Geneza 17
1 Când a fost Avram în vârstă de nouăzeci şi nouă ani, Domnul i S-a aratat, şi i-a zis: ,,Eu sânt Dumnezeul Cel atotputernic. Umblă înaintea Mea, şi fii fără prihană.
2 Voi face un legământ între Mine şi tine, şi te voi înmulţi nespus de mult``.
3 Avram s-a aruncat cu faţa la pământ; şi Dumnezeu i-a vorbit astfel:
4 ,,Iată legământul Meu, pe care-l fac cu tine: vei fi tatăl multor neamuri.
5 Nu te vei mai numi Avram; ci numele tău va fi Avraam; căci te fac tatăl multor neamuri.
6 Te voi înmulţi nespus de mult; voi face din tine neamuri întregi; şi din tine vor ieşi împăraţi.
7 Voi pune legământul Meu între Mine şi tine şi sămânţa ta după tine din neam în neam; acesta va fi un legământ vecinic, în puterea căruia, Eu voi fi Dumnezeul tău şi al seminţei tale după tine.
8 Ţie, şi seminţei tale după tine, îţi voi da ţara în care locuieşti acum ca străin, şi anume îţi voi da toată ţara Canaanului în stăpânire vecinică; şi Eu voi fi Dumnezeul lor.``
9 Dumnezeu a zis lui Avraam: ,,Să păzeşti legământul Meu, tu şi sămânţa ta după tine, din neam în neam.
10 Acesta este legământul Meu pe care să-l păziţi între Mine şi voi, şi sămânţa ta după tine: tot ce este de parte bărbătească între voi să fie tăiat împrejur.
11 Să vă tăiaţi împrejur în carnea prepuţului vostru: şi acesta să fie semnul legământului dintre Mine şi voi.
12 La vârsta de opt zile, orice copil de parte bărbătească dintre voi să fie tăiat împrejur, neam după neam: fie că este rob născut în casă, fie că este cumpărat cu bani dela vreun străin, care nu face parte din neamul tău.
13 Va trebui tăiat împrejur atât robul născut în casă cât şi cel cumpărat cu bani; şi astfel legământul Meu să fie întărit în carnea voastră ca un legământ vecinic.
14 Un copil de parte bărbătească netăiat împrejur în carnea prepuţului lui, să fie nimicit din mijlocul neamului său: a călcat legământul Meu.``
15 Dumnezeu a zis lui Avraam: ,,Să nu mai chemi Sarai pe nevastă-ta Sarai; ci numele ei să fie Sara.
16 Eu o voi binecuvânta, şi îţi voi da un fiu din ea; da, o voi binecuvânta, şi ea va fi mama unor neamuri întregi; chiar împăraţi de noroade vor ieşi din ea.``
17 Avraam s-a aruncat cu faţa la pământ şi a râs, căci a zis în inima lui: ,,Să i se mai nască oare un fiu unui bărbat de o sută de ani? Şi să mai nască oare Sara la nouăzeci de ani?``
18 Şi Avraam a zis lui Dumnezeu: ,,Să trăiască Ismael înaintea Ta!``
19 Dumnezeu a zis: ,,Cu adevărat, nevastă-ta Sara îţi va naşte un fiu; şi-i vei pune numele Isaac. Eu voi încheia legământul Meu cu el, ca un legământ vecinic pentru sămânţa lui după el.
20 Dar şi cu privire la Ismael te-am ascultat. Iată, îl voi binecuvânta, îl voi face să crească, şi îl voi înmulţi nespus de mult; doisprezece voievozi va naşte, şi voi face din el un neam mare.
21 Dar legământul meu îl voi încheia cu Isaac, pe care ţi-l va naşte Sara la anul pe vremea aceasta.``
22 Când a isprăvit de vorbit cu el, Dumnezeu S-a înălţat dela Avraam.
23 Avraam a luat pe fiul său Ismael, pe toţi ceice se născuseră în casa lui, şi pe toţi robii cumpăraţi cu bani, adică pe toţi cei de parte bărbătească dintre oamenii din casa lui Avraam, şi le-a tăiat împrejur carnea prepuţului, chiar în ziua aceea, după porunca, pe care i-o dăduse Dumnezeu.
24 Avraam era în vârstă de nouăzeci şi nouă de ani, când a fost tăiat împrejur în carnea prepuţului său.
25 Fiul său Ismael era în vârstă de treisprezece ani, când a fost tăiat împrejur în carnea prepuţului său.
26 Avraam şi fiul său Ismael au fost tăiaţi împrejur chiar în ziua aceea.
27 Şi toţi oamenii din casa lui: robi născuţi în casa lui, sau cumpăraţi cu bani dela străini, au fost tăiaţi împrejur împreună cu el.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":40799,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. 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Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68425,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96051,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123677,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":270,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>ABRAHAM<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut separation from pagan roots. The new name, interpreted by the biblical text as meaning “father of a multitude,” was also a statement of God’s promise to Abraham that he would have many descendants, as well as a significant test of his faith in God—since he was 99 years old at the time and his childless wife was 90 (Gn 11:30; 17:1-4, 17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AbrahamsLife\">Abraham’s Life<\/p>\n<p>The story of Abram begins in Genesis 11, where his family relationships are recorded (Gn 11:26-32). Terah, Abram’s father, was named after the moon deity worshiped at Ur. Terah had three sons, Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Haran, the father of Lot, died before the family left Ur. Terah took Lot, Abram, and Abram’s wife, Sarai, from Ur to go to Canaan but settled at the city of Haran (v 31). It is stated in Acts 7:2-4 that Abraham heard the call of God to leave for a new land while he was still in Ur.<\/p>\n<p>A note of major importance to the course of Abram’s life is found in Genesis 11:30: “Sarai was not able to have any children” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The problem of Sarai’s barrenness provided the basis for great crises of faith, promise, and fulfillment in the lives of Abram and Sarai.<\/p>\n\n<p>After Terah’s death, God told Abram, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you.” This command was the basis of a “covenant,” in which God promised to make Abram the founder of a new nation in that new land (Gn 12:1-3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Abram, trusting God’s promise, left Haran at the age of 74. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, an important Canaanite royal city between Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal. Near the oak of Moreh, a Canaanite shrine, God appeared to him (12:7). Abram built an altar at Shechem, then moved to the vicinity of Bethel and again built an altar to the Lord (12:8). The expression “to call on the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>rsv<\/span>) means more than just to pray. Rather, Abram made a proclamation, declaring the reality of God to the Canaanites in their centers of false worship. Later Abram moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, where again he built an altar to worship God. Another blessing given in a vision (15:1) led Abram to exclaim that he was still childless and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). Discovery of the Nuzi documents has helped to clarify that otherwise obscure statement. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of station and substance would adopt an heir. Often a slave, the heir would be responsible for the burial and mourning of his adoptive parents. If a son should be born after the adoption of a slave-heir, the natural son would of course supplant him. Thus God’s response to Abram’s question is directly to the point: “No, your servant will not be your heir, for you will have a son of your own to inherit everything I am giving you” (Gn 15:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). God then made a covenant with Abram insuring an heir, a nation, and the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abram was 86 years old when Ishmael was born. When Abram was 99, the Lord appeared to the aged patriarch and again reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and blessing (Gn 17). Circumcision was added as the seal of covenantal relationship (17:9-14), and at that point the names Abram and Sarai were changed to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham’s response to the promise of another son was to laugh: “Then Abraham bowed down to the ground, but he laughed to himself in disbelief. ‘How could I become a father at the age of one hundred?’ he wondered. ‘Besides, Sarah is ninety; how could she have a baby?’ ” (Gn 17:17, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 18 and 19 recount the total destruction of two cities of the Jordan plain, Sodom and Gomorrah. Chapter 18 begins with three individuals seeking comfort in the heat of the day. Abraham offered refreshment and a meal to his guests. They turned out to be no ordinary travelers, however, but the Angel of the Lord along with two other angels (18:1-2; 19:1). There is reason to believe that the Angel of the Lord was God himself (18:17, 33). Another announcement of a promised son made Sarah laugh in unbelief and then deny having laughed (18:12-15).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 21 to 23 form the climax of the story of Abraham. At long last, when Abraham was 100 years old and his wife 90, “the <span>Lord<\/span> did exactly what he had promised” (Gn 21:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). The joy of the aged couple on the birth of their long-promised son could not be contained. Both Abraham and Sarah had laughed in unbelief in the days of promise; now they laughed in joy as God had “the last laugh.” The baby, born at the time God promised, was named Isaac (“he laughs!”). Sarah said, “God has brought me laughter! All who hear about this will laugh with me” (Gn 21:6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The laughter over Isaac’s birth subsided entirely in the test of Abraham’s faith described in chapter 22, God’s command to sacrifice Isaac. Only when one has experienced vicariously with Abraham the long 25 years of God’s promise of a son can one imagine the trauma of such a supreme test. Just as the knife was about to fall, and only then, did the angel of God break the silence of heaven with the call, “Abraham!” (22:11). The name of promise, “father of a multitude,” took on its most significant meaning when Abraham’s son was spared and the test was explained: “I know that you truly fear God. You have not withheld even your beloved son from me” (Gn 22:12, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Those words were coupled with a promise implicit in the discovery of a ram caught in the thicket. The Lord provided an alternative sacrifice, a substitute. The place was named “the Lord will provide.” Christian believers generally see the whole episode as looking ahead to God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Patriarchs, Period of the; Israel, History of; “Abraham’s Bosom”; Sarah #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ABRAHAM<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut separation from pagan roots. The new name, interpreted by the biblical text as meaning “father of a multitude,” was also a statement of God’s promise to Abraham that he would have many descendants, as well as a significant test of his faith in God—since he was 99 years old at the time and his childless wife was 90 (Gn 11:30; 17:1-4, 17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AbrahamsLife\">Abraham’s Life<\/p>\n<p>The story of Abram begins in Genesis 11, where his family relationships are recorded (Gn 11:26-32). Terah, Abram’s father, was named after the moon deity worshiped at Ur. Terah had three sons, Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Haran, the father of Lot, died before the family left Ur. Terah took Lot, Abram, and Abram’s wife, Sarai, from Ur to go to Canaan but settled at the city of Haran (v 31). It is stated in Acts 7:2-4 that Abraham heard the call of God to leave for a new land while he was still in Ur.<\/p>\n<p>A note of major importance to the course of Abram’s life is found in Genesis 11:30: “Sarai was not able to have any children” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The problem of Sarai’s barrenness provided the basis for great crises of faith, promise, and fulfillment in the lives of Abram and Sarai.<\/p>\n\n<p>After Terah’s death, God told Abram, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you.” This command was the basis of a “covenant,” in which God promised to make Abram the founder of a new nation in that new land (Gn 12:1-3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Abram, trusting God’s promise, left Haran at the age of 74. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, an important Canaanite royal city between Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal. Near the oak of Moreh, a Canaanite shrine, God appeared to him (12:7). Abram built an altar at Shechem, then moved to the vicinity of Bethel and again built an altar to the Lord (12:8). The expression “to call on the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>rsv<\/span>) means more than just to pray. Rather, Abram made a proclamation, declaring the reality of God to the Canaanites in their centers of false worship. Later Abram moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, where again he built an altar to worship God. Another blessing given in a vision (15:1) led Abram to exclaim that he was still childless and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). Discovery of the Nuzi documents has helped to clarify that otherwise obscure statement. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of station and substance would adopt an heir. Often a slave, the heir would be responsible for the burial and mourning of his adoptive parents. If a son should be born after the adoption of a slave-heir, the natural son would of course supplant him. Thus God’s response to Abram’s question is directly to the point: “No, your servant will not be your heir, for you will have a son of your own to inherit everything I am giving you” (Gn 15:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). God then made a covenant with Abram insuring an heir, a nation, and the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abram was 86 years old when Ishmael was born. When Abram was 99, the Lord appeared to the aged patriarch and again reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and blessing (Gn 17). Circumcision was added as the seal of covenantal relationship (17:9-14), and at that point the names Abram and Sarai were changed to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham’s response to the promise of another son was to laugh: “Then Abraham bowed down to the ground, but he laughed to himself in disbelief. ‘How could I become a father at the age of one hundred?’ he wondered. ‘Besides, Sarah is ninety; how could she have a baby?’ ” (Gn 17:17, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 18 and 19 recount the total destruction of two cities of the Jordan plain, Sodom and Gomorrah. Chapter 18 begins with three individuals seeking comfort in the heat of the day. Abraham offered refreshment and a meal to his guests. They turned out to be no ordinary travelers, however, but the Angel of the Lord along with two other angels (18:1-2; 19:1). There is reason to believe that the Angel of the Lord was God himself (18:17, 33). Another announcement of a promised son made Sarah laugh in unbelief and then deny having laughed (18:12-15).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 21 to 23 form the climax of the story of Abraham. At long last, when Abraham was 100 years old and his wife 90, “the <span>Lord<\/span> did exactly what he had promised” (Gn 21:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). The joy of the aged couple on the birth of their long-promised son could not be contained. Both Abraham and Sarah had laughed in unbelief in the days of promise; now they laughed in joy as God had “the last laugh.” The baby, born at the time God promised, was named Isaac (“he laughs!”). Sarah said, “God has brought me laughter! All who hear about this will laugh with me” (Gn 21:6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The laughter over Isaac’s birth subsided entirely in the test of Abraham’s faith described in chapter 22, God’s command to sacrifice Isaac. Only when one has experienced vicariously with Abraham the long 25 years of God’s promise of a son can one imagine the trauma of such a supreme test. Just as the knife was about to fall, and only then, did the angel of God break the silence of heaven with the call, “Abraham!” (22:11). The name of promise, “father of a multitude,” took on its most significant meaning when Abraham’s son was spared and the test was explained: “I know that you truly fear God. You have not withheld even your beloved son from me” (Gn 22:12, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Those words were coupled with a promise implicit in the discovery of a ram caught in the thicket. The Lord provided an alternative sacrifice, a substitute. The place was named “the Lord will provide.” Christian believers generally see the whole episode as looking ahead to God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Patriarchs, Period of the; Israel, History of; “Abraham’s Bosom”; Sarah #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ABRAHAM One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people. Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut s...","summary_en":"ABRAHAM One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people. Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut s...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":527,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Adam (Person)","title_en":"Adam (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>ADAM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>First man and father of the human race. Adam’s role in biblical history is important not only in OT considerations but also in understanding the meaning of salvation and the person and work of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The creation of Adam and the first woman, Eve, is recited in two accounts in the book of Genesis. The intent of the first account (1:26-31) is to present the first pair in their relationship to God and to the rest of the created order. It teaches that with regard to God the first humans were created male and female in God’s image with his specific mandate to populate and rule over the earth. With regard to the rest of creation the first humans were, on one hand, part of it, being created on the same day as other land animals; on the other hand, they were distinctly above it, being the culmination of the creation process and sole bearers of God’s image.<\/p>\n<p>The intent of the second account is much more specific (2:4–3:24); it seeks to explain the origin of the present human condition of sin and death and to set the stage for the drama of redemption. The story treats in detail aspects of Adam’s creation omitted from the first story. For example, it tells of the formation of Adam from the dust of the ground and of his receiving the breath of life from God (2:7). It recounts the planting of the Garden and the responsibility given to Adam to cultivate it (2:8-15). God’s instruction to Adam that the fruit of every tree in the Garden was his for food, except one, is carefully recorded, as well as the solemn warning that the fruit of the “tree of the knowledge of good and evil” was never to be eaten, under the pain of death (2:16-17). Adam’s loneliness after naming the animals and not finding a suitable companion is also described, thus introducing the creation of the first woman (2:18-22). The creation of Eve from Adam’s rib poignantly portrays the essential unity of spirit and purpose of the sexes intended by God.<\/p>\n<p>The story does not end on such a positive note, however. It moves on to record the great deception Satan played upon Eve through the serpent. By clever insinuations and distortion of God’s original commandment (cf. 3:1 with 2:16-17), the serpent tricked Eve into eating the forbidden fruit and sharing it with Adam. Eve seems to have eaten because she was deceived (1 Tm 2:14), Adam out of a willful and conscious rebellion. Ironically, the two beings originally created in God’s image and likeness believed that they could become “like” God by disobeying him (Gn 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>The effects of their disobedience were immediate, though not at all what Adam had expected. For the first time a barrier of shame disrupted the unity of man and woman (3:7). More important, a barrier of real moral guilt was erected between the first couple and God. The story relates that when God came looking for Adam after his rebellion, he was hiding among the trees, already aware of his separation from God (3:8). When God questioned him, Adam threw the blame on Eve and, by implication, back on God: “It was the woman you gave me who brought me the fruit” (3:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). Eve in turn blamed the serpent (3:13).<\/p>\n<p>According to the story in Genesis, God held all three responsible and informed each one of the calamitous consequences of their rebellion (3:14-19). The two great mandates, originally signs of pure blessing, became mixed with curse and pain—the earth could now be populated only through the woman’s birth pangs and could be subdued only by the man’s labor and perspiration (3:16-18). Further, the unity of man and woman would be strained by man’s subjugation of her, or possibly by the beginning of a struggle for dominance between them (3:16b can be taken both ways). Finally, God pronounced the ultimate consequence: as he had originally warned, Adam and Eve were to die. Someday the breath of life would be taken from them, and their bodies would return to the dust from which they were made (3:19). That very day they also experienced a “spiritual” death; they were separated from God, the giver of life, and from the tree of life, the symbol of eternal life (3:22). God sent them out of Eden, and there was no way back. The entrance to paradise was blocked by the cherubim and flaming sword (3:23-24). Only God could restore what they had lost.<\/p>\n<p>The story is not devoid of hope. God was merciful even then. He made them garments of skin to cover their bodies and promised that someday the power of Satan behind the serpent would be crushed by the woman’s “seed” (Gn 3:15; cf. Rom 16:20). Many scholars consider that promise to be the first biblical mention of redemption.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSignificanceofAdam\">The Significance of Adam<\/p>\n<p>Adam’s significance is based upon several assumptions, the first being that he was a historical individual. That assumption was made by many OT writers (Gn 4:25; 5:1-5; 1 Chr 1:1; Hos 6:7). The NT writers agreed (Lk 3:38; Rom 5:14; 1 Cor 15:22, 45; 1 Tm 2:13-14; Jude 1:14). Equally essential to Adam’s significance is a second assumption, that he was more than an individual. To begin with, the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span> (more correctly <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’a–dha–m<\/span>) is not merely a proper name. Even in the Genesis story it is not used as a name until Genesis 4:25. The word is one of several Hebrew words meaning “man” and is the generic term for “human race.” In the vast majority of cases it refers either to a male individual (Lv 1:2; Jos 14:15; Neh 9:29; Is 56:2) or to humanity in general (Ex 4:11; Nm 12:3; 16:29; Dt 4:28; 1 Kgs 4:31; Jb 7:20; 14:1). The generic, collective sense of the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span> is also behind the phrase “children (or sons) of men” (2 Sm 7:14; Pss 11:4; 12:1; 14:2; 53:2; 90:3; Eccl 1:13; 2:3). That phrase, literally “sons of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span><em>,”<\/em> simply means “men” or “human beings,” and when it is used the entire human race is in view. Indeed, the universalistic human connotation of the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span> indicates a concern in the OT going far beyond Israel’s nationalistic hopes and its God—to all the earth’s people and the Lord of all nations (Gn 9:5-7; Dt 5:24; 8:3; 1 Kgs 8:38-39; Pss 8:4; 89:48; 107:8-31; Prv 12:14; Mi 6:8).<\/p>\n<p>It is no accident, then, that the first man was named “Adam” or “Man.” The name intimates that to speak about Adam is somehow also to speak about the entire human race. Such usage can perhaps best be understood through the ancient concept of corporate personality and representation familiar to the Hebrews and other Near Eastern peoples. Modern thinking emphasizes the individual; existence of the social group and all social relationships has been seen as secondary to, and dependent upon, the existence and desire of the individual. The Hebrew understanding was quite different. Though the separate personality of the individual was appreciated (Jer 31:29-30; Ez 18:4), there was a strong tendency to see the social group (family, tribe, nation) as a single organism with a corporate identity of its own. Likewise the group representative was seen as the embodiment or personification of the corporate personality of the group. Within the representative the essential qualities and characteristics of the social group resided in such a way that the actions and decisions of the representative were binding on the entire group. If the group was a family, the father was usually considered the corporate representative; for good or for ill his family, and sometimes his descendants, received the results of his actions (Gn 17:1-8; cf. Gn 20:1-9, 18; Ex 20:5-6; Jos 7:24-25; Rom 11:28; Heb 7:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>As the original man and father of humankind, in whose image all succeeding generations would be born (Gn 5:3), Adam was the corporate representative of humanity. The creation accounts themselves give the impression that the mandates of Genesis 1:26-30 (cf. Gn 9:1, 7; Pss 8:5-7; 104:14) as well as the curses of Genesis 3:16-19 (cf. Ps 90:3; Eccl 12:7; Is 13:8; 21:3) were meant not only for Adam (and Eve) but, through him, for the entire race.<\/p>\n<p>In Romans 5:12-21 the apostle Paul contrasted the death and condemnation brought upon humanity by Adam’s disobedience with the life and justification given to humanity through Christ’s obedience. More explicitly, in 1 Corinthians 15:45-50 (<span>rsv<\/span>), Paul called Christ the “last Adam,” “second man,” and the “man of heaven” in juxtaposition to the “first Adam,” the “first man,” and the “man of dust.”<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, the human race was divided into two groups in the persons of Adam and Christ. Those who remain “incorporated” in Adam are the “old” humanity, bearing the image of the “man of dust” and partaking of his sin and alienation from God and Creation (Rom 5:12-19; 8:20-22). But those who are incorporated into Christ by faith become Christ’s “body” (Rom 12:4-5; 1 Cor 12:12-13, 27; Eph 1:22-23; Col 1:18); they are recreated in Christ’s image (Rom 8:29; 1 Cor 15:49; 2 Cor 3:18); they become one “new man” (Eph 2:15; 4:24; Col 3:9-10, <span>kjv<\/span>); and they partake of the new creation (2 Cor 5:17; Gal 6:15). The old barriers raised by Adam are removed by Christ (Rom 5:1; 2 Cor 5:19; Gal 3:27-28; Eph 2:14-16). For Paul, the functional similarity of Adam and Christ as representatives meant that Christ had restored what Adam had lost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eve; Man, Old and New; New Creation, New Creature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ADAM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>First man and father of the human race. Adam’s role in biblical history is important not only in OT considerations but also in understanding the meaning of salvation and the person and work of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The creation of Adam and the first woman, Eve, is recited in two accounts in the book of Genesis. The intent of the first account (1:26-31) is to present the first pair in their relationship to God and to the rest of the created order. It teaches that with regard to God the first humans were created male and female in God’s image with his specific mandate to populate and rule over the earth. With regard to the rest of creation the first humans were, on one hand, part of it, being created on the same day as other land animals; on the other hand, they were distinctly above it, being the culmination of the creation process and sole bearers of God’s image.<\/p>\n<p>The intent of the second account is much more specific (2:4–3:24); it seeks to explain the origin of the present human condition of sin and death and to set the stage for the drama of redemption. The story treats in detail aspects of Adam’s creation omitted from the first story. For example, it tells of the formation of Adam from the dust of the ground and of his receiving the breath of life from God (2:7). It recounts the planting of the Garden and the responsibility given to Adam to cultivate it (2:8-15). God’s instruction to Adam that the fruit of every tree in the Garden was his for food, except one, is carefully recorded, as well as the solemn warning that the fruit of the “tree of the knowledge of good and evil” was never to be eaten, under the pain of death (2:16-17). Adam’s loneliness after naming the animals and not finding a suitable companion is also described, thus introducing the creation of the first woman (2:18-22). The creation of Eve from Adam’s rib poignantly portrays the essential unity of spirit and purpose of the sexes intended by God.<\/p>\n<p>The story does not end on such a positive note, however. It moves on to record the great deception Satan played upon Eve through the serpent. By clever insinuations and distortion of God’s original commandment (cf. 3:1 with 2:16-17), the serpent tricked Eve into eating the forbidden fruit and sharing it with Adam. Eve seems to have eaten because she was deceived (1 Tm 2:14), Adam out of a willful and conscious rebellion. Ironically, the two beings originally created in God’s image and likeness believed that they could become “like” God by disobeying him (Gn 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>The effects of their disobedience were immediate, though not at all what Adam had expected. For the first time a barrier of shame disrupted the unity of man and woman (3:7). More important, a barrier of real moral guilt was erected between the first couple and God. The story relates that when God came looking for Adam after his rebellion, he was hiding among the trees, already aware of his separation from God (3:8). When God questioned him, Adam threw the blame on Eve and, by implication, back on God: “It was the woman you gave me who brought me the fruit” (3:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). Eve in turn blamed the serpent (3:13).