The presumptuous and ill-considered thinking of the two brothers was obvious also when, after asking with his brother for a place of honor in the kingdom, James was corecipient of the prophecy that they would drink the cup their Master was to drink (Mk 10:35-40; cf. Mt 20:20-23). The two sons of Zebedee are also assumed to have been present with the other disciples when the risen Christ appeared by the Sea of Galilee (Jn 21:1), though curiously James’s name is nowhere mentioned in the fourth Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>We know nothing about James’s career subsequently until about the year 44, when Jesus’ prophecy was fulfilled: James was killed “by the sword” by Herod Agrippa I, and thus became the first of the Twelve whose martyrdom was referred to in the NT (Acts 12:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The wife of Zebedee was Salome (Mt 27:56; Mk 15:40), who may have been a sister of the Lord’s mother (Jn 19:25). If this were so, it would mean that James and John were first cousins of Jesus and that they may have considered themselves to have been in a privileged position.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES (Person) 1. James, brother of Jesus; leading elder in the church at Jerusalem; author of the epistle bearing his name. The only two references to James in the Gospels mention him with his brothers Joseph (Greek Joses), Simon, and Judas (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3). This James may have been, after Jesus, the oldest of the brothers. The question has been raised about whether these were indeed full brothers of Jesus by Mary, for such a situation has created difficulty for those who cannot square it ...","summary_en":"JAMES (Person) 1. James, brother of Jesus; leading elder in the church at Jerusalem; author of the epistle bearing his name. The only two references to James in the Gospels mention him with his brothers Joseph (Greek Joses), Simon, and Judas (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3). This James may have been, after Jesus, the oldest of the brothers. The question has been raised about whether these were indeed full brothers of Jesus by Mary, for such a situation has created difficulty for those who cannot square it ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18406,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of James","title_en":"Letter of James","content_ro":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAMES, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>First letter of the General Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother.<\/p>\n<p>The James who wrote this epistle was probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (<span>AD<\/span> 44) to have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as Jesus’ brother (Mk 6:3; Gal 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Gal 2:12). The whole character of the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and Jewishness.<\/p>\n\n<p>As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the 12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar (cf. Jas 1:2 with Mt 5:12; Jas 1:4 with Mt 5:48; Jas 1:5 and 5:14-15 with Mt 7:7-11; Jas 2:13 with Mt 5:7 and 6:14-15; Jas 2:10 with Mt 5:19; Jas 4:4 with Mt 6:24; Jas 4:11 with Mt 7:1-2; Jas 5:2 with Mt 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this coincidence (cf. Jas 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Mt 5:20). It also fitted him for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Gal 2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because he presented a pattern of OT righteousness, combined with evangelical faith (cf. also Jas 2:8 with Mt 5:44, 48).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars confirm an early date for James’s epistle, even as early as <span>AD<\/span> 45–49, because the whole orientation of the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the terms “the twelve tribes” (Jas 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. Jas 1:5 with Prv 2:6; Jas 1:19 with Prv 29:20; Jas 3:18 with Prv 11:30; Jas 4:13-16 with Prv 27:1; and Jas 5:20 with Prv 10:12). James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His message does not deal with the Jewish\/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This date is probably before <span>AD<\/span> 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to discuss the Jewish\/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1ff.). Also, the date is probably after <span>AD<\/span> 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1). This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem and thereby be “the dispersed” (Jas 1:1). Thus, James should be dated <span>AD<\/span> 45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written before <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Although a number of suggestions have been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine, 3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The contents of the letter indicate clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1; their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4)—a name for God used in the OT. In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’ situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the OT prophets, especially Amos.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofWritingandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The letter of James was written (1) to strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (Jas 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2) to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith (2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of practical wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important role in the rest of the books of the NT. James makes no mention of the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>James’s theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to produce a Jewish-Christian document.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding theological themes of the letter are as follows:<\/p>\n<h5>Temptations and Trials<\/h5>\n<p>The typically Jewish teachings—joy in trials and the use of trials for the building and perfecting of character—are both found in the letter (1:2-4). James also discusses the origin of temptation (vv 13-15). Here the author comes into conflict with contemporary Jewish theology. The rabbinical solution to the problem of the origin of sin was that there was an evil tendency in man that enticed man to sin. The rabbis reasoned that since God is the Creator of all things, including the evil impulse in people, they are not responsible for their sins. No, says James. “And remember, no one who wants to do wrong should ever say, ‘God is tempting me.’ God is never tempted to do wrong, and he never tempts anyone else either. Temptation comes from the lure of our own evil desires” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Law<\/h5>\n<p>The entire letter is concerned with ethical teaching; there is no mention of the central gospel truths of Christ’s death and resurrection. James presupposes the gospel and presents the ethical side of Christianity as a perfect law. He seems to be reassuring his Jewish-Christian readers that for them there is still law (the priceless possession of every Jew).<\/p>\n<p>The law (ethical teaching of Christianity) is a perfect law (1:25) because it was perfected by Jesus Christ. It is also a law of freedom—that is, a law that applies to those who have freedom, not from law, but from sin and self through the “word of truth.” Thus “law” is a Palestinian-Christian Jew’s way of describing the ethical teaching of the Christian faith, the standard of conduct for the believer in Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to describe Christian ethical teaching as law is found in 2:8-13, a passage that arises out of a rebuke against the favoritism that James’s readers were showing toward the rich. This favoritism was being condoned by an appeal to the law of love to one’s neighbor. So James writes, “It is good when you truly obey our Lord’s royal command” (2:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The “royal command” is for those who are of God’s kingdom; it is the rule of faith for those who have willingly subjected themselves to God’s rule. The identification of law with the ethical side of Christianity runs through the entire letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Faith and Works<\/h5>\n<p>Faith plays an important role in the theology of James. The basic element of piety (1:3; cf. 2:5) is belief in God—not merely belief in his existence but belief in his character as being good and benevolent in his dealings with mankind (1:6). Faith includes belief in the power of God and in his ability to perform miraculous acts; it is closely associated with prayer (5:15-16; cf. 1:6). James has a dynamic concept of faith and clearly goes beyond Judaism when he speaks of faith directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ (2:1).<\/p>\n<p>Similarities exist between the concept of faith in James and that concept in the teachings of Jesus. For the Lord Jesus, also, faith meant gaining access to the divine power and is often associated with healing (cf. Mt 21:22; Mk 5:34; 11:24).<\/p>\n<p>The best-known passage in which faith is mentioned is James 2:14-26, where it is contrasted with works. From a close study of this passage, it can be determined that James is not contradicting Paul. For both James and Paul, faith is directed toward the Lord Jesus Christ; such faith will always produce good works. The faith of which James speaks is not faith in the Hebraic sense of trust in God that results in moral action. This is not recognized as <em>true<\/em> faith by James (cf. “if a man says he has faith,” 2:14), and Paul would agree with him.<\/p>\n<p>James’s use of the word “works” differs significantly from Paul’s. For James, “works” are works of faith, the ethical outworking of true spirituality and include especially the “work of love” (2:8). (Paul would probably call such works “the fruit of the Spirit.”) When Paul uses the word “works,” he usually has in mind the works of the law whereby people attempt to establish their own righteousness before God. It is against such theological heresy that Paul’s strongest polemics are addressed in the letters to the Galatians and Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom<\/h5>\n<p>James’s concept of wisdom also reveals the Jewish background of the letter. Wisdom is primarily practical, not philosophical. It is not to be identified with reasoning power or the ability to apprehend intellectual problems; it has nothing to do with the questions <em>how<\/em> or <em>why.<\/em> It is to be sought by earnest prayer and is a gift from God (Jas 1:5). Both of these ideas find their roots in the Wisdom Literature of the Jews (cf. Prv 2:6; Wisd of Sol 7:7; Ecclus 1:1). The wise man demonstrates his wisdom by his good life (Jas 3:13), whereas the wisdom that produces jealousy and selfishness is not God’s kind of wisdom (vv 15-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Doctrine of the End Time<\/h5>\n<p>Three important end-time themes are touched upon in the letter.<\/p>\n<h6>The Kingdom of God<\/h6>\n<p>Mention of the kingdom of God grows out of a discussion of favoritism in the first half of chapter 2. No favoritism is to be shown to the rich, for James asks, “Hasn’t God chosen the poor in this world to be rich in faith? Aren’t they the ones who will inherit the kingdom God promised to those who love him?” (2:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). This echoes our Lord’s teaching in Luke 6:20: “God blesses you who are poor, for the Kingdom of God is given to you” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The kingdom is the reign of God partially realized in this life but fully realized in the life to come (cf. “promised,” Jas 2:5).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment<\/h6>\n<p>This is a dominant end-time theme of the letter. In 2:12, the readers are admonished to speak and act, remembering that they will be judged under the law of liberty, and they are reminded that judgment is without mercy to one who has shown no mercy. In other words, judgment will be administered according to “works of love.” In 3:1, James addresses teachers and reminds them that privilege is another basis on which God judges.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of judgment again appears in 5:1-6, and here the author reaches prophetic heights. God’s judgment will fall on the wealthy landowners who have lived self-indulgent, irresponsible lives. Not only have they cheated their poor tenant farmers; they have even “condemned and killed good people who had no power to defend themselves against you [the landowners]” (5:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). All this has made them ripe for judgment (“your hearts are nice and fat, ready for the slaughter”—v 5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The final passage on judgment (5:9) is addressed to those who are exploited or suffering. James’s word of exhortation is that they are not to grumble against each other. Judging is God’s business, and the Judge is close at hand.<\/p>\n<h6>The Second Coming<\/h6>\n<p>The hope of Christ’s coming is presented as the great stimulus for Christian living. Every kind of suffering and trial must be endured because the coming of Christ is at hand (5:8). This expectancy is powerful and immediate—like that found in the Thessalonian letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the true spirit of Wisdom Literature, James touches upon many subjects. His short, abrupt paragraphs have been likened to a string of pearls—each is an entity in itself. Some transitions exist, but they are often difficult to find and James moves quickly from one subject to another.<\/p>\n<p>The author begins by identifying himself as the “slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ,” and his readers as the “twelve tribes in the dispersion” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg)—that is, the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem and Israel due to persecution.<\/p>\n<p>His first word is one of encouragement. Trials are to be counted as joy because they are God’s way of testing the believer, and they produce spiritual maturity. If the reason for a trial is not clear, God can and will give the answer. He is a lavish giver of wisdom to those who really want it (1:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>A poor Christian should be proud of his exalted position in Jesus Christ, and a rich Christian should be glad that he has discovered there are more important things than wealth. Riches are transitory, like quickly wilting flowers under the hot Palestine sun (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>God promises life to those who endure trials. One must not blame God for temptation, for it is contrary to his very nature either to be tempted or to tempt people. Temptation has its origin in people’s selfish desire—a desire that, when brought to full fruition, produces death (1:12-15). God is not the origin of temptation but the source of all good. He has given people his best gift, the gift of new life, and this has come through the gospel (vv 16-18).<\/p>\n<p>The proper attitude toward the Word of Truth is receptivity, not anger, and effective listening to that word involves spiritual preparation of heart and mind. Such a reception of the word brings salvation (1:19-21). The word is to be acted upon, not merely listened to. To be a passive hearer is to be like a man who sees himself in a mirror, and because he takes such a fleeting glance, forgets what he sees. An active hearer, one who takes a long look in the mirror of God’s Word, will become a doer, and God will bring great blessing into his life (vv 22-25).<\/p>\n<p>True religion is an intensely practical thing. It involves such things as controlling one’s tongue, looking after the needs of orphans and widows, and adopting a nonworldly lifestyle (1:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>Favoritism and faith in Jesus Christ do not go together. It is wrong to show favoritism to a rich man when he comes into the assembly and to ignore a poor man. God has chosen poor people to be heirs of his kingdom. Furthermore, to show favoritism to the rich does not make sense, since they are the very ones who drag Christians into court and blaspheme the name of Christ (2:1-7). If, by showing deference to the rich, the royal law—to love one’s neighbor as oneself —is fulfilled, well and good. But to show favoritism is sin, and such sin will be judged by God. In order to be a lawbreaker one has only to break a single law (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Can a faith that does not produce works save a person? What good is a faith that does not respond to human need? Such a faith is dead. Someone will object by saying that there are “faith Christians” and there are “works Christians.” But this is not so. True faith is always demonstrated by works. It is not enough to have orthodox beliefs. Even the demons are theologically orthodox! Abraham, by offering up Isaac, is an example of how true faith and works go together. Even Rahab the prostitute demonstrated her faith by protecting the spies at Jericho. So faith and works are inseparable (2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>Not many people should become spiritual teachers, because of the awesome responsibility involved. All of us are subject to mistakes, especially mistakes of the tongue, because the tongue is almost impossible to control. It is like a destructive blaze set by hell itself. The tongue is also inconsistent; it is used both to praise God and to curse men. Such inconsistency ought not to be (3:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>True wisdom will always evidence itself in ethical living, whereas false wisdom produces jealousy and selfish ambition (3:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Strife and conflict arise out of illegitimate desires. Failure to have what one wants arises either from not asking God for it or from asking for the wrong thing. To be a friend of the world is to be an enemy of God, for God is a jealous God and will brook no rivals. He also opposes the proud but offers abundant grace to the humble (4:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>To speak against a brother or sister, or to judge them, is to speak against God’s law and to judge it. The Christian’s proper role is to be a doer of the law, not a judge. The role of judge belongs to God alone (4:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Life is uncertain. Therefore, plans for traveling or doing business should be made with the realization that all are subject to the will of God. To do otherwise is to be boastful and arrogant. When what is right is clearly known and one fails to do it, that is sin (4:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>Judgment is coming to the rich because they are hoarding their wealth instead of using it for good purposes. God is not unmindful of the cries of the poor whom the rich have cheated and unjustly condemned. He is preparing the selfish, unscrupulous rich for a day of awful judgment (5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>In the midst of suffering and injustice, the poor are to be patient for Christ’s coming, as the farmer must be patient as he waits for God to send the rains to cause his crops to grow and ripen. The return of Christ is at hand and therefore complaining and judging one another must cease. Job is a good example of patience and endurance in suffering. One need not use oaths to guarantee the truthfulness of his statements. A single yes or no is sufficient (5:7-12).<\/p>\n<p>Suffering should elicit prayer, cheerfulness, and praise. When believers are sick, they should call the elders of the church to pray for them and anoint them with oil. God has promised to answer such prayers. If the sickness is due to personal sin, and if that sin is confessed, God will forgive. Elijah is a classic example of how the prayer of a righteous man has powerful results (5:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>If a Christian sees that another Christian has strayed from the truth and is able to bring him or her back into fellowship with Christ and his church, the consequences will be (1) that the sinner will be saved from death, and (2) that God will forgive the erring Christian (5:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Brothers of Jesus; James (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","summary_en":"JAMES, Letter of First letter of the General Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Purpose of Writing and Theological Teaching • Content Author According to the salutation, this letter was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Jas 1:1, nlt). But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever been proposed as the author of this letter—James the son of Zebedee, and James the Lord’s brother. The James who wrote this ep...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":28024,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Oath","title_en":"Oath","content_ro":"<h3>OATH<\/h3>\n<p>Solemn vow or promise to fulfill a pledge. There are two terms in Hebrew that mean “oath”: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘ala<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sebu’a<\/span><em>.<\/em> The latter, more general term in ancient times meant to enter into a solemn (even magical) relationship with the number seven, although ancient connections are lost. Even so, when Abraham and Abimelech entered into an oath at Beersheba (the well of seven, or the well of the oath), Abraham set aside seven ewe lambs as a witness to the fact that he had dug a well (Gn 21:22-31). The former term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘ala<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “oath,” properly means “curse.” At times the two terms are used together (Nm 5:21; Neh 10:29; Dn 9:11). Any breach of one’s undertaking affirmed by an oath would be attended by a curse. The Lord affirmed that he had established a covenant and a curse with Israel—that is, a breach of covenant would be followed by a curse (Dt 29:14ff.).<\/p>\n<p>An oath was taken to confirm an agreement or, in a political situation, to confirm a treaty. Both in Israel and among its neighbors, God (or the gods) would act as the guarantor(s) of the agreement and his name (or their names) was invoked for this purpose. When Jacob and Laban made an agreement, they erected a heap of stones as a witness (Gn 31:53). If either party transgressed the terms, it was a heinous sin. For this reason one of the Ten Commandments dealt with empty affirmations: “Do not misuse the name of the <span>Lord<\/span> your God. The <span>Lord<\/span> will not let you go unpunished if you misuse his name” (Ex 20:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). The people of Israel were forbidden to swear their oaths by false gods (Jer 12:16; Am 8:14). To breach an international treaty, where the oath was taken in the Lord’s name, merited death (Ez 17:16-17). It was one of the complaints of Hosea that the people of his day swore falsely when they made a covenant (Hos 10:4). Judgment would attend such wanton disregard of the solemnity of an oath. Certain civil situations in Israel called for an oath (Ex 22:10-11; Lv 5:1; 6:3; Nm 5:11-28). This practice provided a pattern for the Israelite covenantal oath of allegiance between God and his people.<\/p>\n<p>Christ taught that oaths were binding (Mt 5:33). In the kingdom of God oaths would become unnecessary (vv 34-37). At his trial before Caiaphas, Jesus heard an imprecatory oath from the high priest (26:63-65), and Paul swore by an oath on occasion (2 Cor 1:23; Gal 1:20). God himself was bound by his own oath (Heb 6:13-18) to keep his promise to the patriarchs (Gn 50:24; Pss 89:19-37, 49; 110:1-4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Vows.