<\/p>\n<p>According to the story in Genesis, God held all three responsible and informed each one of the calamitous consequences of their rebellion (3:14-19). The two great mandates, originally signs of pure blessing, became mixed with curse and pain—the earth could now be populated only through the woman’s birth pangs and could be subdued only by the man’s labor and perspiration (3:16-18). Further, the unity of man and woman would be strained by man’s subjugation of her, or possibly by the beginning of a struggle for dominance between them (3:16b can be taken both ways). Finally, God pronounced the ultimate consequence: as he had originally warned, Adam and Eve were to die. Someday the breath of life would be taken from them, and their bodies would return to the dust from which they were made (3:19). That very day they also experienced a “spiritual” death; they were separated from God, the giver of life, and from the tree of life, the symbol of eternal life (3:22). God sent them out of Eden, and there was no way back. The entrance to paradise was blocked by the cherubim and flaming sword (3:23-24). Only God could restore what they had lost.<\/p>\n<p>The story is not devoid of hope. God was merciful even then. He made them garments of skin to cover their bodies and promised that someday the power of Satan behind the serpent would be crushed by the woman’s “seed” (Gn 3:15; cf. Rom 16:20). Many scholars consider that promise to be the first biblical mention of redemption.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSignificanceofAdam\">The Significance of Adam<\/p>\n<p>Adam’s significance is based upon several assumptions, the first being that he was a historical individual. That assumption was made by many OT writers (Gn 4:25; 5:1-5; 1 Chr 1:1; Hos 6:7). The NT writers agreed (Lk 3:38; Rom 5:14; 1 Cor 15:22, 45; 1 Tm 2:13-14; Jude 1:14). Equally essential to Adam’s significance is a second assumption, that he was more than an individual. To begin with, the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span> (more correctly <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’a–dha–m<\/span>) is not merely a proper name. Even in the Genesis story it is not used as a name until Genesis 4:25. The word is one of several Hebrew words meaning “man” and is the generic term for “human race.” In the vast majority of cases it refers either to a male individual (Lv 1:2; Jos 14:15; Neh 9:29; Is 56:2) or to humanity in general (Ex 4:11; Nm 12:3; 16:29; Dt 4:28; 1 Kgs 4:31; Jb 7:20; 14:1). The generic, collective sense of the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span> is also behind the phrase “children (or sons) of men” (2 Sm 7:14; Pss 11:4; 12:1; 14:2; 53:2; 90:3; Eccl 1:13; 2:3). That phrase, literally “sons of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span><em>,”<\/em> simply means “men” or “human beings,” and when it is used the entire human race is in view. Indeed, the universalistic human connotation of the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span> indicates a concern in the OT going far beyond Israel’s nationalistic hopes and its God—to all the earth’s people and the Lord of all nations (Gn 9:5-7; Dt 5:24; 8:3; 1 Kgs 8:38-39; Pss 8:4; 89:48; 107:8-31; Prv 12:14; Mi 6:8).<\/p>\n<p>It is no accident, then, that the first man was named “Adam” or “Man.” The name intimates that to speak about Adam is somehow also to speak about the entire human race. Such usage can perhaps best be understood through the ancient concept of corporate personality and representation familiar to the Hebrews and other Near Eastern peoples. Modern thinking emphasizes the individual; existence of the social group and all social relationships has been seen as secondary to, and dependent upon, the existence and desire of the individual. The Hebrew understanding was quite different. Though the separate personality of the individual was appreciated (Jer 31:29-30; Ez 18:4), there was a strong tendency to see the social group (family, tribe, nation) as a single organism with a corporate identity of its own. Likewise the group representative was seen as the embodiment or personification of the corporate personality of the group. Within the representative the essential qualities and characteristics of the social group resided in such a way that the actions and decisions of the representative were binding on the entire group. If the group was a family, the father was usually considered the corporate representative; for good or for ill his family, and sometimes his descendants, received the results of his actions (Gn 17:1-8; cf. Gn 20:1-9, 18; Ex 20:5-6; Jos 7:24-25; Rom 11:28; Heb 7:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>As the original man and father of humankind, in whose image all succeeding generations would be born (Gn 5:3), Adam was the corporate representative of humanity. The creation accounts themselves give the impression that the mandates of Genesis 1:26-30 (cf. Gn 9:1, 7; Pss 8:5-7; 104:14) as well as the curses of Genesis 3:16-19 (cf. Ps 90:3; Eccl 12:7; Is 13:8; 21:3) were meant not only for Adam (and Eve) but, through him, for the entire race.<\/p>\n<p>In Romans 5:12-21 the apostle Paul contrasted the death and condemnation brought upon humanity by Adam’s disobedience with the life and justification given to humanity through Christ’s obedience. More explicitly, in 1 Corinthians 15:45-50 (<span>rsv<\/span>), Paul called Christ the “last Adam,” “second man,” and the “man of heaven” in juxtaposition to the “first Adam,” the “first man,” and the “man of dust.”<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, the human race was divided into two groups in the persons of Adam and Christ. Those who remain “incorporated” in Adam are the “old” humanity, bearing the image of the “man of dust” and partaking of his sin and alienation from God and Creation (Rom 5:12-19; 8:20-22). But those who are incorporated into Christ by faith become Christ’s “body” (Rom 12:4-5; 1 Cor 12:12-13, 27; Eph 1:22-23; Col 1:18); they are recreated in Christ’s image (Rom 8:29; 1 Cor 15:49; 2 Cor 3:18); they become one “new man” (Eph 2:15; 4:24; Col 3:9-10, <span>kjv<\/span>); and they partake of the new creation (2 Cor 5:17; Gal 6:15). The old barriers raised by Adam are removed by Christ (Rom 5:1; 2 Cor 5:19; Gal 3:27-28; Eph 2:14-16). For Paul, the functional similarity of Adam and Christ as representatives meant that Christ had restored what Adam had lost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eve; Man, Old and New; New Creation, New Creature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ADAM (Person) First man and father of the human race. Adam’s role in biblical history is important not only in OT considerations but also in understanding the meaning of salvation and the person and work of Jesus Christ. The creation of Adam and the first woman, Eve, is recited in two accounts in the book of Genesis. The intent of the first account (1:26-31) is to present the first pair in their relationship to God and to the rest of the created order. It teaches that with regard to God the f...","summary_en":"ADAM (Person) First man and father of the human race. Adam’s role in biblical history is important not only in OT considerations but also in understanding the meaning of salvation and the person and work of Jesus Christ. The creation of Adam and the first woman, Eve, is recited in two accounts in the book of Genesis. The intent of the first account (1:26-31) is to present the first pair in their relationship to God and to the rest of the created order. It teaches that with regard to God the f...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6644,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7858,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Covenant","title_en":"Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the OT is developed from Noah to Abraham and reaches its first climax in the covenant formed between God and Israel at Mt Sinai. After King David’s time, the history of the covenant becomes a less prominent theme.<\/p>\n<p>At a low point in covenant history the Bible introduces the prophet Jeremiah’s prophecy of a “new covenant” in Israel’s future. Christians believe that Jeremiah’s prophecy eventually found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ. It is not accidental that the two volumes of the Christian Bible have been called the Old Covenant and New Covenant (the word commonly translated “testament” means “covenant”).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<p>• The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>• The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMeaningofCovenant\">The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The essence of covenant is to be found in a particular kind of relationship between persons. Mutual obligations characterize that kind of relationship. Thus a covenant relationship is not merely a mutual acquaintance but a commitment to responsibility and action. A key word in Scripture to describe that commitment is “faithfulness,” acted out in a context of abiding friendship.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the word “covenant” was used in an ordinary human sense as well as in a theological sense. An understanding of human covenants provides a starting point for understanding the covenant between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HumanCovenants\">Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>A variety of human relationships, from profoundly personal to distantly political, may be described as covenantal. The deep brotherly love that David and Jonathan shared led to a formal covenant between them (1 Sm 18:3). Their covenant of friendship was more than a token of esteem; it bound them to demonstrate mutual loyalty and loving-kindness in certain tangible ways. Jonathan’s covenant faithfulness was typified on an occasion when David was out of favor with the king; Jonathan braved his father’s wrath to speak favorably for his friend. Subsequently, he warned David secretly to flee into hiding (1 Sm 19–20).<\/p>\n<p>To appreciate the many OT laws on marriage and divorce, one must understand that marriage itself was a covenant relationship (Mal 2:14). The solemn promises exchanged by a man and woman became their covenant obligations. Faithfulness to those promises brought marital blessing (cf. Ps 128; Prv 18:22); violation brought a curse.<\/p>\n<p>An individual could, at least figuratively, make a covenant or vow with himself or herself (something like a New Year’s resolution). Job, arguing his integrity before God, referred to a covenant he had made with his eyes to keep him from looking at women licentiously (Jb 31:1).<\/p>\n<p>Covenants could also have a national or international character. The elders of Israel made a national covenant with King David in Hebron (2 Sm 5:3). Probably it contained explicit promises both from the elders on behalf of the people to submit themselves to the king’s authority and from David to rule the nation justly and according to the law of God (Dt 17:15-20). The covenant relationship described mutual obligations between a senior partner (the king) and junior partners (the Israelites). In international relationships OT covenants were similar to modern treaties or alliances. King Solomon entered into such a covenant with Hiram, king of Tyre; that covenant, like many modern international treaties, was a trade agreement between the two nations (1 Kgs 5:12).<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is thus an interpersonal framework of trust, responsibilities, and benefits, with broad application to almost every human relationship from personal friendship to international trade agreements. In Scripture covenant is also the most comprehensive concept covering an individual’s relationship to God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Divine-HumanCovenants\">Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>The same basic characteristics of a strictly human covenant are present in a divine covenant: (1) a relationship between two parties (God and a human being or nation), and (2) mutual obligations between the covenant partners. To the OT believer, religion meant covenant. OT religion was faithfulness to the covenant relationship between God and his chosen people; religious responsibilities for both the faith and practice of Israel were covenant responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a divine-human covenant in the OT was not static. Although the fundamental character of covenant remains the same throughout the Bible, the specific nature and form of the covenant changed and developed in the course of ancient Israel’s history. A brief survey of covenant history will further clarify its dimensions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BeginningsoftheCovenantTradition\">Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<h5>Adam<\/h5>\n<p>Adam and Eve were placed in the Garden. God was their Creator; they were his creatures. The meaning of their lives was to be found in relationship with each other and with God, the giver of the Garden. The fall, however, brought a disruption of the divine relationship, and they were expelled from the Garden.<\/p>\n<p>The fall substantially influenced the nature of subsequent religious covenants. The separation of humankind from God clarifies the nature of the human predicament. Created for a relationship with the Creator, sinning humans are excluded from that relationship and cannot, on their own accord, reestablish it. From that circumstance emerges a distinctive feature of divine-human covenants, namely, that God alone can initiate the relationship of covenant.<\/p>\n<h5>Noah<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit mention of covenant in Scripture refers to the initiative taken by God to bind himself again to human beings in a covenant, despite human faithlessness. When God warned Noah to build an ark in order to escape the impending Flood, he also promised to establish a covenant with him (Gn 6:18). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger, but his grace was shown in his dealings with Noah. The promised covenant provided that God would maintain a relationship with one family, even though other divine-human relationships were being formally severed. Significantly, God’s covenant promise to Noah came in a context of demand: God ordered Noah to build an ark (v 14). Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to a divine command.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant was elaborated only after the Flood, when Noah had made an offering to God (Gn 8:20-22). The covenant with Noah was in fact a universal covenant with humankind and all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world. The sign of that covenant was the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant with Noah affords some perspective for understanding the “covenant God.” Although human beings may deserve destruction because of their wickedness, God withholds that destruction. The covenant of Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being; nevertheless, it left open the possibility of a more intimate covenant. Human beings, in spite of their evil, are allowed for a time to live in God’s world; during those years, they may seek a deeper relationship with that world’s Creator.<\/p>\n<h5>Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit reference to God’s covenant with Abraham is in Genesis 15. When the Lord called the 75-year-old Abram (as he was first called) to leave his home city of Ur and set out on a journey, a relationship already existed between God and Abram. In that relationship, which enabled God to command Abram’s obedience, God made certain promises to him: “I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing” (Gn 12:2, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Formal establishment of the covenant with Abram is described in Genesis 15 as a profound religious experience. The initiative lay entirely with God, who approached Abram in a vision and spoke with him. Abram raised a fundamental objection: how could he experience the blessing of God if it was to come to him through a son he did not have? His wife Sarai was past the childbearing age, and he himself was “as good as dead” (Rom 4:19). God assured the old man that he would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abram’s belief at that point introduced the theme of righteousness central to the covenant concept: Abram “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>, and he reckoned it to him as righteousness” (Gn 15:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). At the end of that day, Abram knew that his own future and the future of his descendants were firmly in the hands of the covenant God. “On that day the <span>Lord<\/span> made a covenant with Abram, saying, ‘To your descendants I give this land’ ” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The covenant is more fully expressed in Genesis 17, which probably records a renewal of God’s covenant with Abram. The initiative once again lay with God (Gn 17:1). God addressed the 99-year-old Abram in words that made clear that the covenant was not a relationship between equal partners. God was the Almighty; Abram was a human being to whom an extraordinary privilege had been granted.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the details of the covenant in Genesis 17 show that both partners assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abram and his descendants while requiring certain commitments from Abram. The blessing Abram would receive as a covenant partner became clear from the new name God gave him. “I am changing your name. It will no longer be Abram; now you will be known as Abraham, for you will be the father of many nations” (Gn 17:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). God would give to Abraham, through his descendants, the land of Canaan as an everlasting gift and would be the personal God of Abraham and his family in perpetuity (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s giving required a response of obedience from Abraham: “Live a blameless life” (Gn 17:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Those simple words indicate the essence of covenant relationship: to relate to God is to live in his presence; since God is holy, one who knows him is expected to live a life of integrity and blamelessness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant also had a more formal aspect. Abraham and the male members of his household were to undergo the rite of circumcision as a symbol of covenant commitment. Abraham was an old man when he was circumcised (Gn 17:24), though male children born into the covenant family were to be circumcised when they were eight days old (v 12). Circumcision was not in itself a ritual peculiar to the Hebrews; it was practiced in most societies in the ancient Near East (the Philistines were one exception). The distinctiveness lay in what the act symbolized: among other things, a continuing and faithful relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham was characterized by both present and future realities. The covenant established a continuing relationship between Abraham and his Creator. Yet its thrust pointed to future blessing—in the children yet to be born, the “chosen people,” and in the land that eventually his descendants would call their own.<\/p>\n<p>Another dimension of the covenant lay still further in the future: “All the families of the earth will be blessed through you” (Gn 12:3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Early in the OT, the idea of election (God’s unconditional preference; cf. 2 Thes 2:13) is present. God chose to enter into a covenant relationship with a particular man and his particular descendants. Yet God always elects a person to serve: Adam, to cultivate the Garden; Noah, to build an ark; Abraham, to leave his home for another land and to live blamelessly before God (cf. Eph 2:8-10). Further, the “particularity” of Abraham’s election contained within it a universality: through his descendants the blessing of God would be offered to all.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the future aspects of Abraham’s covenant reflect two stages. From Abraham’s perspective, in the relatively near future his descendants would possess a land given them by God. But in the more distant future was the prospect of a universal blessing, the culmination of God’s work in the world. The initial fulfillment of that distant future is perceived in the NT, but the more immediate fulfillment of God’s promise was the Sinai covenant at the time of Moses.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSinaiCovenant\">The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The covenant established between God and Israel at Mt Sinai is the focal point of the covenant tradition in the OT. It was anticipated in the covenant of Abraham and lay behind the covenant of David and the proclamation of the prophets. It was central to OT religion, laying down the foundations of Judaism that continue into the modern world. The Sinai covenant was the formal institution of a relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In order to appreciate the impact of the Sinai covenant, one must understand its historical context. It was preceded by the exodus of the Hebrew people from Egypt under the leadership of Moses. The exodus was an extraordinary act of liberation in which God intervened in the normal course of history to free his people from slavery in Egypt. The exodus is interpreted in the OT as a divine act comparable to Creation, the act through which God “created” the nation of Israel. Examination of the two versions of the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11; Dt 5:12-15) shows that the exodus from Egypt directly parallels the creation of the world as a basis for Sabbath observance. Although Israel was created in the exodus, the nation had neither a constitution nor land. The covenant provided the nascent state of Israel with a constitution, making it a theocratic state (a state ruled by God).<\/p>\n<p>The basic account of the Sinai covenant is contained in Exodus 19 and 20. The initiative came from God, who gave instructions through Moses to prepare for the covenant; God spoke the words that contained the covenant offer. There was no doubt that the God of Israel was the senior partner in the relationship made formal at Sinai. The God who had revealed himself through his acts in the exodus then revealed himself in words. Those two aspects—the God who acts and speaks—are central to OT theology. And although the covenant contained law, it was preceded by the exodus, an act of divine grace.<\/p>\n<p>God’s offer of covenant carried with it a divine promise: “You will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). The promise was one of extraordinary privilege; an entire nation was called upon to represent all other nations before the God of the universe. But the priestly office, though it carried privilege, was also a demanding office. A priest had to be pure and had to know the God whose presence he was required to enter. Thus Israel, the priestly nation, received a law that would provide direction in living, in loving God, and in serving all people. The law given with the covenant expressed the requirements for God’s covenant people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Covenant Law<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant law had two principal parts. First, the Ten Commandments expressed God’s requirements of Israel in a concise form (Ex 20:2-17). The commandments specified the covenant people’s relationship both to God and to other human beings. Although the tendency in the present day is to view the Ten Commandments as a system of ethics or morality, they had a different role in ancient Israel. The covenant law was the foundation or constitution of a new nation, a special “nation of priests.” The head of the nation-state was God. Hence, in ancient Israel the status of the Ten Commandments was approximately that of the code of criminal law in a modern nation-state. To break one of those laws was to commit a crime against God, the head of the state. Yet the laws had a positive purpose. They set down a way of life that would result in a full and rich communion with God and community with others.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the covenant law was a detailed law code covering the activities of everyday life. Examples of such laws are found in Exodus 21–23. These laws were compiled and recorded in the “Book of the Covenant” (Ex 24:7). Although many laws were contained in this book, it was impossible to codify every aspect of human behavior. The diversity of the examples given indicates that for the covenant member no area of human life was beyond the influence of the covenant. Persons who entered into a relationship with God entered into a relationship that impinged on every possible aspect of their lives.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Renewal<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant at Sinai was made with a particular group of people under the leadership of Moses but was binding on future generations. Consequently, the covenant was renewed from time to time. Covenant renewals are recorded in the time of Joshua (Jos 8:30-35; 24:1-28) and, much later, during the reign of King Josiah (2 Kgs 23:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The most important passage in the Bible for understanding covenant renewal and the nature of covenant is the book of Deuteronomy. The entire book describes a particular covenant renewal ceremony that occurred at a critical juncture in Israel’s early history. The Sinai covenant was renewed just before Moses’ death, before the transition of leadership to Joshua, and before a major military campaign to possess the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant since the time of Abraham had contained a promise of land. Immediately before they entered that land (c. 1250 <span>BC<\/span>), the covenant vows were renewed with a new generation of Israelites, most of whom had not stood at the foot of Mt Sinai some 40 years earlier. Although covenant renewal is the central theme of Deuteronomy, the writer focused primarily on Moses’ sermon rather than on a detailed account of the renewal ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ceremony were simply a repetition of what happened at the original ratification of the covenant. The Ten Commandments were repeated (Dt 5:6-21), and the laws of the Book of the Covenant were expounded in greater detail (Dt 12–26). Two points emerging in Deuteronomy are particularly significant for an understanding of covenant: a clear statement of covenant love and a detailed statement of the blessings and curses that accompanied the making and renewing of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCovenantwithDavid\">The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>The covenant tradition underwent modification during the time of King David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>). The Sinai covenant had been established between God and Israel, with Moses acting as mediator. In David’s time an additional element was added: God entered into a covenant with David as king. That royal covenant was intimated to David through the prophet Nathan (2 Sm 7:8-16), indicating once again the divine initiative. It was to be an everlasting covenant with David’s royal lineage (23:5).<\/p>\n\n<p>Christians generally interpret the covenant with David as a messianic covenant. For several centuries the dynasty established by David ruled a united Israel, then ruled the remaining southern kingdom of Judah. But in 586 <span>BC<\/span> Judah was conquered by the Babylonians. At that point a descendant of David was no longer ruling an independent kingdom of God’s chosen people. The everlasting nature of the covenant with David was brought out, however, not in the pages of ancient history but in the expectation of a Messiah who would be born of David’s descendants. Matthew and Luke both pointed to Jesus’ Davidic descent (Mt 1:1; Lk 3:31). The NT thus extends the covenant acts of God into the new age in the person of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNewCovenantPredictedintheOldTestament\">The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although David’s covenant with God was eternal, in a sense the covenant established with Israel on Mt Sinai was temporal. The Sinai covenant included conditional clauses, stated in the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy. Israel’s disobedience of the covenant law would at worst bring exile from the Promised Land, a central covenant theme from Abraham to Moses and beyond.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew prophets often perceived the danger of an end to the covenant as a result of Israel’s sins. Some of the prophets, especially Hosea and Jeremiah, also perceived a deeper truth; namely, that the covenant was rooted in divine love and that therefore even the curse of God could not be final.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea dramatically expressed that truth through the “living parable” of his marriage (Hos 1–3). He married Gomer at God’s command, but later, as a result of her unfaithfulness, the marital covenant was dissolved by divorce. Although Gomer’s adulterous acts compelled Hosea to divorce her, he did not cease to love her. God later commanded Hosea to go back to Gomer (Hos 3:1). Despite her unfaithfulness, the prophet was to take her again into the covenant relationship of marriage. That acted-out parable depicted God’s actions with Israel. Israel’s sin would inevitably culminate in a divorce from God, but Hosea perceived a new marriage. In the new covenant between God and Israel, Israel would be graciously accepted back into a relationship with God (2:14-18).<\/p>\n<p>The new covenant is given powerful expression in the writings of the prophet Jeremiah, who lived through the end of the seventh and beginning of the sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In his lifetime Jeremiah saw the kingdom of Judah defeated in war. The nation lost its independence and became a vassal of the Babylonian Empire. In an external sense, that defeat in 586 <span>BC<\/span> marked the end of the Sinai covenant. Israel could no longer call the Promised Land its own. Yet Jeremiah perceived a truth beyond the contemporary political realities. God’s work in the world, like his love for the world, was not over.