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OATH<\/h3>\n<p>Solemn vow or promise to fulfill a pledge. There are two terms in Hebrew that mean “oath”: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘ala<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sebu’a<\/span><em>.<\/em> The latter, more general term in ancient times meant to enter into a solemn (even magical) relationship with the number seven, although ancient connections are lost. Even so, when Abraham and Abimelech entered into an oath at Beersheba (the well of seven, or the well of the oath), Abraham set aside seven ewe lambs as a witness to the fact that he had dug a well (Gn 21:22-31). The former term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘ala<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “oath,” properly means “curse.” At times the two terms are used together (Nm 5:21; Neh 10:29; Dn 9:11). Any breach of one’s undertaking affirmed by an oath would be attended by a curse. The Lord affirmed that he had established a covenant and a curse with Israel—that is, a breach of covenant would be followed by a curse (Dt 29:14ff.).<\/p>\n<p>An oath was taken to confirm an agreement or, in a political situation, to confirm a treaty. Both in Israel and among its neighbors, God (or the gods) would act as the guarantor(s) of the agreement and his name (or their names) was invoked for this purpose. When Jacob and Laban made an agreement, they erected a heap of stones as a witness (Gn 31:53). If either party transgressed the terms, it was a heinous sin. For this reason one of the Ten Commandments dealt with empty affirmations: “Do not misuse the name of the <span>Lord<\/span> your God. The <span>Lord<\/span> will not let you go unpunished if you misuse his name” (Ex 20:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). The people of Israel were forbidden to swear their oaths by false gods (Jer 12:16; Am 8:14). To breach an international treaty, where the oath was taken in the Lord’s name, merited death (Ez 17:16-17). It was one of the complaints of Hosea that the people of his day swore falsely when they made a covenant (Hos 10:4). Judgment would attend such wanton disregard of the solemnity of an oath. Certain civil situations in Israel called for an oath (Ex 22:10-11; Lv 5:1; 6:3; Nm 5:11-28). This practice provided a pattern for the Israelite covenantal oath of allegiance between God and his people.<\/p>\n<p>Christ taught that oaths were binding (Mt 5:33). In the kingdom of God oaths would become unnecessary (vv 34-37). At his trial before Caiaphas, Jesus heard an imprecatory oath from the high priest (26:63-65), and Paul swore by an oath on occasion (2 Cor 1:23; Gal 1:20). God himself was bound by his own oath (Heb 6:13-18) to keep his promise to the patriarchs (Gn 50:24; Pss 89:19-37, 49; 110:1-4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Vows.<\/p>","summary_ro":"OATH Solemn vow or promise to fulfill a pledge. There are two terms in Hebrew that mean “oath”: ‘ala and sebu’a. The latter, more general term in ancient times meant to enter into a solemn (even magical) relationship with the number seven, although ancient connections are lost. Even so, when Abraham and Abimelech entered into an oath at Beersheba (the well of seven, or the well of the oath), Abraham set aside seven ewe lambs as a witness to the fact that he had dug a well (Gn 21:22-31). The f...","summary_en":"OATH Solemn vow or promise to fulfill a pledge. There are two terms in Hebrew that mean “oath”: ‘ala and sebu’a. The latter, more general term in ancient times meant to enter into a solemn (even magical) relationship with the number seven, although ancient connections are lost. Even so, when Abraham and Abimelech entered into an oath at Beersheba (the well of seven, or the well of the oath), Abraham set aside seven ewe lambs as a witness to the fact that he had dug a well (Gn 21:22-31). The f...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57925,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:20","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:20<\/strong> <em>I declare before God:<\/em> Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:20<\/strong> <em>I declare before God:<\/em> Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:20 I declare before God: Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.","summary_en":"1:20 I declare before God: Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85551,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:20","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:20<\/strong> <em>I declare before God:<\/em> Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:20<\/strong> <em>I declare before God:<\/em> Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:20 I declare before God: Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.","summary_en":"1:20 I declare before God: Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113177,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:20","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:20<\/strong> <em>I declare before God:<\/em> Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:20<\/strong> <em>I declare before God:<\/em> Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:20 I declare before God: Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.","summary_en":"1:20 I declare before God: Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140803,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:20","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:20<\/strong> <em>I declare before God:<\/em> Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:20<\/strong> <em>I declare before God:<\/em> Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:20 I declare before God: Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.","summary_en":"1:20 I declare before God: Paul here takes an oath to emphasize the truthfulness of his account of his trip to Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":6640,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Cilicia","title_en":"Cilicia","content_ro":"<h3>CILICIA<\/h3>\n<p>Province of the Roman Empire, located in southeastern Asia Minor. Its capital was Tarsus, Paul’s hometown (Acts 21:39; 22:3), hence permitting Paul Roman citizenship (16:37) even though he was a Jew.<\/p>\n<p>Jewish presence in the area probably dated to the time when Antiochus the Great settled 2,000 Jewish families in the Asia Minor regions of Lydia and Phrygia in the second century <span>BC<\/span> (Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 12.3.4).<\/p>\n<p>In antiquity Cilicia (called Kue in OT times) formed a bridge between the country now known as Turkey and Syria, its neighbor to the southeast. Geographically the country was divided between Cilicia Tracheia, the mountainous region in the western half, and Cilicia Pedias, the lovely plains to the east. Entrance into Turkey (ancient Asia Minor) was possible through the Cilician Gates, a narrow pass in the Taurus Mountains. Cilicia Pedias was early attached to the province of Syria (c. 38 <span>BC<\/span>) and was known in the NT times as Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21). The western part, Cilicia Tracheia, was given by Mark Antony to Cleopatra in 36 <span>BC<\/span>, but by the time of Paul, it was ruled by the Hellenist king Antiochus IV of Commagene (<span>AD<\/span> 38–72). In <span>AD<\/span> 72 the two areas were unified into one Roman province, called Cilicia, by the Roman emperor Vespasian.<\/p>\n<p>Jews from Cilicia participated in the persecution of Stephen (Acts 6:9). After his conversion to Christianity, Paul eventually returned to Tarsus, later accompanying Barnabas to Antioch (Acts 11:25-26). Syria and Cilicia thus became the first major center of non-Jewish Christianity, and from this region Christianity spread to the rest of the gentile population of the Roman Empire.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kue.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CILICIA<\/h3>\n<p>Province of the Roman Empire, located in southeastern Asia Minor. Its capital was Tarsus, Paul’s hometown (Acts 21:39; 22:3), hence permitting Paul Roman citizenship (16:37) even though he was a Jew.<\/p>\n<p>Jewish presence in the area probably dated to the time when Antiochus the Great settled 2,000 Jewish families in the Asia Minor regions of Lydia and Phrygia in the second century <span>BC<\/span> (Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 12.3.4).<\/p>\n<p>In antiquity Cilicia (called Kue in OT times) formed a bridge between the country now known as Turkey and Syria, its neighbor to the southeast. Geographically the country was divided between Cilicia Tracheia, the mountainous region in the western half, and Cilicia Pedias, the lovely plains to the east. Entrance into Turkey (ancient Asia Minor) was possible through the Cilician Gates, a narrow pass in the Taurus Mountains. Cilicia Pedias was early attached to the province of Syria (c. 38 <span>BC<\/span>) and was known in the NT times as Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21). The western part, Cilicia Tracheia, was given by Mark Antony to Cleopatra in 36 <span>BC<\/span>, but by the time of Paul, it was ruled by the Hellenist king Antiochus IV of Commagene (<span>AD<\/span> 38–72). In <span>AD<\/span> 72 the two areas were unified into one Roman province, called Cilicia, by the Roman emperor Vespasian.<\/p>\n<p>Jews from Cilicia participated in the persecution of Stephen (Acts 6:9). After his conversion to Christianity, Paul eventually returned to Tarsus, later accompanying Barnabas to Antioch (Acts 11:25-26). Syria and Cilicia thus became the first major center of non-Jewish Christianity, and from this region Christianity spread to the rest of the gentile population of the Roman Empire.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kue.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CILICIA Province of the Roman Empire, located in southeastern Asia Minor. Its capital was Tarsus, Paul’s hometown (Acts 21:39; 22:3), hence permitting Paul Roman citizenship (16:37) even though he was a Jew. Jewish presence in the area probably dated to the time when Antiochus the Great settled 2,000 Jewish families in the Asia Minor regions of Lydia and Phrygia in the second century BC (Josephus’s Antiquities 12.3.4). In antiquity Cilicia (called Kue in OT times) formed a bridge between the ...","summary_en":"CILICIA Province of the Roman Empire, located in southeastern Asia Minor. Its capital was Tarsus, Paul’s hometown (Acts 21:39; 22:3), hence permitting Paul Roman citizenship (16:37) even though he was a Jew. Jewish presence in the area probably dated to the time when Antiochus the Great settled 2,000 Jewish families in the Asia Minor regions of Lydia and Phrygia in the second century BC (Josephus’s Antiquities 12.3.4). In antiquity Cilicia (called Kue in OT times) formed a bridge between the ...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13092,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Galatians","title_en":"Letter to the Galatians","content_ro":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","summary_en":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29124,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36564,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Syrians Syria","title_en":"Syrians Syria","content_ro":"<h3>SYRIA, SYRIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoryoftheArameans\">History of the Arameans<\/p>\n<p>According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they were to go back to their original home. The precise origins of this group of people are, however, lost in antiquity. When they emerged clearly into history, they were settled around the central Euphrates from which they were spread out east, west, and north.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans were traditionally thought to have been established in upper Mesopotamia in the first part of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gn 25:20; 28:1-7); the home of Bethuel was in Paddan-aram (25:20). The prophet Hosea recalls the tradition by noting that Jacob fled to “the field of Aram” (Hos 12:12) or “Aram-naharaim” (Aram of the two rivers), which was the northern part of Mesopotamia between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. In the creedal confession in Deuteronomy 26:5, the Israelite who brought his firstfruits confessed, “My father [probably Jacob] was a wandering Aramean.”<\/p>\n<p>Probably the best early evidence of an Aramean presence in this area comes from Tiglath-pileser I. In his annals of his fourth year (1112 <span>BC<\/span>), he speaks of a campaign among the “Akhlama, Arameans” in the Middle Euphrates area and the sacking of six Aramean villages in the Mt Bishri area.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans of upper Mesopotamia became important in biblical history. They set up a number of separate Aramean states, two of which were especially important for the people of Israel—Aram-zobah in the days of David, and Aram-damascus from the days of Solomon onward.<\/p>\n<p>By about 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, the Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan, where they came into conflict with the Israelites. At his peak Hadadezer, king of Aram-zobah, embraced several vassals, such as Damascus, Maacah, and Tob. He was eventually defeated by King David (2 Sm 8:3-4; 10:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Events in Israel and Judah had some bearing on Damascus. After the death of Solomon, when the formerly united kingdom became divided into Judah and Israel, tension arose between the two small states. War broke out between Baasha of Israel and Asa of Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>. Asa sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18). Lands in Transjordan changed hands several times. The successors of Omri of Israel—namely Ahab, Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and Jehoash—had many conflicts with Damascus. Ahab fought Ben-hadad and his 32 allies who besieged Samaria (20:1), but Israel defeated him. A second time Ben-hadad entered Israelite territory and reached Aphek (20:26), but he was again defeated and captured. As a consequence of his defeat and for the price of his release, he was obliged to make bazaars available in Damascus for Israelite trade. After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again and resulted in a battle in the region of Ramoth-gilead in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aram-damascus was eventually defeated by King Jehoash of Israel (2 Kgs 13:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SyriaaftertheCollapseoftheArameanKingdoms\">Syria after the Collapse of the Aramean Kingdoms<\/p>\n<p>After the collapse of Aram-damascus in 733–732 <span>BC<\/span>, the political character of the whole region changed. Over the centuries that followed and on into Christian times, the region passed under the control of several great powers and no independent Aramean state survived. When Assyria collapsed in 612–609 <span>BC<\/span>, the region came under Babylonian control, but only for a comparatively short period. With the rise of Cyrus the Persian, the Syrian region was quickly overrun by Persian armies. Palestine, Asia Minor, and Egypt were absorbed into the Persian Empire at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>The next significant political change that affected the region came with the appearance of Philip of Macedon in 360 <span>BC<\/span>. His son Alexander the Great (336–323 <span>BC<\/span>) consolidated Greek power throughout western Asia and as far as the borders of India. On his death in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, at the age of 33, the control of western Asia passed to Alexander’s generals. General Seleucus I (312–280 <span>BC<\/span>) controlled the southern half of Asia Minor, the region of Syria, Mesopotamia, and eastward to the borders of India. Syria thus fell under the influence of Hellenist rulers, the Seleucids, who founded a new capital at Antioch.<\/p>\n\n<p>Further west, Rome was rising to power and cast her eyes eastward. It was General Pompey who overcame Mithridates, the young king of Pontus, and moved to crush the remnants of the kingdom of the Seleucids. The western parts of Syria were formed into a Roman province in 64 <span>BC<\/span>. Pompey finally moved into Palestine, which came under Roman control in 63 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman province of Syria included Cilicia, a strip of territory in the southeastern corner of Asia Minor. The northern boundary reached to the Euphrates River. The boundary then swung south well to the east of Damascus and then turned west about halfway down the Dead Sea and continued west to the Mediterranean Sea. Syria was bound to the west by the Mediterranean up to the Gulf of Alexandretta, where it turned west. The province of Syria and Cilicia (Acts 15:23, 41; Gal 1:21) was governed by an imperial legate (<em>legatis<\/em>) who commanded a strong force of legionary troops. One such governor, Quirinius, governed Syria at the time of the census of Caesar Augustus; this census brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem for the birth of Jesus (Lk 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the following centuries the population of Damascus was Christianized, and Christianity spread throughout the Roman province of Syria, giving rise to the Old Syrian Church, which remains to this day. It has left a remarkable legacy of Christian literature written in Syriac (Aramaic). The old Aramaic language remained, though a modified alphabet was used to write it.<\/p>\n<p>It was the rise of Islam in the seventh century <span>AD<\/span> that brought about a considerable weakening of the Syrian church, although it has never been completely destroyed. Scattered communities of Aramaic-speaking people still survive in parts of Syria, and numerous remains of Christian churches have been brought to light as a result of modern archaeological work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguageandCulture\">Language and Culture<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic was the language of the Arameans, of which numerous inscriptions have been discovered. The Aramaic script was adapted for use by the Israelites, and the language became the international language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East. It was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> of the Persian period from Egypt to India and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day. The words “<em>talitha cumi<\/em>” (Mk 5:41) and “<em>marana tha<\/em>” (1 Cor 16:22) are Aramaic.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations in many sites have provided a good idea of the Aramean architecture, sculpture, pottery, and other arts. The religion of the Arameans was polytheistic. The people adopted many foreign deities as well. The principal Aramean deity was the ancient west Semitic storm god Hadad. In the days of Ahaz of Judah, the Damascus cult was forced on the people of Jerusalem when an altar based on a Damascus model was placed in the temple (2 Kgs 16:10-13). Arameans exiled to Samaria by the Assyrian ruler Sargon brought foreign Aramean cults with them (17:24-34).<\/p>\n<p>Through the centuries that followed the disappearance of the Aramean states, the Aramaic language has survived. The Christian form of Aramaic, Syriac, has left behind a vast legacy of literature, histories, theologies, commentaries, treatises, and translations, which have been carefully preserved in ancient monastic libraries, particularly in northern Syria, northern Iraq, and southern Turkey.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aramaic.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SYRIA, SYRIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoryoftheArameans\">History of the Arameans<\/p>\n<p>According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they were to go back to their original home. The precise origins of this group of people are, however, lost in antiquity. When they emerged clearly into history, they were settled around the central Euphrates from which they were spread out east, west, and north.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans were traditionally thought to have been established in upper Mesopotamia in the first part of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gn 25:20; 28:1-7); the home of Bethuel was in Paddan-aram (25:20). The prophet Hosea recalls the tradition by noting that Jacob fled to “the field of Aram” (Hos 12:12) or “Aram-naharaim” (Aram of the two rivers), which was the northern part of Mesopotamia between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. In the creedal confession in Deuteronomy 26:5, the Israelite who brought his firstfruits confessed, “My father [probably Jacob] was a wandering Aramean.”<\/p>\n<p>Probably the best early evidence of an Aramean presence in this area comes from Tiglath-pileser I. In his annals of his fourth year (1112 <span>BC<\/span>), he speaks of a campaign among the “Akhlama, Arameans” in the Middle Euphrates area and the sacking of six Aramean villages in the Mt Bishri area.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans of upper Mesopotamia became important in biblical history. They set up a number of separate Aramean states, two of which were especially important for the people of Israel—Aram-zobah in the days of David, and Aram-damascus from the days of Solomon onward.<\/p>\n<p>By about 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, the Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan, where they came into conflict with the Israelites. At his peak Hadadezer, king of Aram-zobah, embraced several vassals, such as Damascus, Maacah, and Tob. He was eventually defeated by King David (2 Sm 8:3-4; 10:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Events in Israel and Judah had some bearing on Damascus. After the death of Solomon, when the formerly united kingdom became divided into Judah and Israel, tension arose between the two small states. War broke out between Baasha of Israel and Asa of Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>. Asa sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18). Lands in Transjordan changed hands several times. The successors of Omri of Israel—namely Ahab, Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and Jehoash—had many conflicts with Damascus. Ahab fought Ben-hadad and his 32 allies who besieged Samaria (20:1), but Israel defeated him. A second time Ben-hadad entered Israelite territory and reached Aphek (20:26), but he was again defeated and captured. As a consequence of his defeat and for the price of his release, he was obliged to make bazaars available in Damascus for Israelite trade. After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again and resulted in a battle in the region of Ramoth-gilead in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aram-damascus was eventually defeated by King Jehoash of Israel (2 Kgs 13:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SyriaaftertheCollapseoftheArameanKingdoms\">Syria after the Collapse of the Aramean Kingdoms<\/p>\n<p>After the collapse of Aram-damascus in 733–732 <span>BC<\/span>, the political character of the whole region changed. Over the centuries that followed and on into Christian times, the region passed under the control of several great powers and no independent Aramean state survived. When Assyria collapsed in 612–609 <span>BC<\/span>, the region came under Babylonian control, but only for a comparatively short period. With the rise of Cyrus the Persian, the Syrian region was quickly overrun by Persian armies. Palestine, Asia Minor, and Egypt were absorbed into the Persian Empire at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>The next significant political change that affected the region came with the appearance of Philip of Macedon in 360 <span>BC<\/span>. His son Alexander the Great (336–323 <span>BC<\/span>) consolidated Greek power throughout western Asia and as far as the borders of India. On his death in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, at the age of 33, the control of western Asia passed to Alexander’s generals. General Seleucus I (312–280 <span>BC<\/span>) controlled the southern half of Asia Minor, the region of Syria, Mesopotamia, and eastward to the borders of India. Syria thus fell under the influence of Hellenist rulers, the Seleucids, who founded a new capital at Antioch.