<\/p>\n<p>Thus Jeremiah spoke of a new covenant that God would bring into effect: “The days are coming, says the <span>Lord<\/span>, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah” (Jer 31:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The new covenant would be marked by an act of God within human hearts, a radical spiritual transformation (Jer 31:34). At the Last Supper Jesus declared to his disciples that “this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20, <span>rsv<\/span>). To the writer of Hebrews, the new covenant was central to a full understanding of the ministry of Jesus Christ (Heb 8:8-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is a concept central to the message and the history of the OT. The covenant theme continues into the NT as a way of interpreting the Christian gospel. Meaning in human life is to be found in a covenant relationship with the living God. Yet sinful human beings cannot work their way into such a relationship; God alone can initiate it. According to the NT, God’s act in giving his son, Jesus, to die opened up the covenant relationship to all human beings. The forgiveness made available by Jesus’ “blood of the new covenant” makes it possible for any individual to enter into a covenant relationship with God. Entry into such a relationship, today as in Abraham’s time, hinges upon faith (Gal 3:6-14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alliance; Covenant, The New; Law, Biblical Concept of; Oath; Vows.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the OT is developed from Noah to Abraham and reaches its first climax in the covenant formed between God and Israel at Mt Sinai. After King David’s time, the history of the covenant becomes a less prominent theme.<\/p>\n<p>At a low point in covenant history the Bible introduces the prophet Jeremiah’s prophecy of a “new covenant” in Israel’s future. Christians believe that Jeremiah’s prophecy eventually found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ. It is not accidental that the two volumes of the Christian Bible have been called the Old Covenant and New Covenant (the word commonly translated “testament” means “covenant”).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<p>• The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>• The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMeaningofCovenant\">The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The essence of covenant is to be found in a particular kind of relationship between persons. Mutual obligations characterize that kind of relationship. Thus a covenant relationship is not merely a mutual acquaintance but a commitment to responsibility and action. A key word in Scripture to describe that commitment is “faithfulness,” acted out in a context of abiding friendship.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the word “covenant” was used in an ordinary human sense as well as in a theological sense. An understanding of human covenants provides a starting point for understanding the covenant between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HumanCovenants\">Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>A variety of human relationships, from profoundly personal to distantly political, may be described as covenantal. The deep brotherly love that David and Jonathan shared led to a formal covenant between them (1 Sm 18:3). Their covenant of friendship was more than a token of esteem; it bound them to demonstrate mutual loyalty and loving-kindness in certain tangible ways. Jonathan’s covenant faithfulness was typified on an occasion when David was out of favor with the king; Jonathan braved his father’s wrath to speak favorably for his friend. Subsequently, he warned David secretly to flee into hiding (1 Sm 19–20).<\/p>\n<p>To appreciate the many OT laws on marriage and divorce, one must understand that marriage itself was a covenant relationship (Mal 2:14). The solemn promises exchanged by a man and woman became their covenant obligations. Faithfulness to those promises brought marital blessing (cf. Ps 128; Prv 18:22); violation brought a curse.<\/p>\n<p>An individual could, at least figuratively, make a covenant or vow with himself or herself (something like a New Year’s resolution). Job, arguing his integrity before God, referred to a covenant he had made with his eyes to keep him from looking at women licentiously (Jb 31:1).<\/p>\n<p>Covenants could also have a national or international character. The elders of Israel made a national covenant with King David in Hebron (2 Sm 5:3). Probably it contained explicit promises both from the elders on behalf of the people to submit themselves to the king’s authority and from David to rule the nation justly and according to the law of God (Dt 17:15-20). The covenant relationship described mutual obligations between a senior partner (the king) and junior partners (the Israelites). In international relationships OT covenants were similar to modern treaties or alliances. King Solomon entered into such a covenant with Hiram, king of Tyre; that covenant, like many modern international treaties, was a trade agreement between the two nations (1 Kgs 5:12).<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is thus an interpersonal framework of trust, responsibilities, and benefits, with broad application to almost every human relationship from personal friendship to international trade agreements. In Scripture covenant is also the most comprehensive concept covering an individual’s relationship to God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Divine-HumanCovenants\">Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>The same basic characteristics of a strictly human covenant are present in a divine covenant: (1) a relationship between two parties (God and a human being or nation), and (2) mutual obligations between the covenant partners. To the OT believer, religion meant covenant. OT religion was faithfulness to the covenant relationship between God and his chosen people; religious responsibilities for both the faith and practice of Israel were covenant responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a divine-human covenant in the OT was not static. Although the fundamental character of covenant remains the same throughout the Bible, the specific nature and form of the covenant changed and developed in the course of ancient Israel’s history. A brief survey of covenant history will further clarify its dimensions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BeginningsoftheCovenantTradition\">Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<h5>Adam<\/h5>\n<p>Adam and Eve were placed in the Garden. God was their Creator; they were his creatures. The meaning of their lives was to be found in relationship with each other and with God, the giver of the Garden. The fall, however, brought a disruption of the divine relationship, and they were expelled from the Garden.<\/p>\n<p>The fall substantially influenced the nature of subsequent religious covenants. The separation of humankind from God clarifies the nature of the human predicament. Created for a relationship with the Creator, sinning humans are excluded from that relationship and cannot, on their own accord, reestablish it. From that circumstance emerges a distinctive feature of divine-human covenants, namely, that God alone can initiate the relationship of covenant.<\/p>\n<h5>Noah<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit mention of covenant in Scripture refers to the initiative taken by God to bind himself again to human beings in a covenant, despite human faithlessness. When God warned Noah to build an ark in order to escape the impending Flood, he also promised to establish a covenant with him (Gn 6:18). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger, but his grace was shown in his dealings with Noah. The promised covenant provided that God would maintain a relationship with one family, even though other divine-human relationships were being formally severed. Significantly, God’s covenant promise to Noah came in a context of demand: God ordered Noah to build an ark (v 14). Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to a divine command.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant was elaborated only after the Flood, when Noah had made an offering to God (Gn 8:20-22). The covenant with Noah was in fact a universal covenant with humankind and all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world. The sign of that covenant was the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant with Noah affords some perspective for understanding the “covenant God.” Although human beings may deserve destruction because of their wickedness, God withholds that destruction. The covenant of Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being; nevertheless, it left open the possibility of a more intimate covenant. Human beings, in spite of their evil, are allowed for a time to live in God’s world; during those years, they may seek a deeper relationship with that world’s Creator.<\/p>\n<h5>Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit reference to God’s covenant with Abraham is in Genesis 15. When the Lord called the 75-year-old Abram (as he was first called) to leave his home city of Ur and set out on a journey, a relationship already existed between God and Abram. In that relationship, which enabled God to command Abram’s obedience, God made certain promises to him: “I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing” (Gn 12:2, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Formal establishment of the covenant with Abram is described in Genesis 15 as a profound religious experience. The initiative lay entirely with God, who approached Abram in a vision and spoke with him. Abram raised a fundamental objection: how could he experience the blessing of God if it was to come to him through a son he did not have? His wife Sarai was past the childbearing age, and he himself was “as good as dead” (Rom 4:19). God assured the old man that he would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abram’s belief at that point introduced the theme of righteousness central to the covenant concept: Abram “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>, and he reckoned it to him as righteousness” (Gn 15:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). At the end of that day, Abram knew that his own future and the future of his descendants were firmly in the hands of the covenant God. “On that day the <span>Lord<\/span> made a covenant with Abram, saying, ‘To your descendants I give this land’ ” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The covenant is more fully expressed in Genesis 17, which probably records a renewal of God’s covenant with Abram. The initiative once again lay with God (Gn 17:1). God addressed the 99-year-old Abram in words that made clear that the covenant was not a relationship between equal partners. God was the Almighty; Abram was a human being to whom an extraordinary privilege had been granted.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the details of the covenant in Genesis 17 show that both partners assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abram and his descendants while requiring certain commitments from Abram. The blessing Abram would receive as a covenant partner became clear from the new name God gave him. “I am changing your name. It will no longer be Abram; now you will be known as Abraham, for you will be the father of many nations” (Gn 17:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). God would give to Abraham, through his descendants, the land of Canaan as an everlasting gift and would be the personal God of Abraham and his family in perpetuity (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s giving required a response of obedience from Abraham: “Live a blameless life” (Gn 17:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Those simple words indicate the essence of covenant relationship: to relate to God is to live in his presence; since God is holy, one who knows him is expected to live a life of integrity and blamelessness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant also had a more formal aspect. Abraham and the male members of his household were to undergo the rite of circumcision as a symbol of covenant commitment. Abraham was an old man when he was circumcised (Gn 17:24), though male children born into the covenant family were to be circumcised when they were eight days old (v 12). Circumcision was not in itself a ritual peculiar to the Hebrews; it was practiced in most societies in the ancient Near East (the Philistines were one exception). The distinctiveness lay in what the act symbolized: among other things, a continuing and faithful relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham was characterized by both present and future realities. The covenant established a continuing relationship between Abraham and his Creator. Yet its thrust pointed to future blessing—in the children yet to be born, the “chosen people,” and in the land that eventually his descendants would call their own.<\/p>\n<p>Another dimension of the covenant lay still further in the future: “All the families of the earth will be blessed through you” (Gn 12:3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Early in the OT, the idea of election (God’s unconditional preference; cf. 2 Thes 2:13) is present. God chose to enter into a covenant relationship with a particular man and his particular descendants. Yet God always elects a person to serve: Adam, to cultivate the Garden; Noah, to build an ark; Abraham, to leave his home for another land and to live blamelessly before God (cf. Eph 2:8-10). Further, the “particularity” of Abraham’s election contained within it a universality: through his descendants the blessing of God would be offered to all.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the future aspects of Abraham’s covenant reflect two stages. From Abraham’s perspective, in the relatively near future his descendants would possess a land given them by God. But in the more distant future was the prospect of a universal blessing, the culmination of God’s work in the world. The initial fulfillment of that distant future is perceived in the NT, but the more immediate fulfillment of God’s promise was the Sinai covenant at the time of Moses.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSinaiCovenant\">The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The covenant established between God and Israel at Mt Sinai is the focal point of the covenant tradition in the OT. It was anticipated in the covenant of Abraham and lay behind the covenant of David and the proclamation of the prophets. It was central to OT religion, laying down the foundations of Judaism that continue into the modern world. The Sinai covenant was the formal institution of a relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In order to appreciate the impact of the Sinai covenant, one must understand its historical context. It was preceded by the exodus of the Hebrew people from Egypt under the leadership of Moses. The exodus was an extraordinary act of liberation in which God intervened in the normal course of history to free his people from slavery in Egypt. The exodus is interpreted in the OT as a divine act comparable to Creation, the act through which God “created” the nation of Israel. Examination of the two versions of the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11; Dt 5:12-15) shows that the exodus from Egypt directly parallels the creation of the world as a basis for Sabbath observance. Although Israel was created in the exodus, the nation had neither a constitution nor land. The covenant provided the nascent state of Israel with a constitution, making it a theocratic state (a state ruled by God).<\/p>\n<p>The basic account of the Sinai covenant is contained in Exodus 19 and 20. The initiative came from God, who gave instructions through Moses to prepare for the covenant; God spoke the words that contained the covenant offer. There was no doubt that the God of Israel was the senior partner in the relationship made formal at Sinai. The God who had revealed himself through his acts in the exodus then revealed himself in words. Those two aspects—the God who acts and speaks—are central to OT theology. And although the covenant contained law, it was preceded by the exodus, an act of divine grace.<\/p>\n<p>God’s offer of covenant carried with it a divine promise: “You will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). The promise was one of extraordinary privilege; an entire nation was called upon to represent all other nations before the God of the universe. But the priestly office, though it carried privilege, was also a demanding office. A priest had to be pure and had to know the God whose presence he was required to enter. Thus Israel, the priestly nation, received a law that would provide direction in living, in loving God, and in serving all people. The law given with the covenant expressed the requirements for God’s covenant people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Covenant Law<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant law had two principal parts. First, the Ten Commandments expressed God’s requirements of Israel in a concise form (Ex 20:2-17). The commandments specified the covenant people’s relationship both to God and to other human beings. Although the tendency in the present day is to view the Ten Commandments as a system of ethics or morality, they had a different role in ancient Israel. The covenant law was the foundation or constitution of a new nation, a special “nation of priests.” The head of the nation-state was God. Hence, in ancient Israel the status of the Ten Commandments was approximately that of the code of criminal law in a modern nation-state. To break one of those laws was to commit a crime against God, the head of the state. Yet the laws had a positive purpose. They set down a way of life that would result in a full and rich communion with God and community with others.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the covenant law was a detailed law code covering the activities of everyday life. Examples of such laws are found in Exodus 21–23. These laws were compiled and recorded in the “Book of the Covenant” (Ex 24:7). Although many laws were contained in this book, it was impossible to codify every aspect of human behavior. The diversity of the examples given indicates that for the covenant member no area of human life was beyond the influence of the covenant. Persons who entered into a relationship with God entered into a relationship that impinged on every possible aspect of their lives.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Renewal<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant at Sinai was made with a particular group of people under the leadership of Moses but was binding on future generations. Consequently, the covenant was renewed from time to time. Covenant renewals are recorded in the time of Joshua (Jos 8:30-35; 24:1-28) and, much later, during the reign of King Josiah (2 Kgs 23:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The most important passage in the Bible for understanding covenant renewal and the nature of covenant is the book of Deuteronomy. The entire book describes a particular covenant renewal ceremony that occurred at a critical juncture in Israel’s early history. The Sinai covenant was renewed just before Moses’ death, before the transition of leadership to Joshua, and before a major military campaign to possess the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant since the time of Abraham had contained a promise of land. Immediately before they entered that land (c. 1250 <span>BC<\/span>), the covenant vows were renewed with a new generation of Israelites, most of whom had not stood at the foot of Mt Sinai some 40 years earlier. Although covenant renewal is the central theme of Deuteronomy, the writer focused primarily on Moses’ sermon rather than on a detailed account of the renewal ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ceremony were simply a repetition of what happened at the original ratification of the covenant. The Ten Commandments were repeated (Dt 5:6-21), and the laws of the Book of the Covenant were expounded in greater detail (Dt 12–26). Two points emerging in Deuteronomy are particularly significant for an understanding of covenant: a clear statement of covenant love and a detailed statement of the blessings and curses that accompanied the making and renewing of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCovenantwithDavid\">The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>The covenant tradition underwent modification during the time of King David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>). The Sinai covenant had been established between God and Israel, with Moses acting as mediator. In David’s time an additional element was added: God entered into a covenant with David as king. That royal covenant was intimated to David through the prophet Nathan (2 Sm 7:8-16), indicating once again the divine initiative. It was to be an everlasting covenant with David’s royal lineage (23:5).<\/p>\n\n<p>Christians generally interpret the covenant with David as a messianic covenant. For several centuries the dynasty established by David ruled a united Israel, then ruled the remaining southern kingdom of Judah. But in 586 <span>BC<\/span> Judah was conquered by the Babylonians. At that point a descendant of David was no longer ruling an independent kingdom of God’s chosen people. The everlasting nature of the covenant with David was brought out, however, not in the pages of ancient history but in the expectation of a Messiah who would be born of David’s descendants. Matthew and Luke both pointed to Jesus’ Davidic descent (Mt 1:1; Lk 3:31). The NT thus extends the covenant acts of God into the new age in the person of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNewCovenantPredictedintheOldTestament\">The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although David’s covenant with God was eternal, in a sense the covenant established with Israel on Mt Sinai was temporal. The Sinai covenant included conditional clauses, stated in the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy. Israel’s disobedience of the covenant law would at worst bring exile from the Promised Land, a central covenant theme from Abraham to Moses and beyond.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew prophets often perceived the danger of an end to the covenant as a result of Israel’s sins. Some of the prophets, especially Hosea and Jeremiah, also perceived a deeper truth; namely, that the covenant was rooted in divine love and that therefore even the curse of God could not be final.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea dramatically expressed that truth through the “living parable” of his marriage (Hos 1–3). He married Gomer at God’s command, but later, as a result of her unfaithfulness, the marital covenant was dissolved by divorce. Although Gomer’s adulterous acts compelled Hosea to divorce her, he did not cease to love her. God later commanded Hosea to go back to Gomer (Hos 3:1). Despite her unfaithfulness, the prophet was to take her again into the covenant relationship of marriage. That acted-out parable depicted God’s actions with Israel. Israel’s sin would inevitably culminate in a divorce from God, but Hosea perceived a new marriage. In the new covenant between God and Israel, Israel would be graciously accepted back into a relationship with God (2:14-18).<\/p>\n<p>The new covenant is given powerful expression in the writings of the prophet Jeremiah, who lived through the end of the seventh and beginning of the sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In his lifetime Jeremiah saw the kingdom of Judah defeated in war. The nation lost its independence and became a vassal of the Babylonian Empire. In an external sense, that defeat in 586 <span>BC<\/span> marked the end of the Sinai covenant. Israel could no longer call the Promised Land its own. Yet Jeremiah perceived a truth beyond the contemporary political realities. God’s work in the world, like his love for the world, was not over.<\/p>\n<p>Thus Jeremiah spoke of a new covenant that God would bring into effect: “The days are coming, says the <span>Lord<\/span>, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah” (Jer 31:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The new covenant would be marked by an act of God within human hearts, a radical spiritual transformation (Jer 31:34). At the Last Supper Jesus declared to his disciples that “this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20, <span>rsv<\/span>). To the writer of Hebrews, the new covenant was central to a full understanding of the ministry of Jesus Christ (Heb 8:8-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is a concept central to the message and the history of the OT. The covenant theme continues into the NT as a way of interpreting the Christian gospel. Meaning in human life is to be found in a covenant relationship with the living God. Yet sinful human beings cannot work their way into such a relationship; God alone can initiate it. According to the NT, God’s act in giving his son, Jesus, to die opened up the covenant relationship to all human beings. The forgiveness made available by Jesus’ “blood of the new covenant” makes it possible for any individual to enter into a covenant relationship with God. Entry into such a relationship, today as in Abraham’s time, hinges upon faith (Gal 3:6-14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alliance; Covenant, The New; Law, Biblical Concept of; Oath; Vows.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COVENANT Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings. The covenant theme in the OT is developed from...","summary_en":"COVENANT Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings. The covenant theme in the OT is developed from...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9478,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Deuteronomy","title_en":"Book of Deuteronomy","content_ro":"<h3>DEUTERONOMY, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fifth book of the OT, and last of the Pentateuch (the five books of the Law). In it Moses restated to the people of Israel various laws and precepts of the covenant that God had revealed to them at Mt Sinai. Thus, the book has become known in Greek and Latin tradition as Deuteronomy (“second law”). That name has led some to misinterpret the significance of its contents as secondary. The book makes an important contribution to God’s unfolding revelation of his purpose for the nation of Israel. Moses’ reminders of the wilderness wanderings and the Ten Commandments, plus his instructions for life in the Promised Land, are a vital part of the OT covenant literature.<\/p>\n\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Authorship<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Setting<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of Deuteronomy<\/p>\n<p>• Deuteronomy and the Law<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandAuthorship\">Date and Authorship<\/p>\n<p>Two basic views (with variations) on the date and authorship of Deuteronomy are advocated by modern biblical scholars. Those who consider Moses the author date the book in the 14th or 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Others believe that it was composed by an unknown author in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, when Josiah was king in the southern kingdom of Judah.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for a Seventh-Century Date<\/h5>\n<p>As early as 1805, W. M. L. de Wette advocated that Deuteronomy was used by Josiah in his seventh-century reforms, and that it was written shortly before that. Biblical critic Julius Wellhausen adopted that view, which has been advocated by many scholars ever since S. R. Driver publicized it in his <em>Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament<\/em> (1891). According to that view, the book was written late but ascribed to Moses.<\/p>\n<p>Many modern scholars, such as Gerhard von Rad and G. E. Wright, regard Moses as the founder of Israel’s faith. They argue that whatever in Deuteronomy is from Moses was transmitted orally until about the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. Denying that Moses actually wrote Deuteronomy, they attribute its present form to numerous writers and editors over an extended period of centuries.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Mosaic Authorship<\/h5>\n<p>In recent decades, studies of Hittite suzerainty treaties from the second millennium <span>BC<\/span> have yielded interesting comparisons between those treaty forms and the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy. In 1954 G. Mendenhall suggested that the form of the covenant at Mt Sinai was the same literary form used by Hittites in treaties with Syrian vassal states during the 14th and 13th centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In 1960 M. G. Kline applied that idea to the book of Deuteronomy, seeing it as a renewal of the Sinaitic covenant and outlining its structure as a literary unit reflecting the pattern of Hittite covenant forms.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy does contain certain parallels to Hittite vassal treaties. As a renewal treaty it appeals to the covenant of God with Israel at Mt Sinai, recorded in the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>1. The “preamble” in ancient Hittite treaties usually identified the suzerain or ruler. In Deuteronomy 1:1-5 (Ex 20:1) Moses as the speaker represents God, the King of Israel. As his death approaches, Moses makes an appeal for the renewal of the covenant.<\/p>\n<li>2. In the “historical prologue” the suzerain usually cited the benefits he had bestowed on his vassal. In Deuteronomy 1:6–4:49 (Ex 20:2) Moses declares what God has done for Israel since his revelation at Mt Sinai. Moses reminds the people of Israel of God’s faithfulness even when they had been unfaithful.<\/li>\n<li>3. The “stipulations” were usually stated by the suzerain in the treaty’s third division. In Deuteronomy 5–26 Moses outlines the stipulations for Israel in their covenant relationship to God. The basic requirement in Deuteronomy 5–11 (Ex 20:3-17) is exclusive, wholehearted love for God. In the following chapters, Deuteronomy 12–26, the basic principle of exclusive love for God is applied to specific areas of culticceremonial consecration (Dt 12:1–16:17), judicial justice in government (16:18–21:23), the sanctity of God’s order (chs 22–25), and public acknowledgment of God as their Redeemer and King (ch 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. “Covenant ratification” usually contained a provision for treaty renewal and a formula for curses and blessings. In Deuteronomy 27 provision is made for Joshua to conclude the renewal of the covenant after the Israelites occupy the land. In addition, the divine threat and promise are expressed in blessings and curses as Israel swears its oath of allegiance on the plains of Moab.