<\/p>\n\n<p>Further west, Rome was rising to power and cast her eyes eastward. It was General Pompey who overcame Mithridates, the young king of Pontus, and moved to crush the remnants of the kingdom of the Seleucids. The western parts of Syria were formed into a Roman province in 64 <span>BC<\/span>. Pompey finally moved into Palestine, which came under Roman control in 63 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman province of Syria included Cilicia, a strip of territory in the southeastern corner of Asia Minor. The northern boundary reached to the Euphrates River. The boundary then swung south well to the east of Damascus and then turned west about halfway down the Dead Sea and continued west to the Mediterranean Sea. Syria was bound to the west by the Mediterranean up to the Gulf of Alexandretta, where it turned west. The province of Syria and Cilicia (Acts 15:23, 41; Gal 1:21) was governed by an imperial legate (<em>legatis<\/em>) who commanded a strong force of legionary troops. One such governor, Quirinius, governed Syria at the time of the census of Caesar Augustus; this census brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem for the birth of Jesus (Lk 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the following centuries the population of Damascus was Christianized, and Christianity spread throughout the Roman province of Syria, giving rise to the Old Syrian Church, which remains to this day. It has left a remarkable legacy of Christian literature written in Syriac (Aramaic). The old Aramaic language remained, though a modified alphabet was used to write it.<\/p>\n<p>It was the rise of Islam in the seventh century <span>AD<\/span> that brought about a considerable weakening of the Syrian church, although it has never been completely destroyed. Scattered communities of Aramaic-speaking people still survive in parts of Syria, and numerous remains of Christian churches have been brought to light as a result of modern archaeological work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguageandCulture\">Language and Culture<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic was the language of the Arameans, of which numerous inscriptions have been discovered. The Aramaic script was adapted for use by the Israelites, and the language became the international language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East. It was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> of the Persian period from Egypt to India and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day. The words “<em>talitha cumi<\/em>” (Mk 5:41) and “<em>marana tha<\/em>” (1 Cor 16:22) are Aramaic.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations in many sites have provided a good idea of the Aramean architecture, sculpture, pottery, and other arts. The religion of the Arameans was polytheistic. The people adopted many foreign deities as well. The principal Aramean deity was the ancient west Semitic storm god Hadad. In the days of Ahaz of Judah, the Damascus cult was forced on the people of Jerusalem when an altar based on a Damascus model was placed in the temple (2 Kgs 16:10-13). Arameans exiled to Samaria by the Assyrian ruler Sargon brought foreign Aramean cults with them (17:24-34).<\/p>\n<p>Through the centuries that followed the disappearance of the Aramean states, the Aramaic language has survived. The Christian form of Aramaic, Syriac, has left behind a vast legacy of literature, histories, theologies, commentaries, treatises, and translations, which have been carefully preserved in ancient monastic libraries, particularly in northern Syria, northern Iraq, and southern Turkey.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aramaic.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SYRIA, SYRIANS Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans. History of the Arameans According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they w...","summary_en":"SYRIA, SYRIANS Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans. History of the Arameans According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they w...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57926,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:21","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:21-22<\/strong> Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the <em>churches<\/em> . . . <em>in Judea<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:21-22<\/strong> Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the <em>churches<\/em> . . . <em>in Judea<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:21-22 Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the churches . . . in Judea.","summary_en":"1:21-22 Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the churches . . . in Judea.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85552,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:21","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:21-22<\/strong> Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the <em>churches<\/em> . . . <em>in Judea<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:21-22<\/strong> Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the <em>churches<\/em> . . . <em>in Judea<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:21-22 Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the churches . . . in Judea.","summary_en":"1:21-22 Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the churches . . . in Judea.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113178,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:21","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:21-22<\/strong> Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the <em>churches<\/em> . . . <em>in Judea<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:21-22<\/strong> Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the <em>churches<\/em> . . . <em>in Judea<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:21-22 Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the churches . . . in Judea.","summary_en":"1:21-22 Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the churches . . . in Judea.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140804,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:21","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:21-22<\/strong> Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the <em>churches<\/em> . . . <em>in Judea<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:21-22<\/strong> Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the <em>churches<\/em> . . . <em>in Judea<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:21-22 Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the churches . . . in Judea.","summary_en":"1:21-22 Paul was not working under the supervision of the apostles in Jerusalem nor of the churches . . . in Judea.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":13095,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Galatians","title_en":"Letter to the Galatians","content_ro":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GALATIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his former life in Judaism (v 13). The fact that he had been a thoroughly devout Jew has an important bearing on what he writes in this letter. He remembered his passionate devotion to his former faith, in whose cause he had violently persecuted the church of God. He reminded the Galatians about this, for the Jewish traditions had meant a great deal to him. There is no doubt that he had once regarded his violent opposition to the church as a religious act of the highest order. Indeed, his strong devotion to Judaism sets in clear relief the remarkable transformation that occurred when he became a Christian. A revelation from God, he was convinced, gave him special authority to write the way he did.<\/p>\n<p>In this epistle he mentioned two features of his conversion experience that had a profound effect on him. One is the purpose of God for his life, which he recognized as reaching back even before he was born (v 15). He did not go into detail, but he never tired of talking about the grace of God. He had turned his back on the idea of earning merit through his own efforts. The second aspect of his conversion that deeply impressed him was the recognition that his call to preach could be traced to that occasion. When he preached to the Galatians, he did so with divine authority because he was conscious of having received a divine commission. The apostles and elders of the church did not decide it would be a good thing for him to preach the gospel; it was God who planned it. Moreover, Paul was equally convinced that the gospel he preached was not of his own making. He had received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul went to some lengths to demonstrate that he had received his apostleship from God (1:1). He was conscious not only of a call to preach but also of a call to exercise apostolic authority on an equal footing with the Jerusalem apostles. He certainly seemed to be on the defensive, but this was prompted by the special situation that had arisen among the Galatians and that caused this letter to be written.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gives one biographical detail in this letter that is not mentioned in his other letters. He states that after his conversion he went away into Arabia (1:17). The apostle does not tell us what he did there, but probably he was quietly reorienting his thoughts. According to the book of Acts, when he returned to Damascus he powerfully proved that Jesus was the Messiah (Acts 9:22). He also refers to traveling in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21), which must have been prior to his first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DestinationandDate\">Destination and Date<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to determine the date of this letter before discussing its destination.<\/p>\n<h5>Destination<\/h5>\n<p>Paul addresses his letter to the Galatians. But there has been much debate over where they lived, because the term Galatia was used in two different senses. It was used of the province that stretched from the borders of Pamphylia in the southern part of Asia Minor to the border of Pontus toward the northern seacoast. The term was also used of a part of the province in the north where a group of people from Gaul had settled and given their name to the whole area. Hence “Galatia” could mean either the geographical area in the north or the whole province. It is not easy to decide what the term meant when used by Paul. The debate is between the view that the term was used geographically, in which case some churches in the north are in mind (North Galatian Theory), or politically, in which case Paul may be referring to the churches in southern Galatia founded on his first missionary journey (South Galatian Theory). It may at first sight seem a quite unimportant issue, but since the decision affects the date of the letter and to some extent its occasion and purpose, a review of the positions must be made.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, no one seems to have questioned that Paul was writing to the inhabitants of the geographical district in the northern part of the province. This view agrees with the oldest use of the term, since the provinces did not come into existence until 25 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas there were Galatians in the north some time before this. It is reasonable to suppose that the southerners would not have taken too kindly to being addressed as “Galatians.” It may be argued that most people in those days would have thought of the northern peoples when hearing the name.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s habit when writing Acts was to use geographical rather than political descriptions of places. He refers, for instance, to Lystra and Derbe as cities of Lycaonia, not as cities of Galatia. It is reasonable, therefore, that when he refers to Phrygia and Galatia in Acts 16:6 and 18:23, he means that Paul went through the northern area. There were three main towns in that district—Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus—and it would therefore follow that Paul must have established churches there.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional North Galatian view has, however, been challenged. It is pointed out that although Luke prefers geographical descriptions, Paul prefers political ones for grouping his churches. In this letter he mentions the churches of Christ in Judea (1:22). Elsewhere he mentions the “churches of Asia” (1 Cor 16:19). Several times Paul refers to the believers in Macedonia (e.g., 2 Cor 8:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 4:10) and in Achaia (1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 1:1), while both are mentioned together in Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:2, and 1 Thessalonians 1:7. This seems to be Paul’s normal habit, in which case a letter addressed to the Galatians would be circulated to all the existing churches in the province of Galatia.<\/p>\n<p>South Galatian supporters do not agree that the southern people would have resented the name Galatians, maintaining that there would have been no other name available with which to describe them. One fairly positive piece of evidence is found in Paul’s statement that it was because of a bodily ailment that he first preached to the Galatians (Gal 4:13). But a glance at the map, particularly a relief map, would show that the route to the northern area was over mountainous terrain, and it is difficult to think that a sick man would have attempted it. Under the southern theory, the journey would have been much shorter and less arduous.<\/p>\n<p>Another argument in support of the South Galatian Theory assumes that Acts 20:4, which mentions the names of those who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem, is referring to delegates appointed by the churches in support of the collection to aid the poor churches of Judea. If this assumption is right, it is noticeable that no representative is included from the northern area, although both Gaius and Timothy were from the south. This would be more weighty if Acts had actually mentioned the collection. One last point is that Barnabas is mentioned three times (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) suggesting that he is known to the readers. Yet according to Acts, he accompanied Paul only on the first missionary journey.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to reach a conclusion, but it seems that the arguments for a South Galatian Theory have more weight than those for the older theory.<\/p>\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Under the North Galatian Theory, it is claimed that the letter was written after the events mentioned in Acts 18:23—that is, during the course of the third missionary journey (c. <span>AD<\/span> 56), possibly while Paul was at Ephesus or soon after.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, if the letter was addressed to the south Galatian churches founded on the first missionary journey, any date after that journey is possible, including during the third journey, as mentioned above. But a further possibility opens up since a much earlier date might more readily fit into the background of the letter. Thus, it is possible that this letter is among the earliest that Paul wrote.<\/p>\n<p>The main problem with assigning a date is that in Galatians 1–2 Paul mentions two visits to Jerusalem (1:18; 2:1), whereas Acts mentions (or implies) three visits (Acts 9:26; 11:29-30; 15:2). It has traditionally been supposed that the second visit (2:1) can be identified with the events of Acts 15. This would mean that Paul was giving his own account of the decisions of the so-called Council of Jerusalem. There is much to be said for this view. There are similarities between the two passages. In both, Barnabas is mentioned. In both, questions are asked about the circumcision of the Gentiles. And in both, Paul and Barnabas give a report about the matter to the Jerusalem leaders. The main difficulty is that Paul’s wording in Galatians 2:1 suggests that this event took place on his <em>second<\/em> visit to Jerusalem, whereas Acts 15 relates his <em>third<\/em> visit. It is traditionally explained that on the second visit Paul and Barnabas had no contact with the apostles but simply handed over the collection from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem elders (cf. Acts 11:30). A difficulty with this view is that Galatians 2 speaks only of conversations with the three leading apostles at Jerusalem and does not mention the whole church (as Acts 15 clearly does). Paul does not refer to the decision reached by the church, but only to his agreement with those he calls the “pillar” apostles. It could, of course, be that before the general meeting of Acts 15 (which occured in <span>AD<\/span> 50), Paul and Barnabas had a behind-the-scenes meeting with the leaders and preferred to mention the decision reached with them rather than quote an ecclesiastical edict. This may also explain another difficulty—the lack of any mention of the prohibitions that the Jerusalem church imposed on the Gentiles (Acts 15:20). Paul simply mentions the need to remember the poor (Gal 2:10). Yet another difficulty with the traditional view is that Paul mentions his dispute with Peter over the question of Gentile-Jewish fellowship (vv 11-14) <em>after<\/em> his account of the agreement reached with the Jerusalem apostles. This places Peter in a compromising position. It is difficult to explain his inconsistency. He may have agreed that Gentiles should not be circumcised, but then vacillated over the question of fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative view suggests that when Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem with the collection they also had private talks with the leading apostles. Acts 11:29-30 is set in a period of political activity against the apostles (Acts 12 records the martyrdom of James and the arrest of Peter), and this may explain the private nature of the meeting. This interpretation would explain why Paul makes no mention of the church’s decision—because the meeting happened before the Jerusalem Council. It would also make it easier to explain Peter’s actions at Antioch, if this behavior occurred before the church as a whole had discussed and resolved the matter. According to this view, Paul’s Letter to the Galatians may be the earliest of his letters (pre–<span>AD<\/span> 50).<\/p>\n<p>There are, however, some difficulties with this view. Acts 11:30 mentions no apostles as meeting Paul and Barnabas. Nor is there any reference to Titus, whom Paul says they took with them (Gal 2:1). Further, Paul’s references to preaching among the Gentiles (v 2) would seem to require a date after the first missionary journey, unless he was thinking of his work in Antioch, a Jewish-Gentile church.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to decide between these two views. Chronological considerations (based on Paul’s mention of 14 years in 2:1) slightly favor a later date, while the relationship of the content of this epistle to the Jerusalem Council (<span>AD<\/span> 50) points to an early date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Difficulties had arisen in the Galatian churches because a group of people had been insisting that Gentiles must be circumcised. These people must have been Judaizers, that is, Christian Jews who could see no hope for Gentiles unless they accepted circumcision as an initiatory rite. Linked with this was a criticism of Paul’s apostolic status. The opponents were claiming the support of the Jerusalem apostles, whom they regarded as superior to Paul. This would explain why Paul saw the issue so clearly as a challenge to the gospel he preached. His letter strongly expressed his understanding of the seriousness of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>Interpretation will vary slightly according to which date one assigns to the letter. If it was written before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), the circumcision issue had not yet been thrashed out and the Galatian situation would be the first major crisis over it. But if the Jerusalem Council had already happened, the south Galatian churches would already have received those decisions (16:4), and apparently had allowed themselves to be affected by Judaizers who took a harder line than the Jerusalem apostles had. If the northern churches are indicated, there is no direct evidence to show that they had received the decrees.<\/p>\n<p>We may conclude that the apostle’s aim in this letter is twofold—to maintain the validity of his apostleship, and to uphold the character of the gospel he preached. In the first part of the letter he is concerned to show his relationship with the Jerusalem “pillar” apostles in order to demonstrate his equality with them, while at the same time claiming his independence of them. Moreover, he asserts that there is only one gospel, which suggests that his opponents were charging him with preaching a different gospel. But he claims to have received his gospel from God, not from men.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of his letter, Paul expressed some important theological truths. The main body of the letter issues a strong warning against a form of legalism that is applicable not only to the situation Paul confronted in the Galatian churches but wherever dependence on legal observances is considered essential for salvation. If a Gentile could not become a Christian without being circumcised, it would not only make an external rite a condition for Christian salvation but in addition would imply a commitment to keep the whole Jewish law. When Paul argued against justification by works of the law, he showed the superiority of justification by faith or lawkeeping. The whole letter extols the doctrine of grace.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, in contesting the doctrine of works, the apostle gave no support to spiritual license. He posited that the alternative to legalism is not the absence of all restraint. Although Christ has secured freedom for the believer, that freedom must not be used to indulge the flesh (Gal 5:13). Indeed, Paul’s exposition of the Christian life in this letter is of a high moral order. He sets the standard himself by declaring that he has been crucified with Christ (2:20). Not only is this letter a charter for Christian liberty, but it is also a charter for Christian living.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>The opening to this letter is more abrupt than those in Paul’s other letters. He omits the usual thanksgiving and expands the usual greeting. In the first words he strongly affirms the divine origin of his apostleship.