<\/li>\n<li>5. “Succession arrangements” were usually the concluding part of suzerainty-vassal treaties. In chapters 31–34 Joshua is designated as Moses’ successor. The written text is deposited in the sanctuary with the song of witness and a testamentary blessing by Moses. The book of Deuteronomy thus constitutes the documentary witness of God’s covenant as it concludes with the death of Moses.<\/li>\n<p>The fact that the literary structure of Deuteronomy parallels the legal forms characteristic of ancient Hittite treaties supports the traditional viewpoint that Moses is the author of Deuteronomy. When Moses is recognized as the mediator between God and Israel in the Sinaitic covenant, it is significant that the book of Deuteronomy represents Moses’ renewal of the covenant in the literary form current in the culture of his day.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalSetting\">Historical Setting<\/p>\n<p>Moses led the Israelites from Egypt through the wilderness to the plains of Moab east of the Dead Sea. Exodus 1–19 gives an account of the enslavement of the Israelites in Egypt, the birth and preparation of Moses, his contest with the pharaoh, the miraculous deliverance out of Egypt, and the journey to Mt Sinai (probably also known as Mt Horeb).<\/p>\n<p>In that desert area God’s great revelation came to Israel through Moses (Ex 20–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 1–9). At Mt Sinai, God identified himself as the one who had delivered the Israelites. There he established an agreement by which they would be exclusively devoted to him as his holy nation. There the tabernacle was built and the priesthood established. Instructions were given for making sacrifices and offerings, and for observing feasts and seasons, so that Israel’s pattern of living would show that they were God’s holy people. The tribes were also organized for encampment around the tabernacle and for the march to Canaan, the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 10–21 is an account of the 38 years the Israelites spent in the wilderness. In 11 days they marched from Mt Horeb to Kadesh-barnea, about 40 miles (64 kilometers) south of Beersheba. From there 12 spies were sent into Canaan. Their report produced a crisis in the form of a revolt against God. Subsequently, Israel wandered in the wilderness for 38 years, during which those who had been at least 20 years old when they left Egypt died. The new generation moved to the plains of Moab, located east of the Dead Sea and north of the Arnon River. Numbers 20–36 tells of the conquest and occupation of the land east of the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy presents Moses’ address to the new generation of Israelites. In Exodus and Numbers God frequently speaks to Moses; in Deuteronomy, Moses is speaking at God’s command to the Israelites (Dt 1:1-4; 5:1; 29:1). In contrast to the preceding books, Deuteronomy has a style of exhortation in which Moses admonishes the new generation about their responsibility in view of the preceding generation’s failures. Whatever repetition occurs in Deuteronomy is carefully selected, with the specific purpose of warning the new generation so that they will not fail to conquer and occupy Canaan. Deuteronomy is not primarily retrospective; its outlook is optimistic about the future, offering hope for fulfilling the promises God made to the Israelites in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceofDeuteronomy\">Significance of Deuteronomy<\/p>\n<p>Deuteronomy (with Genesis, Psalms, and Isaiah) is among the most frequently quoted books in the early Christian centuries. More than 80 OT quotations in the NT come from Deuteronomy.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus focused attention on Deuteronomy when he summarized the essence of the entire OT Law and Prophets in the two great commandments of love for God and neighbor (Mt 22:37; see Dt 6:5; 10:19). Jesus also quoted Deuteronomy (6:13, 16; 8:3) in his temptation experience (Mt 4:4-10). Deuteronomy unfolds the essence of what God revealed to Moses at Mt Sinai. In Deuteronomy, Moses shares with the Israelites the core of God’s revelation without repeating details of sacrifices, observances, or rituals. He expounds the character of Israel’s faith and nationhood. Moses repeatedly emphasizes his concern that they faithfully maintain a good relationship with God. An exclusive devotion to God expressed in everyday life is the key to a lifetime of blessing.<\/p>\n<p>The primary need of love toward God and neighbor eventually became a basic requirement for the followers of Jesus Christ (Lk 10:25-28). The book of Deuteronomy is thus crucially important to the Christian concern to maintain a vital relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DeuteronomyandtheLaw\">Deuteronomy and the Law<\/p>\n<p>To designate the book of Deuteronomy as a “second law” or a repetition of the law is misleading. Moses’ emphasis is not legalistic. Details of worship and ritual are not repeated or delineated to any great extent. Although the Ten Commandments are repeated, emphasis is placed on the first commandment, explicitly requiring exclusive devotion to God. Moses is primarily concerned with Israel’s relationship with God and their determination to maintain it in their own and their children’s lives.<\/p>\n<p>The NT reveals that a legalistic interpretation of the Mosaic revelation was held by the Jews of the first century <span>AD<\/span>. Such legalism developed in Judaism especially during the intertestamental era. The Judaistic legalism of NT times has in modern times been ascribed wrongly to Moses. Moses did warn of the necessity of keeping all of God’s law (Dt 28:1, 58), but in Deuteronomy his message as a whole makes it clear that he was not exclusively concerned about legalistic observance. Rather, the central theme of Deuteronomy is the unique relationship that had been established by a unique God with a unique people, the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Brief Historical Review (1:1–4:43)<\/h5>\n<p>Moses is identified as the speaker, addressing the Israelites on the plains of Moab during the last year of his life. The Israelites were on the verge of entering the Promised Land of Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>Moses began with a reference to Mt Sinai, scene of the greatest revelation in OT times. He focused attention on God’s explicit command for them to move up to Canaan and occupy the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Their rebellion brought divine judgment, so the conquest of Canaan had been delayed 38 years while an entire disobedient generation died in the wilderness.<\/p>\n<p>Instructed by God not to molest the Edomites or Moabites, Moses had led the Israelites to the Moab plains north of the Arnon River. The Israelites defeated Sihon, the Amorite king of Heshbon, and Og, king of Bashan. The tribes of Reuben and Gad and half the tribe of Manasseh appropriated the territory east of the Jordan River as their land (Nm 32). On the basis of that conquest, Moses encouraged Joshua to believe that God would aid him and the Israelites in the conquest of the land of Canaan west of the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites should learn from the mistakes of the generation that died in the wilderness (Dt 4:1-40). They should consider the fact that the word of God had been spoken to them. The revelation that had come to them through Moses was unique, and the most important thing was for them to revere the God who had revealed himself. The uniqueness of Israel’s God among the nations that worship idols should never be forgotten.<\/p>\n<p>Moses reminded the Israelites that they had entered into a contractual agreement with their unique God. That covenant was mentioned 26 more times by Moses. No nation had ever experienced anything like it. If Israel obeyed, they would enjoy God’s blessing and favor.<\/p>\n<h5>Exhortations and Applications (4:44–26:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The circumstances in which Moses addressed the Israelites are reported in a short transitional passage (Dt 4:44-49). From the slopes of Mt Pisgah (or Nebo), with Israel encamped in the valley opposite Beth-peor, Moses made his appeal to the people before they crossed the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ exposition of the “great commandment” is centered in the agreement made between God and Israel. He repeated the Ten Commandments as the essence of God’s revelation at Sinai. As Moses explained what God expected of Israel, he elaborated the first commandment: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (5:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). Their relationship with God was of basic importance, since God’s wrath will be against those who worship other gods (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Love is the key word in the relationship between God and Israel. Moses boldly asserted, “Hear, O Israel! The <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, the <span>Lord<\/span> alone. And you must love the <span>Lord<\/span> your God with all your heart, all your soul, and all your strength” (Dt 6:4-5, <span>nlt<\/span>). All other commandments are significant because they bear on that relationship (as spelled out in chs 5–11).<\/p>\n<p>Exclusive love and devotion to God are essential. In a relationship of wholehearted love, no idols can be recognized or tolerated. Yet Moses wanted Israel to convey its consciousness of God to future generations by many external things: signs on their hands, frontlets (or “phylacteries”) on their foreheads, Scripture verses on their doorposts, and so on. By precept and example they should convey to their children that they love God (Dt 6).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites should never forget that God had chosen them to be his people (Dt 7). They were to execute God’s judgment on the Canaanites, who had been spared judgment since Abraham’s time (Gn 15:16). Although the Israelites themselves did not merit God’s love, in love and mercy he had redeemed them out of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Moses appealed to the people to remember what God had done for them (Dt 8). To God’s sustaining provisions they should respond with thankfulness, recognizing that the power to achieve anything they had done had been God’s gift.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites had repeatedly failed in their faith and commitment to God (9:1–10:11). Through Moses’ intercession they had been spared. It was for no merit of their own that they would enter Canaan; that was God’s gracious provision for them. Moses’ appeal for a wholehearted commitment is summarized in Deuteronomy 10:12–11:32. It is necessary to display reverence, respect, love, and obedience to God (see also 6:5, 13, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The God whom the Israelites must love sincerely and without reservation is the Lord of the cosmos. He is the righteous judge who rules supreme over all nature and history. God loved their forefathers, the patriarchs. He redeemed the Israelites from Egyptian enslavement and gave them his covenant. He manifested himself in helping the orphans, widows, and strangers. He multiplied Israel to be as numerous as the stars of the heavens.<\/p>\n<p>Moses gave two basic instructions to apply in daily life to maintain their relationship with God as a reality: “circumcise therefore the foreskin of your heart” (Dt 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). He did not refer to physical circumcision, a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham (Gn 17). Circumcision, which was not observed during the years of wilderness wanderings, was reinstituted under Joshua after the Israelites crossed the Jordan River (Jos 5:2-9). Moses referred to “spiritual circumcision” (see Lv 26:40-41; Jer 4:4; 9:25; Rom 2:29). All things that might restrict, interfere with, or negate total devotion to God were to be cut away (circumcised) so that the Israelites would continue to love God with all their heart.<\/p>\n<p>“Love the foreigner” (Dt 10:19) ranks second in importance to wholehearted love for God. Love for the stranger or neighbor is basic to all other human obligations (see Lv 19:9-18). Social obligations issue out of a person’s relationship with God. Being recipients of God’s love, the Israelites were to love others. They were to remember God’s love for them when they were slaves and strangers in Egypt. God loves the stranger, the widow, and the orphan; therefore, if anyone loves God, he or she is under obligation to love other people. God is concerned about justice and righteousness; a person who professes to love God must be concerned about just treatment for other people.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites were to be known for their concern for people whose social position exposed them to exploitation and oppression. The profound humanitarian spirit of the Mosaic law stands in unique contrast to the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian and Hittite law codes of that day. In those codes human relationships reflected no vital consciousness of a love relationship with deity.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Jesus Christ came into conflict with Jewish religious leaders who had lost the essence of God’s law in a maze of legalism. For Jesus, the greatest commandment was to love God; the second was to love one’s neighbor. Those two commandments (which constitute the essence of the entire OT revelation) would, if kept perfectly, provide the basis for eternal life (Mt 22:37-39; Mk 12:29-31; Lk 10:27-28). Christians believe that the climax of God’s revelation of love came in Jesus Christ. For them, responding to God’s love means to accept Jesus Christ in wholehearted devotion and to love one’s neighbor as Jesus exemplified in his life.<\/p>\n<p>In Deuteronomy 12:1–26:19, Moses gave instruction in practical living for a God-related people when they resided in the land God had promised to them. Having once survived on manna supplied directly by God, in Canaan they would enjoy the fruit and produce of the land. They would also encounter a culture permeated by Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In worshiping God in their new setting, they were cautioned to maintain due sanctity (Dt 12:1–14:21). They were not to worship at pagan shrines. They should bring their offerings to divinely appointed places for fellowship and rejoicing together in the Lord’s presence. Idolatry was not to be tolerated in any form. Any prophet who deviated from the law of Moses in advising the worship of other gods should be stoned. Exclusive devotion to God was to be daily practice.<\/p>\n<p>Canaan’s abundant blessings should be shared with neighbors (14:22–15:23). Tithes should be brought to the central sanctuary where Levites assisted the priests in religious ministration. Joy in sharing life’s blessings and opportunities was to characterize Israel’s pattern of living.<\/p>\n<p>Moses prescribed three annual pilgrimages (16:1-17). The people should remember their deliverance out of Egypt by observing the feasts of Passover and Unleavened Bread. Seven weeks later, when the barley harvest was completed, they should spend time rejoicing before the Lord in a one-day festival called the Feast of Weeks. When the vintage as well as the grain harvest was completed, they were to observe the Feast of Ingathering (or Booths), a time of thanksgiving and sharing with others. Every seven years the law was read at the Feast of Ingathering.<\/p>\n<p>In human relations justice was to prevail among the Israelites (16:18–21:23). The Book of the Law kept at the main sanctuary was their divine authority, providing God’s instructions for them. The king was to have a copy of this law and govern his life in accordance with it. Prophets and priests played an important role as religious leaders in the life of Israel. Judicial authority was vested in the priests. In contrast to the brutality of other nations, humanitarian principles were to prevail in Israel’s warfare. Fathers were responsible for their own family households.<\/p>\n<p>In domestic and social relationships, the law of love was to prevail (22:1–26:19). Many regulations governed family life. In matters of sustenance, wages, and business dealings, the Israelites were admonished to be compassionate and just. Promises and warnings raised their consciousness about using the resources of land and animals entrusted to them so that their stewardship would please God.<\/p>\n<p>In Deuteronomy 26, Moses instructed the Israelites in two liturgical confessions and a reaffirmation of the covenant. By acknowledging that God was the giver of all they had, and by confessing before God that they shared his gifts with others, they confirmed their covenant with God.<\/p>\n<h5>Alternatives: Blessings or Curses (27:1–30:20)<\/h5>\n<p>Moses set before the Israelites the alternatives of blessings or curses. Under Joshua they were to renew the covenant publicly. At Mt Ebal stones were to be erected for inscribing the law and an altar constructed for offering sacrifice. The curses were to be read from Mt Ebal and the blessings from Mt Gerizim. Conditional self-curses were read regarding offenses against God and other human beings (Dt 27:15-26). Thus they acknowledged their accountability to God. Though their sins might be hidden from people, it was God to whom they were primarily and ultimately accountable. Blessings as a way of life and curses as a way of death were clearly set before the Israelites (ch 28). Setting them in the perspective of history, Moses appealed to the new generation to take advantage of their present opportunity (ch 29). Warning that, should they fail to love God, they would ultimately be subjected to dispersion, Moses admonished them to choose the way of life and good rather than the way of death and evil (ch 30).<\/p>\n<h5>Transition: from Moses to Joshua (31:1–34:12)<\/h5>\n<p>When the life and ministry of Moses were nearing completion, and transfer of leadership was near (Dt 31:1–34:12), Joshua had already been designated by God as Israel’s new leader. Moses assured the Israelites that God would be the same with Joshua in charge. The revelation given through Moses had been put in writing and now was committed to the priests, the custodians of the Book of the Law. Joshua, who had already distinguished himself in responsible leadership, was publicly confirmed at the door of the tabernacle (31:1-29).<\/p>\n<p>The “Song of Moses” is the covenant’s document of witness (32:1-47). In it Moses spoke with prophetic understanding as he recounted Israel’s past experience. Reiterating the consequences of their attitude toward God, he assured the people of restoration if they failed again. He encouraged them to fix their hearts on what God had revealed to them and to impress it on their children. Keeping the covenant by maintaining a wholehearted love for God would be important for all future generations as well as for those then listening to Moses.<\/p>\n<p>After some final, brief instructions (32:48-52), Moses pronounced his blessings on the Israelites, whom he had led for 40 years (33:1-29). In his final blessing, also called the “Testament of Moses,” the greatness of God and his special relationship with Israel are delineated. Israel is unique among all the nations of the world.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy appropriately ends with an account of the death of Moses, the greatest prophet in OT times (34:1-12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Moses.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEUTERONOMY, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fifth book of the OT, and last of the Pentateuch (the five books of the Law). In it Moses restated to the people of Israel various laws and precepts of the covenant that God had revealed to them at Mt Sinai. Thus, the book has become known in Greek and Latin tradition as Deuteronomy (“second law”). That name has led some to misinterpret the significance of its contents as secondary. The book makes an important contribution to God’s unfolding revelation of his purpose for the nation of Israel. Moses’ reminders of the wilderness wanderings and the Ten Commandments, plus his instructions for life in the Promised Land, are a vital part of the OT covenant literature.<\/p>\n\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Authorship<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Setting<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of Deuteronomy<\/p>\n<p>• Deuteronomy and the Law<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandAuthorship\">Date and Authorship<\/p>\n<p>Two basic views (with variations) on the date and authorship of Deuteronomy are advocated by modern biblical scholars. Those who consider Moses the author date the book in the 14th or 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Others believe that it was composed by an unknown author in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, when Josiah was king in the southern kingdom of Judah.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for a Seventh-Century Date<\/h5>\n<p>As early as 1805, W. M. L. de Wette advocated that Deuteronomy was used by Josiah in his seventh-century reforms, and that it was written shortly before that. Biblical critic Julius Wellhausen adopted that view, which has been advocated by many scholars ever since S. R. Driver publicized it in his <em>Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament<\/em> (1891). According to that view, the book was written late but ascribed to Moses.<\/p>\n<p>Many modern scholars, such as Gerhard von Rad and G. E. Wright, regard Moses as the founder of Israel’s faith. They argue that whatever in Deuteronomy is from Moses was transmitted orally until about the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. Denying that Moses actually wrote Deuteronomy, they attribute its present form to numerous writers and editors over an extended period of centuries.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Mosaic Authorship<\/h5>\n<p>In recent decades, studies of Hittite suzerainty treaties from the second millennium <span>BC<\/span> have yielded interesting comparisons between those treaty forms and the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy. In 1954 G. Mendenhall suggested that the form of the covenant at Mt Sinai was the same literary form used by Hittites in treaties with Syrian vassal states during the 14th and 13th centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In 1960 M. G. Kline applied that idea to the book of Deuteronomy, seeing it as a renewal of the Sinaitic covenant and outlining its structure as a literary unit reflecting the pattern of Hittite covenant forms.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy does contain certain parallels to Hittite vassal treaties. As a renewal treaty it appeals to the covenant of God with Israel at Mt Sinai, recorded in the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>1. The “preamble” in ancient Hittite treaties usually identified the suzerain or ruler. In Deuteronomy 1:1-5 (Ex 20:1) Moses as the speaker represents God, the King of Israel. As his death approaches, Moses makes an appeal for the renewal of the covenant.<\/p>\n<li>2. In the “historical prologue” the suzerain usually cited the benefits he had bestowed on his vassal. In Deuteronomy 1:6–4:49 (Ex 20:2) Moses declares what God has done for Israel since his revelation at Mt Sinai. Moses reminds the people of Israel of God’s faithfulness even when they had been unfaithful.<\/li>\n<li>3. The “stipulations” were usually stated by the suzerain in the treaty’s third division. In Deuteronomy 5–26 Moses outlines the stipulations for Israel in their covenant relationship to God. The basic requirement in Deuteronomy 5–11 (Ex 20:3-17) is exclusive, wholehearted love for God. In the following chapters, Deuteronomy 12–26, the basic principle of exclusive love for God is applied to specific areas of culticceremonial consecration (Dt 12:1–16:17), judicial justice in government (16:18–21:23), the sanctity of God’s order (chs 22–25), and public acknowledgment of God as their Redeemer and King (ch 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. “Covenant ratification” usually contained a provision for treaty renewal and a formula for curses and blessings. In Deuteronomy 27 provision is made for Joshua to conclude the renewal of the covenant after the Israelites occupy the land. In addition, the divine threat and promise are expressed in blessings and curses as Israel swears its oath of allegiance on the plains of Moab.<\/li>\n<li>5. “Succession arrangements” were usually the concluding part of suzerainty-vassal treaties. In chapters 31–34 Joshua is designated as Moses’ successor. The written text is deposited in the sanctuary with the song of witness and a testamentary blessing by Moses. The book of Deuteronomy thus constitutes the documentary witness of God’s covenant as it concludes with the death of Moses.<\/li>\n<p>The fact that the literary structure of Deuteronomy parallels the legal forms characteristic of ancient Hittite treaties supports the traditional viewpoint that Moses is the author of Deuteronomy. When Moses is recognized as the mediator between God and Israel in the Sinaitic covenant, it is significant that the book of Deuteronomy represents Moses’ renewal of the covenant in the literary form current in the culture of his day.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalSetting\">Historical Setting<\/p>\n<p>Moses led the Israelites from Egypt through the wilderness to the plains of Moab east of the Dead Sea. Exodus 1–19 gives an account of the enslavement of the Israelites in Egypt, the birth and preparation of Moses, his contest with the pharaoh, the miraculous deliverance out of Egypt, and the journey to Mt Sinai (probably also known as Mt Horeb).<\/p>\n<p>In that desert area God’s great revelation came to Israel through Moses (Ex 20–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 1–9). At Mt Sinai, God identified himself as the one who had delivered the Israelites. There he established an agreement by which they would be exclusively devoted to him as his holy nation. There the tabernacle was built and the priesthood established. Instructions were given for making sacrifices and offerings, and for observing feasts and seasons, so that Israel’s pattern of living would show that they were God’s holy people. The tribes were also organized for encampment around the tabernacle and for the march to Canaan, the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 10–21 is an account of the 38 years the Israelites spent in the wilderness. In 11 days they marched from Mt Horeb to Kadesh-barnea, about 40 miles (64 kilometers) south of Beersheba. From there 12 spies were sent into Canaan. Their report produced a crisis in the form of a revolt against God. Subsequently, Israel wandered in the wilderness for 38 years, during which those who had been at least 20 years old when they left Egypt died. The new generation moved to the plains of Moab, located east of the Dead Sea and north of the Arnon River. Numbers 20–36 tells of the conquest and occupation of the land east of the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy presents Moses’ address to the new generation of Israelites. In Exodus and Numbers God frequently speaks to Moses; in Deuteronomy, Moses is speaking at God’s command to the Israelites (Dt 1:1-4; 5:1; 29:1). In contrast to the preceding books, Deuteronomy has a style of exhortation in which Moses admonishes the new generation about their responsibility in view of the preceding generation’s failures. Whatever repetition occurs in Deuteronomy is carefully selected, with the specific purpose of warning the new generation so that they will not fail to conquer and occupy Canaan. Deuteronomy is not primarily retrospective; its outlook is optimistic about the future, offering hope for fulfilling the promises God made to the Israelites in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceofDeuteronomy\">Significance of Deuteronomy<\/p>\n<p>Deuteronomy (with Genesis, Psalms, and Isaiah) is among the most frequently quoted books in the early Christian centuries. More than 80 OT quotations in the NT come from Deuteronomy.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus focused attention on Deuteronomy when he summarized the essence of the entire OT Law and Prophets in the two great commandments of love for God and neighbor (Mt 22:37; see Dt 6:5; 10:19). Jesus also quoted Deuteronomy (6:13, 16; 8:3) in his temptation experience (Mt 4:4-10). Deuteronomy unfolds the essence of what God revealed to Moses at Mt Sinai. In Deuteronomy, Moses shares with the Israelites the core of God’s revelation without repeating details of sacrifices, observances, or rituals. He expounds the character of Israel’s faith and nationhood. Moses repeatedly emphasizes his concern that they faithfully maintain a good relationship with God. An exclusive devotion to God expressed in everyday life is the key to a lifetime of blessing.<\/p>\n<p>The primary need of love toward God and neighbor eventually became a basic requirement for the followers of Jesus Christ (Lk 10:25-28). The book of Deuteronomy is thus crucially important to the Christian concern to maintain a vital relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DeuteronomyandtheLaw\">Deuteronomy and the Law<\/p>\n<p>To designate the book of Deuteronomy as a “second law” or a repetition of the law is misleading. Moses’ emphasis is not legalistic. Details of worship and ritual are not repeated or delineated to any great extent. Although the Ten Commandments are repeated, emphasis is placed on the first commandment, explicitly requiring exclusive devotion to God. Moses is primarily concerned with Israel’s relationship with God and their determination to maintain it in their own and their children’s lives.<\/p>\n<p>The NT reveals that a legalistic interpretation of the Mosaic revelation was held by the Jews of the first century <span>AD<\/span>. Such legalism developed in Judaism especially during the intertestamental era. The Judaistic legalism of NT times has in modern times been ascribed wrongly to Moses. Moses did warn of the necessity of keeping all of God’s law (Dt 28:1, 58), but in Deuteronomy his message as a whole makes it clear that he was not exclusively concerned about legalistic observance. Rather, the central theme of Deuteronomy is the unique relationship that had been established by a unique God with a unique people, the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Brief Historical Review (1:1–4:43)<\/h5>\n<p>Moses is identified as the speaker, addressing the Israelites on the plains of Moab during the last year of his life. The Israelites were on the verge of entering the Promised Land of Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>Moses began with a reference to Mt Sinai, scene of the greatest revelation in OT times. He focused attention on God’s explicit command for them to move up to Canaan and occupy the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Their rebellion brought divine judgment, so the conquest of Canaan had been delayed 38 years while an entire disobedient generation died in the wilderness.<\/p>\n<p>Instructed by God not to molest the Edomites or Moabites, Moses had led the Israelites to the Moab plains north of the Arnon River. The Israelites defeated Sihon, the Amorite king of Heshbon, and Og, king of Bashan. The tribes of Reuben and Gad and half the tribe of Manasseh appropriated the territory east of the Jordan River as their land (Nm 32). On the basis of that conquest, Moses encouraged Joshua to believe that God would aid him and the Israelites in the conquest of the land of Canaan west of the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites should learn from the mistakes of the generation that died in the wilderness (Dt 4:1-40). They should consider the fact that the word of God had been spoken to them. The revelation that had come to them through Moses was unique, and the most important thing was for them to revere the God who had revealed himself. The uniqueness of Israel’s God among the nations that worship idols should never be forgotten.<\/p>\n<p>Moses reminded the Israelites that they had entered into a contractual agreement with their unique God. That covenant was mentioned 26 more times by Moses. No nation had ever experienced anything like it. If Israel obeyed, they would enjoy God’s blessing and favor.<\/p>\n<h5>Exhortations and Applications (4:44–26:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The circumstances in which Moses addressed the Israelites are reported in a short transitional passage (Dt 4:44-49). From the slopes of Mt Pisgah (or Nebo), with Israel encamped in the valley opposite Beth-peor, Moses made his appeal to the people before they crossed the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ exposition of the “great commandment” is centered in the agreement made between God and Israel. He repeated the Ten Commandments as the essence of God’s revelation at Sinai. As Moses explained what God expected of Israel, he elaborated the first commandment: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (5:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). Their relationship with God was of basic importance, since God’s wrath will be against those who worship other gods (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Love is the key word in the relationship between God and Israel. Moses boldly asserted, “Hear, O Israel! The <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, the <span>Lord<\/span> alone. And you must love the <span>Lord<\/span> your God with all your heart, all your soul, and all your strength” (Dt 6:4-5, <span>nlt<\/span>). All other commandments are significant because they bear on that relationship (as spelled out in chs 5–11).<\/p>\n<p>Exclusive love and devotion to God are essential. In a relationship of wholehearted love, no idols can be recognized or tolerated. Yet Moses wanted Israel to convey its consciousness of God to future generations by many external things: signs on their hands, frontlets (or “phylacteries”) on their foreheads, Scripture verses on their doorposts, and so on. By precept and example they should convey to their children that they love God (Dt 6).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites should never forget that God had chosen them to be his people (Dt 7). They were to execute God’s judgment on the Canaanites, who had been spared judgment since Abraham’s time (Gn 15:16). Although the Israelites themselves did not merit God’s love, in love and mercy he had redeemed them out of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Moses appealed to the people to remember what God had done for them (Dt 8). To God’s sustaining provisions they should respond with thankfulness, recognizing that the power to achieve anything they had done had been God’s gift.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites had repeatedly failed in their faith and commitment to God (9:1–10:11). Through Moses’ intercession they had been spared. It was for no merit of their own that they would enter Canaan; that was God’s gracious provision for them. Moses’ appeal for a wholehearted commitment is summarized in Deuteronomy 10:12–11:32. It is necessary to display reverence, respect, love, and obedience to God (see also 6:5, 13, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The God whom the Israelites must love sincerely and without reservation is the Lord of the cosmos. He is the righteous judge who rules supreme over all nature and history. God loved their forefathers, the patriarchs. He redeemed the Israelites from Egyptian enslavement and gave them his covenant. He manifested himself in helping the orphans, widows, and strangers. He multiplied Israel to be as numerous as the stars of the heavens.<\/p>\n<p>Moses gave two basic instructions to apply in daily life to maintain their relationship with God as a reality: “circumcise therefore the foreskin of your heart” (Dt 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). He did not refer to physical circumcision, a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham (Gn 17). Circumcision, which was not observed during the years of wilderness wanderings, was reinstituted under Joshua after the Israelites crossed the Jordan River (Jos 5:2-9). Moses referred to “spiritual circumcision” (see Lv 26:40-41; Jer 4:4; 9:25; Rom 2:29). All things that might restrict, interfere with, or negate total devotion to God were to be cut away (circumcised) so that the Israelites would continue to love God with all their heart.<\/p>\n<p>“Love the foreigner” (Dt 10:19) ranks second in importance to wholehearted love for God. Love for the stranger or neighbor is basic to all other human obligations (see Lv 19:9-18). Social obligations issue out of a person’s relationship with God. Being recipients of God’s love, the Israelites were to love others. They were to remember God’s love for them when they were slaves and strangers in Egypt. God loves the stranger, the widow, and the orphan; therefore, if anyone loves God, he or she is under obligation to love other people. God is concerned about justice and righteousness; a person who professes to love God must be concerned about just treatment for other people.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites were to be known for their concern for people whose social position exposed them to exploitation and oppression. The profound humanitarian spirit of the Mosaic law stands in unique contrast to the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian and Hittite law codes of that day. In those codes human relationships reflected no vital consciousness of a love relationship with deity.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Jesus Christ came into conflict with Jewish religious leaders who had lost the essence of God’s law in a maze of legalism. For Jesus, the greatest commandment was to love God; the second was to love one’s neighbor. Those two commandments (which constitute the essence of the entire OT revelation) would, if kept perfectly, provide the basis for eternal life (Mt 22:37-39; Mk 12:29-31; Lk 10:27-28). Christians believe that the climax of God’s revelation of love came in Jesus Christ. For them, responding to God’s love means to accept Jesus Christ in wholehearted devotion and to love one’s neighbor as Jesus exemplified in his life.<\/p>\n<p>In Deuteronomy 12:1–26:19, Moses gave instruction in practical living for a God-related people when they resided in the land God had promised to them. Having once survived on manna supplied directly by God, in Canaan they would enjoy the fruit and produce of the land. They would also encounter a culture permeated by Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In worshiping God in their new setting, they were cautioned to maintain due sanctity (Dt 12:1–14:21). They were not to worship at pagan shrines. They should bring their offerings to divinely appointed places for fellowship and rejoicing together in the Lord’s presence. Idolatry was not to be tolerated in any form. Any prophet who deviated from the law of Moses in advising the worship of other gods should be stoned. Exclusive devotion to God was to be daily practice.<\/p>\n<p>Canaan’s abundant blessings should be shared with neighbors (14:22–15:23). Tithes should be brought to the central sanctuary where Levites assisted the priests in religious ministration. Joy in sharing life’s blessings and opportunities was to characterize Israel’s pattern of living.<\/p>\n<p>Moses prescribed three annual pilgrimages (16:1-17). The people should remember their deliverance out of Egypt by observing the feasts of Passover and Unleavened Bread. Seven weeks later, when the barley harvest was completed, they should spend time rejoicing before the Lord in a one-day festival called the Feast of Weeks. When the vintage as well as the grain harvest was completed, they were to observe the Feast of Ingathering (or Booths), a time of thanksgiving and sharing with others. Every seven years the law was read at the Feast of Ingathering.<\/p>\n<p>In human relations justice was to prevail among the Israelites (16:18–21:23). The Book of the Law kept at the main sanctuary was their divine authority, providing God’s instructions for them. The king was to have a copy of this law and govern his life in accordance with it. Prophets and priests played an important role as religious leaders in the life of Israel. Judicial authority was vested in the priests. In contrast to the brutality of other nations, humanitarian principles were to prevail in Israel’s warfare. Fathers were responsible for their own family households.<\/p>\n<p>In domestic and social relationships, the law of love was to prevail (22:1–26:19). Many regulations governed family life. In matters of sustenance, wages, and business dealings, the Israelites were admonished to be compassionate and just. Promises and warnings raised their consciousness about using the resources of land and animals entrusted to them so that their stewardship would please God.<\/p>\n<p>In Deuteronomy 26, Moses instructed the Israelites in two liturgical confessions and a reaffirmation of the covenant. By acknowledging that God was the giver of all they had, and by confessing before God that they shared his gifts with others, they confirmed their covenant with God.<\/p>\n<h5>Alternatives: Blessings or Curses (27:1–30:20)<\/h5>\n<p>Moses set before the Israelites the alternatives of blessings or curses. Under Joshua they were to renew the covenant publicly. At Mt Ebal stones were to be erected for inscribing the law and an altar constructed for offering sacrifice. The curses were to be read from Mt Ebal and the blessings from Mt Gerizim. Conditional self-curses were read regarding offenses against God and other human beings (Dt 27:15-26). Thus they acknowledged their accountability to God. Though their sins might be hidden from people, it was God to whom they were primarily and ultimately accountable. Blessings as a way of life and curses as a way of death were clearly set before the Israelites (ch 28). Setting them in the perspective of history, Moses appealed to the new generation to take advantage of their present opportunity (ch 29). Warning that, should they fail to love God, they would ultimately be subjected to dispersion, Moses admonished them to choose the way of life and good rather than the way of death and evil (ch 30).<\/p>\n<h5>Transition: from Moses to Joshua (31:1–34:12)<\/h5>\n<p>When the life and ministry of Moses were nearing completion, and transfer of leadership was near (Dt 31:1–34:12), Joshua had already been designated by God as Israel’s new leader. Moses assured the Israelites that God would be the same with Joshua in charge. The revelation given through Moses had been put in writing and now was committed to the priests, the custodians of the Book of the Law. Joshua, who had already distinguished himself in responsible leadership, was publicly confirmed at the door of the tabernacle (31:1-29).<\/p>\n<p>The “Song of Moses” is the covenant’s document of witness (32:1-47). In it Moses spoke with prophetic understanding as he recounted Israel’s past experience. Reiterating the consequences of their attitude toward God, he assured the people of restoration if they failed again. He encouraged them to fix their hearts on what God had revealed to them and to impress it on their children. Keeping the covenant by maintaining a wholehearted love for God would be important for all future generations as well as for those then listening to Moses.<\/p>\n<p>After some final, brief instructions (32:48-52), Moses pronounced his blessings on the Israelites, whom he had led for 40 years (33:1-29). In his final blessing, also called the “Testament of Moses,” the greatness of God and his special relationship with Israel are delineated. Israel is unique among all the nations of the world.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy appropriately ends with an account of the death of Moses, the greatest prophet in OT times (34:1-12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Moses.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEUTERONOMY, Book of Fifth book of the OT, and last of the Pentateuch (the five books of the Law). In it Moses restated to the people of Israel various laws and precepts of the covenant that God had revealed to them at Mt Sinai. Thus, the book has become known in Greek and Latin tradition as Deuteronomy (“second law”). That name has led some to misinterpret the significance of its contents as secondary. The book makes an important contribution to God’s unfolding revelation of his purpose for ...","summary_en":"DEUTERONOMY, Book of Fifth book of the OT, and last of the Pentateuch (the five books of the Law). In it Moses restated to the people of Israel various laws and precepts of the covenant that God had revealed to them at Mt Sinai. Thus, the book has become known in Greek and Latin tradition as Deuteronomy (“second law”). That name has led some to misinterpret the significance of its contents as secondary. The book makes an important contribution to God’s unfolding revelation of his purpose for ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10217,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"El*","title_en":"El*","content_ro":"<h3>EL*<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient Semitic name for deity, perhaps meaning “power” (cf. Gn 17:1); used by the Hebrews generally in a poetic sense to denote the true God of Israel. The same word was used for the senior Canaanite god and the god in Ugaritic mythology. The “Il” or “El” of ancient Canaanite mythology (before 3500 <span>BC<\/span> in the region of Syria) was not as active as the god Baal, who struggled with Death and triumphed over Chaos. But Il was the father god of the Canaanite pantheon. OT critics have suggested that the Hebrews adopted the clan gods of the Canaanites, including Il. Yet Phoenician and Ugaritic literature use Il in the feminine form for the names of goddesses. The Hebrew avoids such usage. El is combined with other adjectives to describe the numerous attributes of God; for example, God Most High (Gn 14:18-24), the seeing God (16:13), the jealous God (Ex 20:5), the forgiving God (Neh 9:17), and the gracious God (v 31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; God, Names of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EL*<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient Semitic name for deity, perhaps meaning “power” (cf. Gn 17:1); used by the Hebrews generally in a poetic sense to denote the true God of Israel. The same word was used for the senior Canaanite god and the god in Ugaritic mythology. The “Il” or “El” of ancient Canaanite mythology (before 3500 <span>BC<\/span> in the region of Syria) was not as active as the god Baal, who struggled with Death and triumphed over Chaos. But Il was the father god of the Canaanite pantheon. OT critics have suggested that the Hebrews adopted the clan gods of the Canaanites, including Il. Yet Phoenician and Ugaritic literature use Il in the feminine form for the names of goddesses. The Hebrew avoids such usage. El is combined with other adjectives to describe the numerous attributes of God; for example, God Most High (Gn 14:18-24), the seeing God (16:13), the jealous God (Ex 20:5), the forgiving God (Neh 9:17), and the gracious God (v 31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; God, Names of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EL* Ancient Semitic name for deity, perhaps meaning “power” (cf. Gn 17:1); used by the Hebrews generally in a poetic sense to denote the true God of Israel. The same word was used for the senior Canaanite god and the god in Ugaritic mythology. The “Il” or “El” of ancient Canaanite mythology (before 3500 BC in the region of Syria) was not as active as the god Baal, who struggled with Death and triumphed over Chaos. But Il was the father god of the Canaanite pantheon. OT critics have suggested ...","summary_en":"EL* Ancient Semitic name for deity, perhaps meaning “power” (cf. Gn 17:1); used by the Hebrews generally in a poetic sense to denote the true God of Israel. The same word was used for the senior Canaanite god and the god in Ugaritic mythology. The “Il” or “El” of ancient Canaanite mythology (before 3500 BC in the region of Syria) was not as active as the god Baal, who struggled with Death and triumphed over Chaos. But Il was the father god of the Canaanite pantheon. OT critics have suggested ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13463,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Genealogy of Jesus Christ","title_en":"Genealogy of Jesus Christ","content_ro":"<h3>GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST<\/h3>\n<p>Account of Jesus’ human descent. The NT records Jesus’ genealogy twice in great detail: in Matthew 1:1-17 and in Luke 3:23-38.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Matthew’s Genealogy<\/p>\n<p>• Luke’s Genealogy<\/p>\n<p>• The Relationship between the Two Records<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MatthewsGenealogy\">Matthew’s Genealogy (1:1-17)<\/p>\n<p>Matthew 1:1 presents Jesus Christ as “the son of David, the son of Abraham.” By those two names, Matthew highlights Jesus’ earthly relationship to the Abrahamic (Gn 17:1-8) and Davidic (2 Sm 7:12-16) covenants of promise. Then beginning with the patriarch Abraham, Matthew traces Jesus’ human ancestry through King David to Joseph, “the husband of Mary, of whom Jesus was born, who is called Christ” (Mt 1:16). Matthew summarizes his account: “So all the generations from Abraham to David were fourteen generations, and from David to the deportation to Babylon fourteen generations, and from the deportation to Babylon to the Christ fourteen generations” (v 17, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>An examination of Matthew’s handling of this genealogical material discloses several interesting peculiarities:<\/p>\n\n<p>1. The arrangement of the names into three groups of 14 seems to be an artificial device.<\/p>\n<li>2. To have 14 names in the second group, Matthew omits three kings—Ahaziah, Joash, and Amaziah—between Joram and Uzziah (v 8), and one, Jehoiakim, between Josiah and Jeconiah (v 11).<\/li>\n<li>3. In the first group Matthew mentions three women—Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group, he alludes to Bathsheba. This is an uncommon practice in genealogies, and all the more strange when it is noted that these four represent what could be regarded as moral blemishes in the history of the Davidic dynasty— Tamar, a victim of incest; Rahab, a prostitute; Ruth, a Moabitess; and Bathsheba, an adulteress.<\/li>\n<li>4. In the first group Matthew mentions Judah’s brothers and Zerah, Perez’s brother. In the second group he refers to Jeconiah’s brothers.<\/li>\n<li>5. In verse 6 David is called “the king.”<\/li>\n<p>From these data, it is obvious that Matthew does not intend to present a strict genealogy; the arrangement is contrived, and extraneous material is included, probably for some other purpose than merely to present Jesus’ forebears. Matthew’s arrangement of the names into groups of 14, probably guided by an interest in portraying Jesus to Jews as the promised king of Israel and rightful heir to the Davidic throne, gives a definite historical movement to the genealogy by dividing it into three periods of time. These respectively highlight the origin, rise to power, and decay of the Davidic house, the last point represented by the lowly birth of the promised heir to a carpenter of Nazareth.<\/p>\n<p>The 14 names in each group may be an effort to call attention to the thrice-royal character of Mary’s son by focusing on the numerical value 14 of the Hebrew letters in David’s name (d=4, v=6, d=4). This number also happens to be twice the sacred number seven, so that the whole list is composed of three sets of two sevens each. It may be, however, that the contrived groupings were merely intended to aid in memorization.<\/p>\n<p>With respect to the second peculiarity—the “missing name” in the third group—one must conclude that either David or Jeconiah is to be counted twice, these being the pivotal names separating the three groups, or that a name was mistakenly dropped out in a copy of Matthew’s original Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>The third peculiarity presents no difficulty at all. Numerous genealogies in Scripture omit some names. Ancient Near Eastern writers often used the phrase “the son of,” or the word “begat,” quite flexibly, relating grandsons or great-grandsons, for instance, to earlier forebears without indicating every intervening ancestor. The modern mind should not require a precision in ancient records that ancient writers themselves did not insist on.<\/p>\n<p>The women listed in the genealogy—the fourth peculiarity—may have been intended to disarm Jewish criticism about Jesus’ birth (1:18-25) by showing that irregular unions were not disqualifications for the Messiah’s legal ancestry.<\/p>\n<p>The reason for including several brothers in the genealogy at three points—the fifth peculiarity—is not readily discernible. The mention of “Judah and his brothers” (1:2) may simply be following an established practice of speaking of the 12 patriarchs together.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, David’s description as “the king” (1:6) underscores the Davidic or royal character of the list.<\/p>\n<p>The sources employed in compiling the first group in the genealogy drew upon records preserved in 1 Chronicles 1:27–2:15 and in Ruth 4:18-22. The second group followed the records found in 1—2 Kings and 2 Chronicles. The third group relied mainly on public or private records from the intertestamental period; the nine names from Abiud to Jacob are not mentioned elsewhere in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>On the basis of this genealogy, if there had been a Davidic throne in Joseph’s day, the lowly carpenter would have been the legal heir to it, and Jesus stood after him as the next in line to inherit the royal seat.<\/p>\n<p>It has been argued against this understanding of Matthew’s genealogy that the presence of Jeconiah in the list (Mt 1:11) jeopardizes, if not completely negates, the legal claim to the Davidic throne of everyone descending directly from him. That is because the Lord declared of him: “Write this man down as childless, . . . for none of his offspring shall succeed in sitting on the throne of David, and ruling again in Judah” (Jer 22:30, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, it is said, it could not have been Matthew’s intention to represent the men from Shealtiel to Joseph as legal heirs to the throne.<\/p>\n<p>This is a point that admittedly could dispose of the view that the list presents David’s descendants if it were not for the fact that Shealtiel, who in Matthew’s record is represented as the son of Jeconiah, appears also in Luke’s genealogy as the son of Neri (Lk 3:27). Neri’s name is unique to Luke’s Gospel, so it is impossible to check its use elsewhere to discover the actual parentage of Shealtiel. But it is not surprising in the light of Jeremiah 22:30 to find him listed in both accounts with different parents. Neri most likely was Shealtiel’s real father, and while it is impossible to determine Neri’s precise relationship to Jeconiah, it may be that those responsible for determining and keeping the record of the legal heirs to the Davidic throne looked to the collateral line of Neri and selected Shealtiel as the man to be legally adopted into the line and the one through whom the line would continue. Shealtiel may well have died without a male descendant, which made it necessary to look to Zerubbabel, the son of Pedaiah, Shealtiel’s brother by adoption, as the legal heir to the Davidic throne. By this pair of adoptions, the curse upon Jeconiah was fulfilled while an actual grandson of Jeconiah continued the line, inasmuch as the grandson was legally the son of Shealtiel, who in turn was the actual son of Neri. Jeconiah’s presence in the genealogy is a strength, rather than a weakness, for the interpretation that Matthew’s Gospel intended to present the legal heirs of the Davidic throne, since only a writer conscious of the problems surrounding Jeconiah’s lineage, but also aware of an explanation, would present such an ancestry to a Jewish audience he was seeking to convince that Jesus was indeed the royal Messiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LukesGenealogy\">Luke’s Genealogy (3:23-38)<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s genealogy also has peculiarities.<\/p>\n<p>1. Some expositors have thought it significant that Luke’s genealogy appears not at the beginning of the Gospel but at the beginning of Jesus’ ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Luke’s account, in contrast to Matthew’s, begins with Jesus and traces his lineage back through OT history. This seems irregular, for most genealogies follow the order of succession.<\/li>\n<li>3. Luke’s account, furthermore, does not end with Abraham but goes all the way back to “Adam, the son of God” (Lk 3:38).<\/li>\n<p>Some have seen the first peculiarity as a result of Luke’s desire to bring a period of sacred history to its close, and to signal the beginning of another with the person and especially the ministry of Jesus. The genealogy, located as it is, sets off the work of Christ from the accounts of his birth and preparation.<\/p>\n<p>Many have suggested that the regressive order in the genealogy is probably Luke’s instrument to focus attention on Jesus. The fact that Luke traced Jesus’ ancestry back to Adam, “the son of God,” was probably due to the fact that he wrote for Romans and Greeks. By tracing Jesus’ ancestry back to Adam, he shows Jesus to be related to the whole human race. In Luke’s genealogy Jesus and Adam are both “sons of God”; Jesus, of course, is the son of God by nature; Adam, the son of God by having been created in God’s image.<\/p>\n<p>As to his sources, it is rather certain that Luke used the Septuagint version (ancient Greek version of the OT) of Genesis 11:12, which inserts the name Cainan between Shelah and Arphaxad (Lk 3:36), and the records of 1 Chronicles 1–3 for the history down to David. For the period from David to Jesus, most expositors agree that Luke relied upon information probably received directly from Mary or from persons close to her. It was a common practice among the Jewish people for genealogical records to be maintained both publicly and privately. There was special concern in families of Davidic descent to preserve their ancestral records because of OT prophecies that Messiah would be born in the house of David.<\/p>\n<p>Luke no doubt intended to accomplish more by his list than merely a presentation of a number of Jesus’ ancestors. Since Luke did not highlight David in his list, it may be assumed that he was not zealous to present a list of legal heirs to the Davidic throne—not that the issue is of no concern to him (cf. Lk 1:27, 32, 69; 2:4, 11). Rather, a concern throughout Luke’s Gospel is this emphasis—that of portraying the Christ as the Savior of Romans and Greeks—indeed, of the world. Therefore, though Luke traced Jesus’ ancestry through Joseph’s ancestral line to David, he continued beyond David to Adam. Jesus is a member of the race to which all people belong.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRelationshipbetweentheTwoRecords\">The Relationship between the Two Records<\/p>\n<p>Even a cursory examination of the two genealogies of Jesus will show several differences. For example, Matthew’s genealogy comprises 41 generations, while Luke lists 76. Luke includes the period between Adam and Abraham; Matthew does not. While the two lists are practically identical from Abraham to David, they diverge for the period from David to Jesus, Matthew tracing Jesus’ lineage from David through Solomon in 27 generations, whereas Luke traces Jesus’ lineage from David through Nathan, another son, in 42 generations. Furthermore, at only one point do the lines converge during this period: at the names of Shealtiel and Zerubbabel, who are doubtless the same men in both lists. Finally, Matthew represents Joseph as the son of Jacob (Mt 1:16), whereas in Luke’s account he is the son of Heli (Lk 3:23).<\/p>\n<p>How are these differences to be explained? The differences between these lists stem from the purposes for which they were compiled and the meanings they were intended to convey.<\/p>\n<p>A widely held explanation is that Matthew gives Jesus’ ancestry through Joseph and that Luke gives his ancestry through Mary. On this interpretation Jacob was Joseph’s real father, and Heli (probably Mary’s father) became Joseph’s foster father, that is, Joseph was Heli’s “son,” or heir, by his marriage to Mary, assuming that Heli had no sons (cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12). This view is certainly a possibility and should not be rejected out of hand. If Mary was a direct descendant of David, it could be literally said of any son of hers, “He is the seed of David.”<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, many scholars prefer to regard Luke’s genealogy as that of Joseph rather than Mary, since it is to Joseph’s ancestry that Luke calls the reader’s attention (Lk 1:27; 2:4). Furthermore, nowhere in Scripture is Mary said to be of Davidic descent. If the fact that Joseph was not the actual father of Jesus nullifies any value that Joseph’s lineage might otherwise possess for a real son, why does Luke point to Joseph’s lineage twice, and to Mary’s not at all?