<\/p>\n<h5>The Opponents (1:6-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul is astonished that the Galatians have allowed themselves to be influenced so quickly by those who were perverting the gospel. He expresses an anathema against any who preach another gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of His Apostleship (1:11–2:14)<\/h5>\n<p>There are several stages in Paul’s argument about his own position. He states that his teaching has come from God, not from men, showing his awareness that God has not only called him to be an apostle but has also sanctioned his gospel. It is important for him to make clear that he is not dependent on others for his position, although he proceeds to show that there is no difference between him and the leading apostles (1:11-12). He next contrasts his former zeal in Judaism with his calling to preach the gospel, again emphasizing the divine nature of his call (vv 13-17).<\/p>\n<p>He then proceeds to mention that he has on two occasions had meetings with the Jerusalem apostles. As a result, he has been offered the right hand of fellowship—a way of showing that there is no disagreement between them. It was agreed that Paul should be entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, and that Peter should go to the circumcised. There was no questioning of Paul’s apostleship. They all agreed on the Christian responsibility to remember the poor (1:18–2:10).<\/p>\n<p>In order to give a tangible example of his apostolic position, Paul mentions the occasion of his public rebuke of Peter. Peter had acted inconsistently for fear of certain men who had come from James in Jerusalem, and who were representatives of the circumcision party. Paul’s challenge to Peter sets the scene for the introduction of the doctrinal part of the letter (2:11-14).<\/p>\n<h5>A Defense of the Gospel (2:15–4:31)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul introduces the issue of justification by works of the law and contrasts it with justification by faith. He sees the whole situation as a choice between Christ and the law (2:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>His aim is to show the superiority of Christianity over Judaism in the matter of salvation. He notes first that the Galatians had become Christians through the Spirit and wonders what is possessing them to return to the works of the law, which Paul then equates with the “flesh” (3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham is brought into the discussion presumably because the opponents were maintaining that only Abraham’s seed would receive the inheritance, and circumcision was regarded as an indispensable sign of a son of the covenant. But Paul points out that even Abraham was justified by faith, not by the law (3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the law could only bring a curse on those who disobeyed. This leads Paul to show how Christ has become a curse for us. Hence, he claims that in Christ we may still inherit the blessing promised to Abraham (3:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul anticipates that some may say it is invalid to appeal to the promise to Abraham to counteract justification by works of the law. He shows that the promise preceded the law by four centuries and cannot be invalidated by it (3:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>This leads the apostle to reflect on the function of the law. He points out that it served to prepare the way for Christ by showing mankind’s need and by revealing its own inability to give life. Paul calls the law our custodian, whose function (in ancient times) was to guard and guide a son until he reached the age of independence (3:19-29).<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between those under a guardian versus fully independent sons causes Paul to reflect on the superior position of sons. The Spirit of God has enabled believers to call God “Abba” (Father), something the law could not do (4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle has made his point, but he supports it with a personal appeal. He reminds his readers of their state of bondage before they became Christians and deplores that they have returned to such a state in wanting to observe ritual feast days after the Jewish manner. He also reminds them of the former affectionate relationship they had with him when they first became Christians. He is deeply affected by their present attitude (4:8-20). Finally, Paul appeals to a scriptural allegory in support of his argument. He sees Isaac and Ishmael, both sons of Abraham, as representing the distinction between sonship and slavery, which he has already mentioned (vv 21-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Advice (5:1–6:10)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul proceeds to draw out the practical consequences of his doctrinal arguments. He sets out the way in which those who are liberated in Christ should live. They should not commit themselves to Judaism by submitting to circumcision (5:1-6). Paul again attacks those who were leading the Galatians astray (vv 7-12). The new principle that must replace legalism is love. Love is possible only by living in the Spirit. This will lead not only to a rejection of the works of the flesh but also to the development of the fruit of the Spirit (5:13-26). The spiritual man will have a concern for the burdened and will seek to help others, particularly fellow Christians (6:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusion (6:11-18)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now takes the pen and writes his final word with his own hand. He sees fit to contrast his own aim in glorying in the cross of Christ with his opponents’ aim to glory in the flesh. There are no greetings at the end of this letter, only a request that no one should bother him further.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Galatia; Judaizers; Law, Biblical Concept of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","summary_en":"GALATIANS, Letter to the This letter has an important place in the NT. It reveals much of Paul’s character and sheds light on his teaching. It has appropriately been called the charter of Christian liberty. Preview • Author • Destination and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author of the epistle is explicitly stated to be Paul the apostle (Gal 1:1). The letter gives some brief but telling glimpses of his experience before he became a Christian. He mentions his form...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29132,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29725,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>PERSECUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-treatment of Israel in Egypt, like her later oppression by the Philistines, Midianites, and others, had economic and political grounds. For those refusing to accept the royal policy of syncretism, official tolerance of injustice, and pagan immoralities, persecution becomes frequent—from Elijah’s period onward (1 Kgs 19:10). Later prophets, as spokesmen of uncompromising truth and the claims of divine law in the face of social evils, suffered severely at the hands of the ruling classes, so that persecution became, in Jewish eyes, the hallmark of the true prophet (2 Chr 36:15-16; Mt 5:12; 23:29-37; Acts 7:52; Heb 11:32-38).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s stories illustrate persecution during the exile. On the return under foreign rule, strict Jews sought to preserve the nation’s identity and religion amid alien pressures and the compromises of lax Jews anxious for accommodation and prosperity (1 Macc 1:11-15; 2:42-48). The result was the social oppression and harassment that made the repeated pleas for vindication and divine intervention, in such psalms as 10, 69, 140, and 149, painfully relevant in postexilic worship. This persecution reached a horrifying climax of cruelty during the Maccabean age, provoking armed resistance in response (2 Macc 6–7; Heb 11:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, despite her confidence in God’s sovereignty and “protection,” Israel learned that right does not always prosper in this world, that faithfulness to truth does not ensure immunity from suffering, sacrifice, or martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>This acceptance of the high cost of righteousness was inherited by Christianity. Jesus repeatedly warned of persecution, even within households, and urged “armed” preparation for it, promising the Spirit’s assistance at judicial examinations (Mt 5:11-12; 10:16-23, 34-36; 23:34; Lk 6:26; 22:35-36). Jesus was deeply angered by the murder of John the Baptist by Herod (Lk 23:9), and he foresaw his own fate. Because he criticized the legalism and nationalism of the Pharisees, and the compromises of the Sadducees to protect their own privileges (Jn 11:47-50), and because he disappointed the militaristic hopes set upon the Messiah by the common people, Jesus knew he would be rejected. His call to discipleship came to include warnings of danger, reviling, slander, accusation, flogging, arraignment before courts, hatred, and death. He frankly invited followers to prepare for his crucifixion, as the only way to life and the kingdom (Mt 16:21-26; 20:17-22; Mk 10:29-30; Jn 15:18-25; 16:1-4). Jesus was killed on the charges of subverting the nation, forbidding payment of taxes to the Romans, and claiming to be king (Lk 23:2).<\/p>\n<p>The first persecution of the church by Jewish authorities was provoked mainly by Peter’s accusations concerning the murder of the Messiah. As apostolic influence increased, official action came to include imprisonment and beating (Acts 5:17, 40). The powerful advocacy of the Hellenist Stephen provoked a Jewish mob to stone him (Acts 6–7)—the signal for “a great persecution,” scattering most Christians from Jerusalem. The conversion of the archpersecutor Saul of Tarsus marked a resounding victory over opposition, and Herod’s sudden death just after attacking the church “to please the Jews” was another (Acts 12:1-3, 20-24).<\/p>\n<p>As Christianity moved into the Gentile world, a new cause of Jewish persecution arose as disturbances began to occur in the synagogues (Acts 13:44-45, 50; 14:1-6, 19; 17:1, 5, 13; 18:4-6, 12). In addition, the healing of the slave girl at Philippi led to the disciples’ imprisonment (16:19-24); at Ephesus, the effect of Christian preaching on the trade of idol makers occasioned a dangerous threat, which the authorities averted (19:23-41). Paul averted the plot of more than 40 men who vowed to ambush him and kill him (21:4-36; 23:12-15). And the book of Acts closes with Paul awaiting trial before Caesar (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout this period, persecution of Christians was sporadic, local, and mainly Jewish, provoked by envy of the church’s missionary success. Officially, Christianity, as a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14), shared the state’s legal recognition won by the Jews. Thus, Paul received Roman protection at Paphos, Philippi, Corinth, Ephesus, and Jerusalem from governors Felix and Festus and their adviser Herod Agrippa, as well as from the centurion conveying him to Rome. This explains Paul’s confident appeal to Caesar; an imperial acquittal would ensure Christianity freedom from harassment throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s attitude to persecution included regretful remembrance of his own persecuting days (Acts 22:4; 26:9-11; Gal 1:22-24), deliberate acceptance of risks in obedience to Christ (Acts 20:22-24; 21:13), continual warning that tribulation is inseparable from discipleship (Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3; 12:12; 1 Thes 3:4), and assurance that in every form of tribulation Christians are more than conquerors (Rom 8:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Almost certainly, Paul was beheaded during fierce persecution at Rome following the fire for which the Christians were blamed. Christians were often accused of “atheism” (rejecting polytheism), of appealing only to slave classes, of “scandalous” love feasts, and unsociable, austere behavior (cf. Jn 15:19), making them a popular target for blame.