<\/p>\n<p>A major difficulty for the view that regards both genealogies as Joseph’s is related to Joseph’s two fathers. One solution is that Matthew gives the legal descendants of David but Luke gives the actual descendants of David in the line to which Joseph belonged. This would mean that Heli was Joseph’s real father and that Jacob was his legal foster father. How this could be is readily explainable. Assuming that Jacob’s father, Matthan (Mt 1:15), and Heli’s father, Matthat (Lk 3:24), are the same person, then Jacob (the elder) may have died without a male descendant so that his nephew, the son of his brother Heli, would have become his heir.<\/p>\n<p>If Matthan and Matthat are not the same person, one might postulate that Jacob, the legal heir to the throne, died without a descendant and that Joseph, son of Heli, became the legal heir immediately upon the death of Heli and was counted as Jacob’s son in a list of legal heirs to the throne. Possibly Heli, a relative, married Jacob’s widow, thereby making Joseph, the son of that union, Heli’s son and Jacob’s son by levirate marriage. In other words, there are a number of possible explanations of this divergence.<\/p>\n<p>One other major objection to the view that regards both genealogies as Joseph’s is that, because of the virgin birth of Jesus, one may in no sense speak of Jesus as being literally the seed of David—a proposition that Scripture seems to insist upon. This objection has been adequately countered: (1) because of the realistic manner in which the Jews looked upon adoptive fatherhood; and (2) because the relationship in which Jesus stood to Joseph was much closer than a case of ordinary adoption, there being no earthly father to dispute Joseph’s paternal relation to Jesus. Jesus could and would have been regarded as Joseph’s son and heir with complete propriety, satisfying every scriptural demand that he be the “seed of David.” The question, therefore, whether Mary as well as Joseph was a descendant of David does not need to be answered one way or the other by one who desires to defend Jesus’ Davidic descent.<\/p>\n<p>It is beyond human reach to discover for certain the full solution to the divergences between the two genealogies of Jesus, or the actual relationship of Jesus to them. Enough has been said to demonstrate that they are reconcilable, and the purposes of each, suggested here, indicate that either of the ways outlined above does full justice to the Davidic descent of Jesus, as rightful heir to his ancestor’s covenanted throne, and also to his virgin birth by Mary.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy; Incarnation; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST<\/h3>\n<p>Account of Jesus’ human descent. The NT records Jesus’ genealogy twice in great detail: in Matthew 1:1-17 and in Luke 3:23-38.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Matthew’s Genealogy<\/p>\n<p>• Luke’s Genealogy<\/p>\n<p>• The Relationship between the Two Records<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MatthewsGenealogy\">Matthew’s Genealogy (1:1-17)<\/p>\n<p>Matthew 1:1 presents Jesus Christ as “the son of David, the son of Abraham.” By those two names, Matthew highlights Jesus’ earthly relationship to the Abrahamic (Gn 17:1-8) and Davidic (2 Sm 7:12-16) covenants of promise. Then beginning with the patriarch Abraham, Matthew traces Jesus’ human ancestry through King David to Joseph, “the husband of Mary, of whom Jesus was born, who is called Christ” (Mt 1:16). Matthew summarizes his account: “So all the generations from Abraham to David were fourteen generations, and from David to the deportation to Babylon fourteen generations, and from the deportation to Babylon to the Christ fourteen generations” (v 17, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>An examination of Matthew’s handling of this genealogical material discloses several interesting peculiarities:<\/p>\n\n<p>1. The arrangement of the names into three groups of 14 seems to be an artificial device.<\/p>\n<li>2. To have 14 names in the second group, Matthew omits three kings—Ahaziah, Joash, and Amaziah—between Joram and Uzziah (v 8), and one, Jehoiakim, between Josiah and Jeconiah (v 11).<\/li>\n<li>3. In the first group Matthew mentions three women—Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group, he alludes to Bathsheba. This is an uncommon practice in genealogies, and all the more strange when it is noted that these four represent what could be regarded as moral blemishes in the history of the Davidic dynasty— Tamar, a victim of incest; Rahab, a prostitute; Ruth, a Moabitess; and Bathsheba, an adulteress.<\/li>\n<li>4. In the first group Matthew mentions Judah’s brothers and Zerah, Perez’s brother. In the second group he refers to Jeconiah’s brothers.<\/li>\n<li>5. In verse 6 David is called “the king.”<\/li>\n<p>From these data, it is obvious that Matthew does not intend to present a strict genealogy; the arrangement is contrived, and extraneous material is included, probably for some other purpose than merely to present Jesus’ forebears. Matthew’s arrangement of the names into groups of 14, probably guided by an interest in portraying Jesus to Jews as the promised king of Israel and rightful heir to the Davidic throne, gives a definite historical movement to the genealogy by dividing it into three periods of time. These respectively highlight the origin, rise to power, and decay of the Davidic house, the last point represented by the lowly birth of the promised heir to a carpenter of Nazareth.<\/p>\n<p>The 14 names in each group may be an effort to call attention to the thrice-royal character of Mary’s son by focusing on the numerical value 14 of the Hebrew letters in David’s name (d=4, v=6, d=4). This number also happens to be twice the sacred number seven, so that the whole list is composed of three sets of two sevens each. It may be, however, that the contrived groupings were merely intended to aid in memorization.<\/p>\n<p>With respect to the second peculiarity—the “missing name” in the third group—one must conclude that either David or Jeconiah is to be counted twice, these being the pivotal names separating the three groups, or that a name was mistakenly dropped out in a copy of Matthew’s original Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>The third peculiarity presents no difficulty at all. Numerous genealogies in Scripture omit some names. Ancient Near Eastern writers often used the phrase “the son of,” or the word “begat,” quite flexibly, relating grandsons or great-grandsons, for instance, to earlier forebears without indicating every intervening ancestor. The modern mind should not require a precision in ancient records that ancient writers themselves did not insist on.<\/p>\n<p>The women listed in the genealogy—the fourth peculiarity—may have been intended to disarm Jewish criticism about Jesus’ birth (1:18-25) by showing that irregular unions were not disqualifications for the Messiah’s legal ancestry.<\/p>\n<p>The reason for including several brothers in the genealogy at three points—the fifth peculiarity—is not readily discernible. The mention of “Judah and his brothers” (1:2) may simply be following an established practice of speaking of the 12 patriarchs together.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, David’s description as “the king” (1:6) underscores the Davidic or royal character of the list.<\/p>\n<p>The sources employed in compiling the first group in the genealogy drew upon records preserved in 1 Chronicles 1:27–2:15 and in Ruth 4:18-22. The second group followed the records found in 1—2 Kings and 2 Chronicles. The third group relied mainly on public or private records from the intertestamental period; the nine names from Abiud to Jacob are not mentioned elsewhere in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>On the basis of this genealogy, if there had been a Davidic throne in Joseph’s day, the lowly carpenter would have been the legal heir to it, and Jesus stood after him as the next in line to inherit the royal seat.<\/p>\n<p>It has been argued against this understanding of Matthew’s genealogy that the presence of Jeconiah in the list (Mt 1:11) jeopardizes, if not completely negates, the legal claim to the Davidic throne of everyone descending directly from him. That is because the Lord declared of him: “Write this man down as childless, . . . for none of his offspring shall succeed in sitting on the throne of David, and ruling again in Judah” (Jer 22:30, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, it is said, it could not have been Matthew’s intention to represent the men from Shealtiel to Joseph as legal heirs to the throne.<\/p>\n<p>This is a point that admittedly could dispose of the view that the list presents David’s descendants if it were not for the fact that Shealtiel, who in Matthew’s record is represented as the son of Jeconiah, appears also in Luke’s genealogy as the son of Neri (Lk 3:27). Neri’s name is unique to Luke’s Gospel, so it is impossible to check its use elsewhere to discover the actual parentage of Shealtiel. But it is not surprising in the light of Jeremiah 22:30 to find him listed in both accounts with different parents. Neri most likely was Shealtiel’s real father, and while it is impossible to determine Neri’s precise relationship to Jeconiah, it may be that those responsible for determining and keeping the record of the legal heirs to the Davidic throne looked to the collateral line of Neri and selected Shealtiel as the man to be legally adopted into the line and the one through whom the line would continue. Shealtiel may well have died without a male descendant, which made it necessary to look to Zerubbabel, the son of Pedaiah, Shealtiel’s brother by adoption, as the legal heir to the Davidic throne. By this pair of adoptions, the curse upon Jeconiah was fulfilled while an actual grandson of Jeconiah continued the line, inasmuch as the grandson was legally the son of Shealtiel, who in turn was the actual son of Neri. Jeconiah’s presence in the genealogy is a strength, rather than a weakness, for the interpretation that Matthew’s Gospel intended to present the legal heirs of the Davidic throne, since only a writer conscious of the problems surrounding Jeconiah’s lineage, but also aware of an explanation, would present such an ancestry to a Jewish audience he was seeking to convince that Jesus was indeed the royal Messiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LukesGenealogy\">Luke’s Genealogy (3:23-38)<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s genealogy also has peculiarities.<\/p>\n<p>1. Some expositors have thought it significant that Luke’s genealogy appears not at the beginning of the Gospel but at the beginning of Jesus’ ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Luke’s account, in contrast to Matthew’s, begins with Jesus and traces his lineage back through OT history. This seems irregular, for most genealogies follow the order of succession.<\/li>\n<li>3. Luke’s account, furthermore, does not end with Abraham but goes all the way back to “Adam, the son of God” (Lk 3:38).<\/li>\n<p>Some have seen the first peculiarity as a result of Luke’s desire to bring a period of sacred history to its close, and to signal the beginning of another with the person and especially the ministry of Jesus. The genealogy, located as it is, sets off the work of Christ from the accounts of his birth and preparation.<\/p>\n<p>Many have suggested that the regressive order in the genealogy is probably Luke’s instrument to focus attention on Jesus. The fact that Luke traced Jesus’ ancestry back to Adam, “the son of God,” was probably due to the fact that he wrote for Romans and Greeks. By tracing Jesus’ ancestry back to Adam, he shows Jesus to be related to the whole human race. In Luke’s genealogy Jesus and Adam are both “sons of God”; Jesus, of course, is the son of God by nature; Adam, the son of God by having been created in God’s image.<\/p>\n<p>As to his sources, it is rather certain that Luke used the Septuagint version (ancient Greek version of the OT) of Genesis 11:12, which inserts the name Cainan between Shelah and Arphaxad (Lk 3:36), and the records of 1 Chronicles 1–3 for the history down to David. For the period from David to Jesus, most expositors agree that Luke relied upon information probably received directly from Mary or from persons close to her. It was a common practice among the Jewish people for genealogical records to be maintained both publicly and privately. There was special concern in families of Davidic descent to preserve their ancestral records because of OT prophecies that Messiah would be born in the house of David.<\/p>\n<p>Luke no doubt intended to accomplish more by his list than merely a presentation of a number of Jesus’ ancestors. Since Luke did not highlight David in his list, it may be assumed that he was not zealous to present a list of legal heirs to the Davidic throne—not that the issue is of no concern to him (cf. Lk 1:27, 32, 69; 2:4, 11). Rather, a concern throughout Luke’s Gospel is this emphasis—that of portraying the Christ as the Savior of Romans and Greeks—indeed, of the world. Therefore, though Luke traced Jesus’ ancestry through Joseph’s ancestral line to David, he continued beyond David to Adam. Jesus is a member of the race to which all people belong.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRelationshipbetweentheTwoRecords\">The Relationship between the Two Records<\/p>\n<p>Even a cursory examination of the two genealogies of Jesus will show several differences. For example, Matthew’s genealogy comprises 41 generations, while Luke lists 76. Luke includes the period between Adam and Abraham; Matthew does not. While the two lists are practically identical from Abraham to David, they diverge for the period from David to Jesus, Matthew tracing Jesus’ lineage from David through Solomon in 27 generations, whereas Luke traces Jesus’ lineage from David through Nathan, another son, in 42 generations. Furthermore, at only one point do the lines converge during this period: at the names of Shealtiel and Zerubbabel, who are doubtless the same men in both lists. Finally, Matthew represents Joseph as the son of Jacob (Mt 1:16), whereas in Luke’s account he is the son of Heli (Lk 3:23).<\/p>\n<p>How are these differences to be explained? The differences between these lists stem from the purposes for which they were compiled and the meanings they were intended to convey.<\/p>\n<p>A widely held explanation is that Matthew gives Jesus’ ancestry through Joseph and that Luke gives his ancestry through Mary. On this interpretation Jacob was Joseph’s real father, and Heli (probably Mary’s father) became Joseph’s foster father, that is, Joseph was Heli’s “son,” or heir, by his marriage to Mary, assuming that Heli had no sons (cf. Nm 27:1-11; 36:1-12). This view is certainly a possibility and should not be rejected out of hand. If Mary was a direct descendant of David, it could be literally said of any son of hers, “He is the seed of David.”<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, many scholars prefer to regard Luke’s genealogy as that of Joseph rather than Mary, since it is to Joseph’s ancestry that Luke calls the reader’s attention (Lk 1:27; 2:4). Furthermore, nowhere in Scripture is Mary said to be of Davidic descent. If the fact that Joseph was not the actual father of Jesus nullifies any value that Joseph’s lineage might otherwise possess for a real son, why does Luke point to Joseph’s lineage twice, and to Mary’s not at all?<\/p>\n<p>A major difficulty for the view that regards both genealogies as Joseph’s is related to Joseph’s two fathers. One solution is that Matthew gives the legal descendants of David but Luke gives the actual descendants of David in the line to which Joseph belonged. This would mean that Heli was Joseph’s real father and that Jacob was his legal foster father. How this could be is readily explainable. Assuming that Jacob’s father, Matthan (Mt 1:15), and Heli’s father, Matthat (Lk 3:24), are the same person, then Jacob (the elder) may have died without a male descendant so that his nephew, the son of his brother Heli, would have become his heir.<\/p>\n<p>If Matthan and Matthat are not the same person, one might postulate that Jacob, the legal heir to the throne, died without a descendant and that Joseph, son of Heli, became the legal heir immediately upon the death of Heli and was counted as Jacob’s son in a list of legal heirs to the throne. Possibly Heli, a relative, married Jacob’s widow, thereby making Joseph, the son of that union, Heli’s son and Jacob’s son by levirate marriage. In other words, there are a number of possible explanations of this divergence.<\/p>\n<p>One other major objection to the view that regards both genealogies as Joseph’s is that, because of the virgin birth of Jesus, one may in no sense speak of Jesus as being literally the seed of David—a proposition that Scripture seems to insist upon. This objection has been adequately countered: (1) because of the realistic manner in which the Jews looked upon adoptive fatherhood; and (2) because the relationship in which Jesus stood to Joseph was much closer than a case of ordinary adoption, there being no earthly father to dispute Joseph’s paternal relation to Jesus. Jesus could and would have been regarded as Joseph’s son and heir with complete propriety, satisfying every scriptural demand that he be the “seed of David.” The question, therefore, whether Mary as well as Joseph was a descendant of David does not need to be answered one way or the other by one who desires to defend Jesus’ Davidic descent.<\/p>\n<p>It is beyond human reach to discover for certain the full solution to the divergences between the two genealogies of Jesus, or the actual relationship of Jesus to them. Enough has been said to demonstrate that they are reconcilable, and the purposes of each, suggested here, indicate that either of the ways outlined above does full justice to the Davidic descent of Jesus, as rightful heir to his ancestor’s covenanted throne, and also to his virgin birth by Mary.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy; Incarnation; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST Account of Jesus’ human descent. The NT records Jesus’ genealogy twice in great detail: in Matthew 1:1-17 and in Luke 3:23-38. Preview • Matthew’s Genealogy • Luke’s Genealogy • The Relationship between the Two Records Matthew’s Genealogy (1:1-17) Matthew 1:1 presents Jesus Christ as “the son of David, the son of Abraham.” By those two names, Matthew highlights Jesus’ earthly relationship to the Abrahamic (Gn 17:1-8) and Davidic (2 Sm 7:12-16) covenants of promise. T...","summary_en":"GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST Account of Jesus’ human descent. The NT records Jesus’ genealogy twice in great detail: in Matthew 1:1-17 and in Luke 3:23-38. Preview • Matthew’s Genealogy • Luke’s Genealogy • The Relationship between the Two Records Matthew’s Genealogy (1:1-17) Matthew 1:1 presents Jesus Christ as “the son of David, the son of Abraham.” By those two names, Matthew highlights Jesus’ earthly relationship to the Abrahamic (Gn 17:1-8) and Davidic (2 Sm 7:12-16) covenants of promise. T...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13563,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Genesis","title_en":"Book of Genesis","content_ro":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","summary_en":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14085,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Being and Attributes of God","title_en":"Being and Attributes of God","content_ro":"<h3>GOD, Being and Attributes of<\/h3>\n<p>Inherent characteristics of God revealed in Scripture and displayed in God’s actions in biblical history. They are characteristics equally of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. God’s attributes are revealed in progressively richer and fuller ways within the history of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>According to the Bible, the entire creation shows God’s deity and eternal power (Ps 19:1-6; Rom 1:20). God’s providence also reveals certain of his attributes (Mt 5:45; Lk 6:35; Acts 14:16-17; 17:22-31). The fullest revelation of God’s attributes is seen in his work of redemption through Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>How does Scripture express the characteristics of God? First, in the divine names by which God revealed himself (Gn 1:1; 2:4; 17:1; Ex 3:6, 14-15; 6:2-5). Some of God’s attributes are revealed implicitly in the biblical accounts of Creation, fall, Flood, Babel, and the exodus, and more fully in the various covenants God made with his people. To Israel, he identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Ex 3:15). To the pharaoh, he identified himself as the “God of Israel” or the “God of the Hebrews” (5:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>By the time the people of Israel had reached Mt Sinai, the revelation of God’s attributes in the biblical narrative had become more explicit: “The <span>Lord<\/span>, the <span>Lord<\/span>, a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, keeping steadfast love for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, but who will by no means clear the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children and the children’s children, to the third and the fourth generation” (Ex 34:6-7, <span>rsv<\/span>). This summary is repeated elsewhere with slight variations (Nm 14:18; Neh 9:17; Ps 103:8; Jer 32:18; Jon 4:2).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Attributes of God<\/p>\n<p>• Incommunicable Attributes<\/p>\n<p>• Communicable Attributes<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheAttributesofGod\">The Attributes of God<\/p>\n<p>The historic Christian confessions refer to various characteristics of God without calling them attributes or classifying them. The Westminster Shorter Catechism (1647) shows a tendency toward classification, describing God as “a Spirit, infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness and truth.” The first four attributes qualify the others.<\/p>\n<p>Several ways of classifying the attributes have been suggested. Generally such schemes divide the divine attributes into pairs: negative and positive, natural and moral, absolute and relative, immanent and eminent, intransitive and transitive, quiescent and operative, antithetical and synthetical, or incommunicable and communicable. Roman Catholics prefer the distinction of negative and positive, or natural and moral. Lutherans generally favor the distinction between quiescent and operative attributes. Reformed and evangelical scholars usually distinguish incommunicable and communicable attributes. Karl Barth grouped the attributes under freedom and love, and then proposed pairs of attributes that reflect freedom-love or love-freedom. In spite of the diversity of labels given the groups of attributes, surprising agreement exists in the attributes listed under each group.<\/p>\n<p>This article will make a distinction between incommunicable and communicable attributes without considering the classification itself as significant. No classification of God’s attributes is fully satisfactory. The <em>incommunicable<\/em> attributes emphasize the absolute distinctness of God, his transcendent greatness and exalted nature. Such attributes have little or no analogy in God’s creatures. The <em>communicable<\/em> attributes find some reflection or analogy in human beings created in God’s image. They indicate the immanence of God in relation to creatures. Yet all the attributes are God’s attributes; the distinction between God and man, between Creator and creature, is always basic.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IncommunicableAttributes\">Incommunicable Attributes<\/p>\n<p>Acknowledging some diversity of theological opinion, the following attributes will be considered incommunicable: unity, spirituality, independence, immutability, eternity, and immensity. In addition, the incomprehensibility of God must be mentioned.<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>incomprehensibility<\/em> is sometimes included in lists of his attributes. It seems preferable to regard it as a description of human inability to understand God fully. Incomprehensibility is therefore not an attribute, although it is a given in every discussion of God. Through his revelation God is truly known by faith, yet no creature will ever comprehend God the Creator. Likewise, no one will ever fully understand any one of God’s attributes. Acknowledgment of God’s incomprehensibility should contribute to a spirit of humility in every consideration of God and his attributes (Pss 139:6; 145:3; Is 40:28; 55:8-9; Mt 11:25-27; Rom 11:33-36; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 13:8-13).<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>unity<\/em> is an expression of monotheism—the fact that the God of Scripture is the only, living, true God (Dt 6:4; Mk 12:29; Jn 17:3). All other gods are idols and figments of human imagination. This attribute is reflected in the first commandment: “You shall have no other gods before me” (Ex 20:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>spirituality<\/em> indicates that God is not physical and is invisible. Positively it means that God is personal, living, self-conscious, and self-determining. The invisible God cannot be seen by human eyes (Ex 33:20), so the second commandment forbids every visible representation of God (20:4). Because God is Spirit, he must be worshiped in spirit and in truth (Jn 4:24).<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>independence<\/em> or self-existence indicates that he is not dependent upon anything outside himself. He is self-sufficient in his existence, in his decrees, and in all his works. God has “life in himself” (Jn 5:26) and “he himself gives life and breath and everything” (Acts 17:25). To Israel, he revealed himself as the “<span>I Am<\/span>” (Ex 3:14), and he made Israel a covenant people for his own possession. God continues to work out his will in the world, and even though he uses various means, his independence remains intact. Thus, he enters into fellowship with his covenant people, and he publishes the gospel through human agents.<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>immutability<\/em> or constancy expresses his changelessness and his faithfulness to himself, to his decrees, promises, and works. He remains forever the same true God who undergoes no change from within or from anything outside himself. And so in James 1:17 we read: “Every good endowment and every perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of lights with whom there is no variation or shadow due to change” (<span>rsv<\/span>). God’s oath to Abraham expressed his immutability so that his covenant people could be sure of the “unchangeable character of his purpose” (Heb 6:17). Samuel told King Saul that the Lord would not “change his mind; for he is not a man” (1 Sm 15:29, <span>niv<\/span>; cf. Nm 23:19). “For I the <span>Lord<\/span> do not change” (Mal 3:6). That was God’s explanation for not destroying sinful Judah; he shows mercy and keeps his covenant. Because “Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever,” Christians are warned not to be “led by diverse and strange teachings” (Heb 13:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>God’s immutability or constancy does not imply that he is static or immobile. He is a dynamic, living God who is constantly working (Jn 5:17). Sometimes God is described as being sorry, repenting, or changing his mind (Gn 6:6-7; 1 Sm 15:11; Jon 3:10). In their contexts, such figurative expressions show the constancy of a God who, in holiness and righteousness, always abhors sin and reacts against it. In his grace and mercy, he forgives the penitent, and he carries out his promises without fail (Ps 110:4; Is 46:10; Jer 18:7-10; Eph 1:11). Thus, the constancy of God is significant in all human relationships with him, including petitions offered in prayer.<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>eternity<\/em> indicates his transcendence over time. He is timeless and everlasting. He has no beginning or end; he does not undergo growth, development, or maturation. He existed before the creation of the world; he dwells now in eternity; he will continue as the eternal God even when history ends. Scripture speaks of God as “eternal” (Dt 33:27), “the King” (1 Tm 1:17), “the beginning and the end” (Rv 22:13). He “inhabits eternity” (Is 57:15) and his “years have no end” (Ps 102:27; cf. 2 Pt 3:8). Although God is above time and is timeless, time is his creation and history is the arena of his work. “When the time had fully come God sent forth his Son” (Gal 4:4); Jesus Christ died on a Friday and rose on the third day.<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>immensity<\/em> and <em>omnipresence<\/em> express his transcendence over space. God fills heaven and earth (Jer 23:23-24). Heaven is his throne, and the earth his footstool, so he is not restricted to a temple building (Is 66:1; Acts 17:24). Yet God is immanent in this world and is actively at work in it to establish his kingdom. No one can hide from the omnipresent God (Ps 139:6-12). Jesus promised, “I am with you always, to the close of the age” (Mt 28:20). Since Pentecost (Acts 2), the Holy Spirit is said actually to dwell within the bodies of believers (1 Cor 6:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CommunicableAttributes\">Communicable Attributes<\/p>\n<p>Many attributes of God can be classified under this heading, although it is sometimes difficult to say which biblical references to God should be regarded as attributes. A rich diversity of terminology is found in Scripture, with many synonyms. For convenience, the communicable attributes are often classified as intellectual, moral, and volitional.