<\/p>\n<p>About this time, Peter warned Christians in the East of the danger confronting the church. For a little while, “various trials” only prove the genuineness of faith (1 Pt 1:6). Slander should be answered by blameless living. Honor should be paid to the authorities. Suffering for righteousness should be accepted without fear. Let Christians prepare respectful defenses, with consciences clear of blame. If they suffer for doing right, remember that Christ did too—for them. Thus they must “arm” themselves for suffering (4:1), and not be surprised at persecution as “something strange” (v 12). They are sharing Christ’s sufferings. His final word is “Stand fast!”<\/p>\n<p>Mark, too, is thought to have written at this time for the benefit of the suffering Roman church. His Gospel dwells upon Christ’s conflict, its causes and forms, and vividly portrays Christ’s own heroic death. Like Peter, Mark meets persecution by pointing back to the suffering Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhat later, Christianity was exposed as an “illegal religion,” no longer a protected sect of Judaism, by the introduction into synagogue services of a prayer against “Nazarenes,” which Christians could not offer. Thereafter, the church was liable to official suppression. Rome readily incorporated old, national religions into state rituals for the sake of imperial unity, but she resisted new, nonconformist movements, especially those with secret meetings (i.e., the Eucharist), as politically dangerous (cf. Acts 17:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of the century, faced with a growing church and political unrest, the state required public “worship” of “the genius of Rome” alongside any other religious rites. In Domitian’s reign (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) this became worship of the living emperor, with elaborate temples and an official priesthood. When Christians refused, acknowledging Jesus alone as divine Lord, official, and increasingly barbaric, persecution began. It is probable that Revelation reflects this situation (Rv 1:9; 2:13; 6:9; 13; 19:2). So the Bible ends as it began, with the theme of the persecution of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Suffering; Tribulation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERSECUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-treatment of Israel in Egypt, like her later oppression by the Philistines, Midianites, and others, had economic and political grounds. For those refusing to accept the royal policy of syncretism, official tolerance of injustice, and pagan immoralities, persecution becomes frequent—from Elijah’s period onward (1 Kgs 19:10). Later prophets, as spokesmen of uncompromising truth and the claims of divine law in the face of social evils, suffered severely at the hands of the ruling classes, so that persecution became, in Jewish eyes, the hallmark of the true prophet (2 Chr 36:15-16; Mt 5:12; 23:29-37; Acts 7:52; Heb 11:32-38).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s stories illustrate persecution during the exile. On the return under foreign rule, strict Jews sought to preserve the nation’s identity and religion amid alien pressures and the compromises of lax Jews anxious for accommodation and prosperity (1 Macc 1:11-15; 2:42-48). The result was the social oppression and harassment that made the repeated pleas for vindication and divine intervention, in such psalms as 10, 69, 140, and 149, painfully relevant in postexilic worship. This persecution reached a horrifying climax of cruelty during the Maccabean age, provoking armed resistance in response (2 Macc 6–7; Heb 11:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, despite her confidence in God’s sovereignty and “protection,” Israel learned that right does not always prosper in this world, that faithfulness to truth does not ensure immunity from suffering, sacrifice, or martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>This acceptance of the high cost of righteousness was inherited by Christianity. Jesus repeatedly warned of persecution, even within households, and urged “armed” preparation for it, promising the Spirit’s assistance at judicial examinations (Mt 5:11-12; 10:16-23, 34-36; 23:34; Lk 6:26; 22:35-36). Jesus was deeply angered by the murder of John the Baptist by Herod (Lk 23:9), and he foresaw his own fate. Because he criticized the legalism and nationalism of the Pharisees, and the compromises of the Sadducees to protect their own privileges (Jn 11:47-50), and because he disappointed the militaristic hopes set upon the Messiah by the common people, Jesus knew he would be rejected. His call to discipleship came to include warnings of danger, reviling, slander, accusation, flogging, arraignment before courts, hatred, and death. He frankly invited followers to prepare for his crucifixion, as the only way to life and the kingdom (Mt 16:21-26; 20:17-22; Mk 10:29-30; Jn 15:18-25; 16:1-4). Jesus was killed on the charges of subverting the nation, forbidding payment of taxes to the Romans, and claiming to be king (Lk 23:2).<\/p>\n<p>The first persecution of the church by Jewish authorities was provoked mainly by Peter’s accusations concerning the murder of the Messiah. As apostolic influence increased, official action came to include imprisonment and beating (Acts 5:17, 40). The powerful advocacy of the Hellenist Stephen provoked a Jewish mob to stone him (Acts 6–7)—the signal for “a great persecution,” scattering most Christians from Jerusalem. The conversion of the archpersecutor Saul of Tarsus marked a resounding victory over opposition, and Herod’s sudden death just after attacking the church “to please the Jews” was another (Acts 12:1-3, 20-24).<\/p>\n<p>As Christianity moved into the Gentile world, a new cause of Jewish persecution arose as disturbances began to occur in the synagogues (Acts 13:44-45, 50; 14:1-6, 19; 17:1, 5, 13; 18:4-6, 12). In addition, the healing of the slave girl at Philippi led to the disciples’ imprisonment (16:19-24); at Ephesus, the effect of Christian preaching on the trade of idol makers occasioned a dangerous threat, which the authorities averted (19:23-41). Paul averted the plot of more than 40 men who vowed to ambush him and kill him (21:4-36; 23:12-15). And the book of Acts closes with Paul awaiting trial before Caesar (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout this period, persecution of Christians was sporadic, local, and mainly Jewish, provoked by envy of the church’s missionary success. Officially, Christianity, as a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14), shared the state’s legal recognition won by the Jews. Thus, Paul received Roman protection at Paphos, Philippi, Corinth, Ephesus, and Jerusalem from governors Felix and Festus and their adviser Herod Agrippa, as well as from the centurion conveying him to Rome. This explains Paul’s confident appeal to Caesar; an imperial acquittal would ensure Christianity freedom from harassment throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s attitude to persecution included regretful remembrance of his own persecuting days (Acts 22:4; 26:9-11; Gal 1:22-24), deliberate acceptance of risks in obedience to Christ (Acts 20:22-24; 21:13), continual warning that tribulation is inseparable from discipleship (Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3; 12:12; 1 Thes 3:4), and assurance that in every form of tribulation Christians are more than conquerors (Rom 8:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Almost certainly, Paul was beheaded during fierce persecution at Rome following the fire for which the Christians were blamed. Christians were often accused of “atheism” (rejecting polytheism), of appealing only to slave classes, of “scandalous” love feasts, and unsociable, austere behavior (cf. Jn 15:19), making them a popular target for blame.<\/p>\n<p>About this time, Peter warned Christians in the East of the danger confronting the church. For a little while, “various trials” only prove the genuineness of faith (1 Pt 1:6). Slander should be answered by blameless living. Honor should be paid to the authorities. Suffering for righteousness should be accepted without fear. Let Christians prepare respectful defenses, with consciences clear of blame. If they suffer for doing right, remember that Christ did too—for them. Thus they must “arm” themselves for suffering (4:1), and not be surprised at persecution as “something strange” (v 12). They are sharing Christ’s sufferings. His final word is “Stand fast!”<\/p>\n<p>Mark, too, is thought to have written at this time for the benefit of the suffering Roman church. His Gospel dwells upon Christ’s conflict, its causes and forms, and vividly portrays Christ’s own heroic death. Like Peter, Mark meets persecution by pointing back to the suffering Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhat later, Christianity was exposed as an “illegal religion,” no longer a protected sect of Judaism, by the introduction into synagogue services of a prayer against “Nazarenes,” which Christians could not offer. Thereafter, the church was liable to official suppression. Rome readily incorporated old, national religions into state rituals for the sake of imperial unity, but she resisted new, nonconformist movements, especially those with secret meetings (i.e., the Eucharist), as politically dangerous (cf. Acts 17:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of the century, faced with a growing church and political unrest, the state required public “worship” of “the genius of Rome” alongside any other religious rites. In Domitian’s reign (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) this became worship of the living emperor, with elaborate temples and an official priesthood. When Christians refused, acknowledging Jesus alone as divine Lord, official, and increasingly barbaric, persecution began. It is probable that Revelation reflects this situation (Rv 1:9; 2:13; 6:9; 13; 19:2). So the Bible ends as it began, with the theme of the persecution of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Suffering; Tribulation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERSECUTION Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-t...","summary_en":"PERSECUTION Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-t...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":57927,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:23","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:23-24<\/strong> Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:23-24<\/strong> Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:23-24 Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.","summary_en":"1:23-24 Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85553,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:23","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:23-24<\/strong> Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:23-24<\/strong> Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:23-24 Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.","summary_en":"1:23-24 Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113179,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:23","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:23-24<\/strong> Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:23-24<\/strong> Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:23-24 Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.","summary_en":"1:23-24 Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140805,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Galateni 1:23","title_en":"Study Note: Galateni 1:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:23-24<\/strong> Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:23-24<\/strong> Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:23-24 Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.","summary_en":"1:23-24 Paul’s conversion was a source of rejoicing in the Jerusalem church. This change (cp. 1:13-14) and his message were both the work of God (cp. Acts 9:31). Paul was not out of sync with the church in Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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