<\/p>\n<h5>Intellectual Attributes<\/h5>\n<p>God’s <em>knowledge<\/em> indicates that in a unique way God knows himself and all things possible and actual. <em>Omniscience<\/em> means that “he knows everything” (1 Jn 3:20). “Even before a word is on my tongue, lo, O <span>Lord<\/span>, thou knowest it altogether” (Ps 139:4), including the secret thoughts of a person’s heart. God’s righteous judgment is rooted in the fact that he “knows the thoughts of man” (Ps 94:11). Acknowledging that God’s omniscience is incomprehensible, the psalmist finds it a source of comfort (139:1-5). All the “treasures of wisdom and knowledge” are hidden in Christ (Col 2:3); therefore, the Christian is told to bring every thought captive to obey Christ (2 Cor 10:5). Christian sanctification includes renewal in knowledge to become more like Christ (Col 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>wisdom<\/em> indicates that he uses his knowledge in the best possible manner to achieve his goals. God’s works are varied, but they are all done in wisdom (Ps 104:24). “The <span>Lord<\/span> by wisdom founded the earth” (Prv 3:19); his providence also displays his wisdom (Gn 50:20). Redemption through Jesus Christ reveals God’s wisdom (1 Cor 1:24) and awakens awe and praise (Rom 11:33-36). Human beings should seek wisdom (Prv 3:21)—wisdom rooted in the fear of God (Jb 28:28; Ps 111:10; Prv 9:10). Christians are said to be “wise in Christ” (1 Cor 4:10), and Christ charges them to act wisely (Mt 10:16), thus emulating the wisdom of God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>veracity<\/em> expresses his truthfulness and faithfulness. He is the truth and he is faithful to himself, to his Word, and to his promises (2 Tm 2:13). “God is light and in him is no darkness at all” (1 Jn 1:5); therefore, his followers are to walk in the light (vv 6-7). Jesus is “the way, and the truth, and the life” (Jn 14:6); hence, Christians are to walk in the truth and show faithfulness in their lives.<\/p>\n<h5>Moral Attributes<\/h5>\n<p>The most comprehensive description of God’s moral character is his <em>goodness.<\/em> God deals bountifully and kindly with all his creatures. He is “good to all” (Ps 145:9). Jesus insisted that “no one is good but God alone” (Mk 10:18; Lk 18:19). The redeemed praise God for his goodness (1 Chr 16:34; 2 Chr 5:13; Pss 106:1; 107:1; 118:1; 136:1; Jer 33:11) and are called upon to emulate this divine characteristic (Mt 5:45; Lk 6:27-36).<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>love<\/em> is the heartbeat of the gospel. Perfect love flows among the Persons of the Trinity (Jn 3:35; 17:24). At Sinai God revealed himself as abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness (Ex 34:6-7), and all his covenantal relations with Abraham’s descendants showed his steadfast love. The chief manifestation of God’s love was the sending of his Son, Jesus Christ (Jn 3:16). The apostle John, who declared that “God is love,” pointed to the cross to indicate what that love really meant: “he loved us and sent his Son to be the expiation for our sins” (1 Jn 4:8, 10).<\/p>\n<p>God’s love shown to undeserving sinners is called <em>grace<\/em> (Eph 1:6-8; 2:7-9; Ti 3:4). <em>Mercy<\/em> is God’s love (sometimes his goodness) shown to those in misery and distress. God is <em>longsuffering<\/em> or patient in his love; he gives time for repentance.<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>holiness<\/em> depicts the moral purity and excellence of God. The description of Jesus’ holiness is applicable to each of the Persons of the Trinity: “holy, blameless, unstained, separated from sinners, exalted above the heavens” (Heb 7:26). The root idea of holiness is to be separate or set apart. Because of his inherent holiness, God is distinct from everything impure or unholy. God alone is holy; his name is holy, and he bears the name the “Holy One” (Pss 78:41; 89:18; 99:3, 9; 111:9; Is 12:6; Jer 51:5; Rv 15:4). Angels praise God’s holiness (Is 6:3; Rv 4:8). Objects, places, and people are called holy when set apart for the worship of God. Because God is holy, his people are called to holiness (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2; 1 Pt 1:14-15). God’s discipline of his people is aimed at making them share his holiness (Heb 12:10). The holiness of God is so prominent in Scripture that some have (mistakenly) regarded it as God’s chief attribute.<\/p>\n<h5>Volitional Attributes<\/h5>\n<p>God’s <em>sovereignty<\/em> indicates the divine authority with which he rules the entire creation and in his sovereign good pleasure does whatever he wills. God is King over the entire creation, and he rules the destiny of human beings and nations. He restores his kingdom through Jesus Christ; the risen Lord revealed that all authority in heaven and on earth was given to him (Mt 28:18). Election to salvation in Christ is “according to the purpose of him who accomplishes all things according to the counsel of his will” (Eph 1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). God’s sovereign will, though free, is not arbitrary; it is righteous and holy. He created the world and gave his law as the rule for his people’s lives; he covenants, blesses, and judges. God is the “King of kings and Lord of lords” (1 Tm 6:15); he calls all his subjects to obedient love (Dt 6:4-5; Mt 22:37-40; 1 Jn 5:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>sovereign power<\/em> means that he is without bounds or limit in ability; he is <em>omnipotent<\/em> or almighty (Rv 4:8). By his powerful word, he created all things, and upholds “the universe by his word of power” (Heb 1:3). There is nothing too hard for the Lord God Almighty (Gn 18:14; Jer 32:27; Mt 19:26); he keeps his gracious covenant and fulfills all his promises (Lk 1:37; 2 Tm 2:13; Heb 6:18). The gospel is “the power of God for salvation” (Rom 1:16), for Christ is “the power of God” to save (1 Cor 1:24). Hence, believers must come to know “the immeasurable greatness of his power in us who believe, according to the working of his great might which he accomplished in Christ when he raised him from the dead and made him sit at his right hand in the heavenly places” (Eph 1:19-20, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Glory<\/h5>\n<p>All the attributes of God are summarized in Scripture’s references to the <em>glory<\/em> of God. The majesty, splendor, beauty, and brilliance of God who dwells in unapproachable light are expressed by this indefinable term. The God of glory appeared to our father Abraham (Acts 7:2); God showed his glory to Moses (Ex 33:18-19; 34:6-7). The God of the Lord Jesus Christ is the Father of glory (Eph 1:17). The heavens declare the glory of God (Ps 19:1); the majesty and glory of God fill heaven and earth (8:1). When finally every tongue shall confess Jesus as Lord, it will be for the glory of God the Father (Phil 2:11). Human beings were created for God’s glory, and Christian believers are instructed to do everything for the glory of God (1 Cor 10:31), thus reflecting in themselves his inherent glory.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOD, Being and Attributes of<\/h3>\n<p>Inherent characteristics of God revealed in Scripture and displayed in God’s actions in biblical history. They are characteristics equally of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. God’s attributes are revealed in progressively richer and fuller ways within the history of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>According to the Bible, the entire creation shows God’s deity and eternal power (Ps 19:1-6; Rom 1:20). God’s providence also reveals certain of his attributes (Mt 5:45; Lk 6:35; Acts 14:16-17; 17:22-31). The fullest revelation of God’s attributes is seen in his work of redemption through Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>How does Scripture express the characteristics of God? First, in the divine names by which God revealed himself (Gn 1:1; 2:4; 17:1; Ex 3:6, 14-15; 6:2-5). Some of God’s attributes are revealed implicitly in the biblical accounts of Creation, fall, Flood, Babel, and the exodus, and more fully in the various covenants God made with his people. To Israel, he identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Ex 3:15). To the pharaoh, he identified himself as the “God of Israel” or the “God of the Hebrews” (5:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>By the time the people of Israel had reached Mt Sinai, the revelation of God’s attributes in the biblical narrative had become more explicit: “The <span>Lord<\/span>, the <span>Lord<\/span>, a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, keeping steadfast love for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, but who will by no means clear the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children and the children’s children, to the third and the fourth generation” (Ex 34:6-7, <span>rsv<\/span>). This summary is repeated elsewhere with slight variations (Nm 14:18; Neh 9:17; Ps 103:8; Jer 32:18; Jon 4:2).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Attributes of God<\/p>\n<p>• Incommunicable Attributes<\/p>\n<p>• Communicable Attributes<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheAttributesofGod\">The Attributes of God<\/p>\n<p>The historic Christian confessions refer to various characteristics of God without calling them attributes or classifying them. The Westminster Shorter Catechism (1647) shows a tendency toward classification, describing God as “a Spirit, infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness and truth.” The first four attributes qualify the others.<\/p>\n<p>Several ways of classifying the attributes have been suggested. Generally such schemes divide the divine attributes into pairs: negative and positive, natural and moral, absolute and relative, immanent and eminent, intransitive and transitive, quiescent and operative, antithetical and synthetical, or incommunicable and communicable. Roman Catholics prefer the distinction of negative and positive, or natural and moral. Lutherans generally favor the distinction between quiescent and operative attributes. Reformed and evangelical scholars usually distinguish incommunicable and communicable attributes. Karl Barth grouped the attributes under freedom and love, and then proposed pairs of attributes that reflect freedom-love or love-freedom. In spite of the diversity of labels given the groups of attributes, surprising agreement exists in the attributes listed under each group.<\/p>\n<p>This article will make a distinction between incommunicable and communicable attributes without considering the classification itself as significant. No classification of God’s attributes is fully satisfactory. The <em>incommunicable<\/em> attributes emphasize the absolute distinctness of God, his transcendent greatness and exalted nature. Such attributes have little or no analogy in God’s creatures. The <em>communicable<\/em> attributes find some reflection or analogy in human beings created in God’s image. They indicate the immanence of God in relation to creatures. Yet all the attributes are God’s attributes; the distinction between God and man, between Creator and creature, is always basic.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IncommunicableAttributes\">Incommunicable Attributes<\/p>\n<p>Acknowledging some diversity of theological opinion, the following attributes will be considered incommunicable: unity, spirituality, independence, immutability, eternity, and immensity. In addition, the incomprehensibility of God must be mentioned.<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>incomprehensibility<\/em> is sometimes included in lists of his attributes. It seems preferable to regard it as a description of human inability to understand God fully. Incomprehensibility is therefore not an attribute, although it is a given in every discussion of God. Through his revelation God is truly known by faith, yet no creature will ever comprehend God the Creator. Likewise, no one will ever fully understand any one of God’s attributes. Acknowledgment of God’s incomprehensibility should contribute to a spirit of humility in every consideration of God and his attributes (Pss 139:6; 145:3; Is 40:28; 55:8-9; Mt 11:25-27; Rom 11:33-36; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 13:8-13).<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>unity<\/em> is an expression of monotheism—the fact that the God of Scripture is the only, living, true God (Dt 6:4; Mk 12:29; Jn 17:3). All other gods are idols and figments of human imagination. This attribute is reflected in the first commandment: “You shall have no other gods before me” (Ex 20:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>spirituality<\/em> indicates that God is not physical and is invisible. Positively it means that God is personal, living, self-conscious, and self-determining. The invisible God cannot be seen by human eyes (Ex 33:20), so the second commandment forbids every visible representation of God (20:4). Because God is Spirit, he must be worshiped in spirit and in truth (Jn 4:24).<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>independence<\/em> or self-existence indicates that he is not dependent upon anything outside himself. He is self-sufficient in his existence, in his decrees, and in all his works. God has “life in himself” (Jn 5:26) and “he himself gives life and breath and everything” (Acts 17:25). To Israel, he revealed himself as the “<span>I Am<\/span>” (Ex 3:14), and he made Israel a covenant people for his own possession. God continues to work out his will in the world, and even though he uses various means, his independence remains intact. Thus, he enters into fellowship with his covenant people, and he publishes the gospel through human agents.<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>immutability<\/em> or constancy expresses his changelessness and his faithfulness to himself, to his decrees, promises, and works. He remains forever the same true God who undergoes no change from within or from anything outside himself. And so in James 1:17 we read: “Every good endowment and every perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of lights with whom there is no variation or shadow due to change” (<span>rsv<\/span>). God’s oath to Abraham expressed his immutability so that his covenant people could be sure of the “unchangeable character of his purpose” (Heb 6:17). Samuel told King Saul that the Lord would not “change his mind; for he is not a man” (1 Sm 15:29, <span>niv<\/span>; cf. Nm 23:19). “For I the <span>Lord<\/span> do not change” (Mal 3:6). That was God’s explanation for not destroying sinful Judah; he shows mercy and keeps his covenant. Because “Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever,” Christians are warned not to be “led by diverse and strange teachings” (Heb 13:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>God’s immutability or constancy does not imply that he is static or immobile. He is a dynamic, living God who is constantly working (Jn 5:17). Sometimes God is described as being sorry, repenting, or changing his mind (Gn 6:6-7; 1 Sm 15:11; Jon 3:10). In their contexts, such figurative expressions show the constancy of a God who, in holiness and righteousness, always abhors sin and reacts against it. In his grace and mercy, he forgives the penitent, and he carries out his promises without fail (Ps 110:4; Is 46:10; Jer 18:7-10; Eph 1:11). Thus, the constancy of God is significant in all human relationships with him, including petitions offered in prayer.<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>eternity<\/em> indicates his transcendence over time. He is timeless and everlasting. He has no beginning or end; he does not undergo growth, development, or maturation. He existed before the creation of the world; he dwells now in eternity; he will continue as the eternal God even when history ends. Scripture speaks of God as “eternal” (Dt 33:27), “the King” (1 Tm 1:17), “the beginning and the end” (Rv 22:13). He “inhabits eternity” (Is 57:15) and his “years have no end” (Ps 102:27; cf. 2 Pt 3:8). Although God is above time and is timeless, time is his creation and history is the arena of his work. “When the time had fully come God sent forth his Son” (Gal 4:4); Jesus Christ died on a Friday and rose on the third day.<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>immensity<\/em> and <em>omnipresence<\/em> express his transcendence over space. God fills heaven and earth (Jer 23:23-24). Heaven is his throne, and the earth his footstool, so he is not restricted to a temple building (Is 66:1; Acts 17:24). Yet God is immanent in this world and is actively at work in it to establish his kingdom. No one can hide from the omnipresent God (Ps 139:6-12). Jesus promised, “I am with you always, to the close of the age” (Mt 28:20). Since Pentecost (Acts 2), the Holy Spirit is said actually to dwell within the bodies of believers (1 Cor 6:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CommunicableAttributes\">Communicable Attributes<\/p>\n<p>Many attributes of God can be classified under this heading, although it is sometimes difficult to say which biblical references to God should be regarded as attributes. A rich diversity of terminology is found in Scripture, with many synonyms. For convenience, the communicable attributes are often classified as intellectual, moral, and volitional.<\/p>\n<h5>Intellectual Attributes<\/h5>\n<p>God’s <em>knowledge<\/em> indicates that in a unique way God knows himself and all things possible and actual. <em>Omniscience<\/em> means that “he knows everything” (1 Jn 3:20). “Even before a word is on my tongue, lo, O <span>Lord<\/span>, thou knowest it altogether” (Ps 139:4), including the secret thoughts of a person’s heart. God’s righteous judgment is rooted in the fact that he “knows the thoughts of man” (Ps 94:11). Acknowledging that God’s omniscience is incomprehensible, the psalmist finds it a source of comfort (139:1-5). All the “treasures of wisdom and knowledge” are hidden in Christ (Col 2:3); therefore, the Christian is told to bring every thought captive to obey Christ (2 Cor 10:5). Christian sanctification includes renewal in knowledge to become more like Christ (Col 3:10).<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>wisdom<\/em> indicates that he uses his knowledge in the best possible manner to achieve his goals. God’s works are varied, but they are all done in wisdom (Ps 104:24). “The <span>Lord<\/span> by wisdom founded the earth” (Prv 3:19); his providence also displays his wisdom (Gn 50:20). Redemption through Jesus Christ reveals God’s wisdom (1 Cor 1:24) and awakens awe and praise (Rom 11:33-36). Human beings should seek wisdom (Prv 3:21)—wisdom rooted in the fear of God (Jb 28:28; Ps 111:10; Prv 9:10). Christians are said to be “wise in Christ” (1 Cor 4:10), and Christ charges them to act wisely (Mt 10:16), thus emulating the wisdom of God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>veracity<\/em> expresses his truthfulness and faithfulness. He is the truth and he is faithful to himself, to his Word, and to his promises (2 Tm 2:13). “God is light and in him is no darkness at all” (1 Jn 1:5); therefore, his followers are to walk in the light (vv 6-7). Jesus is “the way, and the truth, and the life” (Jn 14:6); hence, Christians are to walk in the truth and show faithfulness in their lives.<\/p>\n<h5>Moral Attributes<\/h5>\n<p>The most comprehensive description of God’s moral character is his <em>goodness.<\/em> God deals bountifully and kindly with all his creatures. He is “good to all” (Ps 145:9). Jesus insisted that “no one is good but God alone” (Mk 10:18; Lk 18:19). The redeemed praise God for his goodness (1 Chr 16:34; 2 Chr 5:13; Pss 106:1; 107:1; 118:1; 136:1; Jer 33:11) and are called upon to emulate this divine characteristic (Mt 5:45; Lk 6:27-36).<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>love<\/em> is the heartbeat of the gospel. Perfect love flows among the Persons of the Trinity (Jn 3:35; 17:24). At Sinai God revealed himself as abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness (Ex 34:6-7), and all his covenantal relations with Abraham’s descendants showed his steadfast love. The chief manifestation of God’s love was the sending of his Son, Jesus Christ (Jn 3:16). The apostle John, who declared that “God is love,” pointed to the cross to indicate what that love really meant: “he loved us and sent his Son to be the expiation for our sins” (1 Jn 4:8, 10).<\/p>\n<p>God’s love shown to undeserving sinners is called <em>grace<\/em> (Eph 1:6-8; 2:7-9; Ti 3:4). <em>Mercy<\/em> is God’s love (sometimes his goodness) shown to those in misery and distress. God is <em>longsuffering<\/em> or patient in his love; he gives time for repentance.<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>holiness<\/em> depicts the moral purity and excellence of God. The description of Jesus’ holiness is applicable to each of the Persons of the Trinity: “holy, blameless, unstained, separated from sinners, exalted above the heavens” (Heb 7:26). The root idea of holiness is to be separate or set apart. Because of his inherent holiness, God is distinct from everything impure or unholy. God alone is holy; his name is holy, and he bears the name the “Holy One” (Pss 78:41; 89:18; 99:3, 9; 111:9; Is 12:6; Jer 51:5; Rv 15:4). Angels praise God’s holiness (Is 6:3; Rv 4:8). Objects, places, and people are called holy when set apart for the worship of God. Because God is holy, his people are called to holiness (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2; 1 Pt 1:14-15). God’s discipline of his people is aimed at making them share his holiness (Heb 12:10). The holiness of God is so prominent in Scripture that some have (mistakenly) regarded it as God’s chief attribute.<\/p>\n<h5>Volitional Attributes<\/h5>\n<p>God’s <em>sovereignty<\/em> indicates the divine authority with which he rules the entire creation and in his sovereign good pleasure does whatever he wills. God is King over the entire creation, and he rules the destiny of human beings and nations. He restores his kingdom through Jesus Christ; the risen Lord revealed that all authority in heaven and on earth was given to him (Mt 28:18). Election to salvation in Christ is “according to the purpose of him who accomplishes all things according to the counsel of his will” (Eph 1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). God’s sovereign will, though free, is not arbitrary; it is righteous and holy. He created the world and gave his law as the rule for his people’s lives; he covenants, blesses, and judges. God is the “King of kings and Lord of lords” (1 Tm 6:15); he calls all his subjects to obedient love (Dt 6:4-5; Mt 22:37-40; 1 Jn 5:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s <em>sovereign power<\/em> means that he is without bounds or limit in ability; he is <em>omnipotent<\/em> or almighty (Rv 4:8). By his powerful word, he created all things, and upholds “the universe by his word of power” (Heb 1:3). There is nothing too hard for the Lord God Almighty (Gn 18:14; Jer 32:27; Mt 19:26); he keeps his gracious covenant and fulfills all his promises (Lk 1:37; 2 Tm 2:13; Heb 6:18). The gospel is “the power of God for salvation” (Rom 1:16), for Christ is “the power of God” to save (1 Cor 1:24). Hence, believers must come to know “the immeasurable greatness of his power in us who believe, according to the working of his great might which he accomplished in Christ when he raised him from the dead and made him sit at his right hand in the heavenly places” (Eph 1:19-20, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Glory<\/h5>\n<p>All the attributes of God are summarized in Scripture’s references to the <em>glory<\/em> of God. The majesty, splendor, beauty, and brilliance of God who dwells in unapproachable light are expressed by this indefinable term. The God of glory appeared to our father Abraham (Acts 7:2); God showed his glory to Moses (Ex 33:18-19; 34:6-7). The God of the Lord Jesus Christ is the Father of glory (Eph 1:17). The heavens declare the glory of God (Ps 19:1); the majesty and glory of God fill heaven and earth (8:1). When finally every tongue shall confess Jesus as Lord, it will be for the glory of God the Father (Phil 2:11). Human beings were created for God’s glory, and Christian believers are instructed to do everything for the glory of God (1 Cor 10:31), thus reflecting in themselves his inherent glory.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOD, Being and Attributes of Inherent characteristics of God revealed in Scripture and displayed in God’s actions in biblical history. They are characteristics equally of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. God’s attributes are revealed in progressively richer and fuller ways within the history of redemption. According to the Bible, the entire creation shows God’s deity and eternal power (Ps 19:1-6; Rom 1:20). God’s providence also reveals certain of his attributes (Mt 5:45; Lk 6:35; Ac...","summary_en":"GOD, Being and Attributes of Inherent characteristics of God revealed in Scripture and displayed in God’s actions in biblical history. They are characteristics equally of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. God’s attributes are revealed in progressively richer and fuller ways within the history of redemption. According to the Bible, the entire creation shows God’s deity and eternal power (Ps 19:1-6; Rom 1:20). God’s providence also reveals certain of his attributes (Mt 5:45; Lk 6:35; Ac...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14220,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Names of God","title_en":"Names of God","content_ro":"<h3>GOD, Names of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalIdeaofName\">The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">onoma<\/span><em>)<\/em> is derived from a verb that means “to know.” A name, therefore, indicates that by which a person or object is to be known. But the idea of name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary means of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of that to which the name is given. Adam named the animals according to their nature (Gn 2:19-20); Noah means “one who brings relief and comfort” (5:29); Jesus means “savior” (Mt 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect—for example, Abraham (“father of many,” Gn 17:5), and Israel (“one who strives with God” or “God strives,” 32:28). The name of a person or people expressed what the person or people thought the proper description or statement of character was.<\/p>\n<p>With regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences, and these are most clearly seen when biblical scholars and theologians confront the question of whether the names of God are ascriptions given by God concerning himself or they are ascriptions given to God by people who observed his acts and reflected on his character as discerned through a study of divine deeds. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<\/p>\n<p>1. Proper names: El, Yahweh, Adonai, Theos (God), Kurios (Lord).<\/p>\n<li>2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>3. Titles: Creator, Messiah\/Christ, Paraclete\/Comforter.<\/li>\n<li>4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheOldTestament\">The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>El and Related Names<\/h5>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ul<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean “to be afraid.” Thus God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> as the strong one, is to be feared. Still others suggest the preposition <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> (“to, toward”) as the root; the idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alim<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to bind,” should be considered as a root also—that is, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, and of supreme excellence and greatness.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> in the OT is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s exercising dynamic power as distinguished from authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> speaks of God as the great doer and producer. He is the One who exercises such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing (cf. Ex 15). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and beyond creation (Ps 19:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is also commonly used as the name of God, occurring over 2,500 times in the OT. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some have suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is the plural form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>,<\/em> but it seems more likely that it is a plural of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which appears in the poetical writings. Some critical writers have suggested that this plural form is borrowed from pagan polytheistic sources, but no such plural form is found among pagans as the name of a deity. Others have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the triune nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Scriptures, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions are not contradictory.<\/p>\n<p>The plural form, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>,<\/em> is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he exercises his preeminence and power in the created cosmos. Hence, when the Scripture speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> created the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as revealed in Creation. In the book of Deuteronomy the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from bondage in Egypt, preservation in the wilderness, and preparation for entrance into the Promised Land. In this context, God <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully execute judgment on covenant breakers. The psalmists also used this named repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his omnipotence in many dimensions of life (see Ps 68, in which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> appears 26 times.)<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to the use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> to the patriarch and his seed; that is, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Gn 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is ever ready to use his power on behalf of those who are in covenant with him. Thus, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Elohim<\/span> also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<\/p>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> occurs mainly in the poetical writings, no fewer than 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Is 44:8). In like manner David asked, “Who is God [<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span>], but the <span>Lord<\/span>?” (2 Sm 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> in his song (Dt 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation and the incomparable One. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped; he is to be revered with a holy fear.<\/p>\n<p>Another closely related name is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span><em>,<\/em> found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Its root is said to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is the God to be feared and worshiped accordingly. In view of this meaning, it can be understood why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<\/p>\n<p>Three other names of God include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Elyon<\/span> is the name used to designate the God of Melchizedek (Gn 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalms 57:2 and 78:56 the Hebrew reads <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim ‘Elyon<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is believed that the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is used alone, but the context indicates that it is then used as a synonym for God (e.g., Nm 24:16; Ps 83:18; Is 14:14). The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘elyon<\/span> is used quite frequently as an adjective; it is then translated as “high, highest, upper, uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is employed is to One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler. He is incomparable in every way; he is subject to no one and no thing; he is the Exalted One.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is used in the longer form seven times in the Scriptures (Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ez 10:5). In the shorter form <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>),<\/em> it appears more frequently: in Job 30 times; in Psalms 19:1 and 68:14; once in Ruth (1:21), Isaiah (13:6), Ezekiel (1:24), and Joel (1:15). In these passages the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, sovereign ruler and disposer are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some have begun with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> as the first concept to be considered; its meaning is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadah<\/span><em>),<\/em> in Semitic usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> appears; nor is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> (demon), which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is a composite term of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sha<\/span> (“the one who”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dai<\/span> (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who can and does make final disposition. The Septuagint has adapted this meaning; it translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span><em>,<\/em> the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and an attribute of God are combined. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in lexicons as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of the Messiah’s reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting) to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting)” (Ps 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Is 40:28) and as everlasting strength (26:4), and Jeremiah spoke of God as everlasting King (Jer 10:10). God’s everlastingness or eternity speaks of his infinity in relation to time. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Olam<\/span><em>,<\/em> as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration prolonged indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcending all temporal limits; in addition, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Scriptures speak of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gibbor<\/span> alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two terms together always refer to God, and in some instances <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Haggadol<\/span> (“the greatest”) is added (Dt 10:17; Jer 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 (cf. Ps 45:4).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Ro’i<\/span> is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Gn 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the all-seeing One from whose eye nothing is hidden (cf. Ps 33:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods; neither is it used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the OT, occurring first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is abbreviated as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahu<\/span> (cf. Ex 15:2; Ps 68:4; Is 12:2; etc.).<\/p>\n<p>The exact meaning of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is difficult to determine. Some have sought the root in the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> (“to be”) or in an ancient form of that same verb, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hawah<\/span><em>.<\/em> There is no agreement as to whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form read <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> to mean “cause to be”; thus Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> and regard it as an original and independent term, expressing the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<\/p>\n\n<p>Translators of the OT have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> Since it is translated into the Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “Lord,” many have rendered <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “<span>Lord<\/span>.” But <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is best rendered “Lord,” appears with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in various instances. The <span>kjv<\/span>, for example, translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “God,” and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to use <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> (see <span>jb<\/span> and <span>njb<\/span>). The name Jehovah, as used in the <span>asv<\/span> (1901), has been judged unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> shall surely be put to death.” This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s deportation (cf. Am 6:10). Hence, when reading the OT the Jews substituted either <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> From this, the practice of adding the vowels of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<\/p>\n<p>The interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused much debate. “And God said to Moses, ‘I am <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">El Shaddai<\/span><em>,<\/em> but by my name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> I did not make myself known to them.’ ” This passage has been understood to mean that the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> was not known or used prior to the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states; rather, it speaks of the patriarchs not knowing God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> They knew him as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> in actual revelatory historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character, that is, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> In other words, God had always been <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> he is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<\/p>\n<p>This name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes, or presupposes, the meaning of the other names. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of service and inheritance. Moses is told by God that Israel is about to behold and experience the unchangeableness of God as he steadfastly and wondrously remembers his word and executes it to the fullest degree. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies: merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Ex 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>” (Gn 49:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> he is a faithful covenant God who, having given his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own.<\/p>\n<p>In view of the richness of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Lv 24:11, 16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Pss 104:35; 106:1; 149:1; 150:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used in a number of phrases that are considered names of or ascriptions of God. The most common of these compound names is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> (“hosts”). The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (cf. Nm 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">saba<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to wage” war. It also means “to serve” in some contexts; for example, Numbers 8:24 clearly has reference to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for confirmation.<\/p>\n<p>The compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> in 1—2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Sm 12:9; 14:50; 17:55; 2 Sm 2:8; 8:16; 10:16), it is thought that the compound name refers to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as the God of armies, that is, God has his armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> is used most frequently by the prophets (Jeremiah, 88 times; Zechariah, 55 times; Malachi, 25 times; Haggai, 14 times) at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Therefore, the compound name was used to remind them that their covenant God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Thus, though Israel’s armies failed, their covenant God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. And it was to this <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> that Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance (Jos 5:14-15), and in whose name Israel was blessed (2 Sm 6:18).<\/p>\n<p>Several other compound names occur infrequently:<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Nissi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my banner”) is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:15). Isaiah uses the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span> when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Is 11:10).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rapha<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">rapha’<\/span><em>,<\/em> “healer”) appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel. Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the healing One (e.g., Ps 103:3; Is 30:26; Jer 6:14).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rohi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ro‘i<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my shepherd”) appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as shepherd is explicated in Ezekiel 34. “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (v 15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when as a shepherd he gave his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Jireh<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yir’eh<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to see ahead or to provide”) appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Shalom<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> “peace”) is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Jgs 6:24).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> appears with a few forms of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsadaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> “righteousness.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6; the thought evidently is that David’s Righteous Branch (the Messiah) will attribute God’s righteousness to those who are incorporated in the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously; that is, God provides a way of sanctification (cf. Lv 20:8; 22:9).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as a name for God appears about 360 times in the OT, though it is not uniformly used. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears repeatedly in the Psalms (over 50 times), and certain of the prophets use it frequently (Isaiah, 47 times; Jeremiah, 29 times; Ezekiel, over 150 times; and Amos, 27 times).<\/p>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adan<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adon<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is frequently used of men. For example, in Genesis and 1—2 Samuel the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> thus, is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Pss 16:2; 57:9-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Name Combinations<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT the names of God appear in various combinations. For example <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-’Adonai<\/span> are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>-God-Israel (Jgs 5:3; Is 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names—for example, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Qedosh Yisrael<\/span> (“Holy One of Israel,” Is 43:14) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abir Yisrael<\/span> (“Mighty One of Israel,” Gn 49:24; Ps 132:2; Is 49:26). By means of these phrases, the covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was positively acknowledged.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Personal Names<\/h5>\n<p>The personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abh<\/span> (“father”) appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the OT. But it is not used there of God but rather of one who has generated children (i.e., the male parent), the progenitor—head, chief, and ruler of the family group or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one through whom God has spoken, with whom God has dealt, and through whom he has given a rich heritage to the children and descendants of the patriarchs.<\/p>\n<p>In the poetical books, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named as such. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Jb 38:28). The reference is to God as the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5 God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless”; the parallel phrase, “protector of widows,” indicates the sense. Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father,” and the parallels use the terms “God” and “Rock of my salvation.” The idea here is of God as Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used analogously, “As a father pities his children.”<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Is 63:16; 64:8). Isaiah says the promised child is to be named Everlasting Father (9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4, 19, meaning the origin, keeper, and friend of his people Israel. Malachi 1:6 and 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children and as the origin and ruler of all people.<\/p>\n<p>The term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the OT; it commonly occurs in the sense of offspring and descendant. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references to the second person of the Trinity.<\/p>\n<p>The messianic Psalm 2 has such a reference: “You are my son” (v 7). It is stated in the context of the king speaking to one who rules and is to rule with and under the sovereign. The immediate reference may be to the theocratic king; however, the reference is revealed in the NT to be the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Thus, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who is set forth as the divine sovereign ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is perceived to be equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such NT passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah speaks of the son to be given (Is 9:6), the One born of the virgin (7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.<\/p>\n<p>The name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the OT. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Gn 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Is 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ez 37:1), “the Spirit” (Nm 11:17; 27:18), “my Spirit” (Gn 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Ps 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the OT as in the NT, it can be safely stated that the relationship posited between God and the Spirit is such that there is no doubt that the OT teaches the deity of the Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Gn 1:2; Ps 33:6; etc.) and the equipping of servants for the service of God—for example, craftsmanship (Ex 35:31), leadership (Nm 11:17; 27:18), and prophecy (1 Sm 10:6; 2 Sm 23:2; 2 Chr 15:1; Ez 11:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheNewTestament\">The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Names of God<\/h5>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> is the NT equivalent of the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span>and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>;<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> appears in the NT as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hupsistos<\/span><em>,<\/em> the Highest (Mk 5:7; Lk 1:32, 76). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘El Shaddai<\/span>) appears with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> (2 Cor 6:18; Rv 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s transcendency, power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is one who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span><em>.<\/em> The name <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> appears over 1,000 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> “Lord,” is used to express the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Adonai<\/span> in the Septuagint, and the NT follows it. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> means “power,” so the meaning is not the same as with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> yet the NT does give <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> the full weight of meaning that the OT gave to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> especially when used of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:36; Phil 2:9-11; etc.)<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Despotes<\/span> is used five times of God or Jesus in the NT (Lk 2:29; Acts 4:24; 2 Pt 2:11; Jude 1:4; Rv 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern concept “despot” is absent from the NT usage even when applied to men, where its central thought is ownership (2 Tm 2:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Names of God<\/h5>\n<p>In the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Mt 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the OT meaning, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explicated, the NT meaning of the names is enriched.<\/p>\n<p>“Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Mt 1:21). The root of this name “to save” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the OT root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The NT explanation (“save from sin”) is not contrary to the OT meaning. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; Holy Spirit; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah; Names, Significance of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOD, Names of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalIdeaofName\">The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">onoma<\/span><em>)<\/em> is derived from a verb that means “to know.” A name, therefore, indicates that by which a person or object is to be known. But the idea of name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary means of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of that to which the name is given. Adam named the animals according to their nature (Gn 2:19-20); Noah means “one who brings relief and comfort” (5:29); Jesus means “savior” (Mt 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect—for example, Abraham (“father of many,” Gn 17:5), and Israel (“one who strives with God” or “God strives,” 32:28). The name of a person or people expressed what the person or people thought the proper description or statement of character was.<\/p>\n<p>With regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences, and these are most clearly seen when biblical scholars and theologians confront the question of whether the names of God are ascriptions given by God concerning himself or they are ascriptions given to God by people who observed his acts and reflected on his character as discerned through a study of divine deeds. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<\/p>\n<p>1. Proper names: El, Yahweh, Adonai, Theos (God), Kurios (Lord).<\/p>\n<li>2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>3. Titles: Creator, Messiah\/Christ, Paraclete\/Comforter.<\/li>\n<li>4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheOldTestament\">The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>El and Related Names<\/h5>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ul<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean “to be afraid.” Thus God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> as the strong one, is to be feared. Still others suggest the preposition <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> (“to, toward”) as the root; the idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alim<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to bind,” should be considered as a root also—that is, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, and of supreme excellence and greatness.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> in the OT is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s exercising dynamic power as distinguished from authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> speaks of God as the great doer and producer. He is the One who exercises such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing (cf. Ex 15). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and beyond creation (Ps 19:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is also commonly used as the name of God, occurring over 2,500 times in the OT. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some have suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is the plural form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>,<\/em> but it seems more likely that it is a plural of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which appears in the poetical writings. Some critical writers have suggested that this plural form is borrowed from pagan polytheistic sources, but no such plural form is found among pagans as the name of a deity. Others have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the triune nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Scriptures, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions are not contradictory.<\/p>\n<p>The plural form, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>,<\/em> is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he exercises his preeminence and power in the created cosmos. Hence, when the Scripture speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> created the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as revealed in Creation. In the book of Deuteronomy the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from bondage in Egypt, preservation in the wilderness, and preparation for entrance into the Promised Land. In this context, God <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully execute judgment on covenant breakers. The psalmists also used this named repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his omnipotence in many dimensions of life (see Ps 68, in which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> appears 26 times.)<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to the use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> to the patriarch and his seed; that is, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Gn 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is ever ready to use his power on behalf of those who are in covenant with him. Thus, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Elohim<\/span> also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<\/p>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> occurs mainly in the poetical writings, no fewer than 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Is 44:8). In like manner David asked, “Who is God [<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span>], but the <span>Lord<\/span>?” (2 Sm 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> in his song (Dt 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation and the incomparable One. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped; he is to be revered with a holy fear.<\/p>\n<p>Another closely related name is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span><em>,<\/em> found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Its root is said to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is the God to be feared and worshiped accordingly. In view of this meaning, it can be understood why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<\/p>\n<p>Three other names of God include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Elyon<\/span> is the name used to designate the God of Melchizedek (Gn 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalms 57:2 and 78:56 the Hebrew reads <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim ‘Elyon<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is believed that the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is used alone, but the context indicates that it is then used as a synonym for God (e.g., Nm 24:16; Ps 83:18; Is 14:14). The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘elyon<\/span> is used quite frequently as an adjective; it is then translated as “high, highest, upper, uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is employed is to One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler. He is incomparable in every way; he is subject to no one and no thing; he is the Exalted One.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is used in the longer form seven times in the Scriptures (Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ez 10:5). In the shorter form <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>),<\/em> it appears more frequently: in Job 30 times; in Psalms 19:1 and 68:14; once in Ruth (1:21), Isaiah (13:6), Ezekiel (1:24), and Joel (1:15). In these passages the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, sovereign ruler and disposer are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some have begun with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> as the first concept to be considered; its meaning is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadah<\/span><em>),<\/em> in Semitic usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> appears; nor is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> (demon), which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is a composite term of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sha<\/span> (“the one who”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dai<\/span> (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who can and does make final disposition. The Septuagint has adapted this meaning; it translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span><em>,<\/em> the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and an attribute of God are combined. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in lexicons as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of the Messiah’s reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting) to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting)” (Ps 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Is 40:28) and as everlasting strength (26:4), and Jeremiah spoke of God as everlasting King (Jer 10:10). God’s everlastingness or eternity speaks of his infinity in relation to time. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Olam<\/span><em>,<\/em> as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration prolonged indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcending all temporal limits; in addition, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Scriptures speak of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gibbor<\/span> alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two terms together always refer to God, and in some instances <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Haggadol<\/span> (“the greatest”) is added (Dt 10:17; Jer 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 (cf. Ps 45:4).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Ro’i<\/span> is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Gn 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the all-seeing One from whose eye nothing is hidden (cf. Ps 33:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods; neither is it used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the OT, occurring first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is abbreviated as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahu<\/span> (cf. Ex 15:2; Ps 68:4; Is 12:2; etc.).<\/p>\n<p>The exact meaning of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is difficult to determine. Some have sought the root in the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> (“to be”) or in an ancient form of that same verb, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hawah<\/span><em>.<\/em> There is no agreement as to whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form read <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> to mean “cause to be”; thus Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> and regard it as an original and independent term, expressing the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<\/p>\n\n<p>Translators of the OT have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> Since it is translated into the Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “Lord,” many have rendered <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “<span>Lord<\/span>.” But <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is best rendered “Lord,” appears with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in various instances. The <span>kjv<\/span>, for example, translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “God,” and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to use <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> (see <span>jb<\/span> and <span>njb<\/span>). The name Jehovah, as used in the <span>asv<\/span> (1901), has been judged unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> shall surely be put to death.” This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s deportation (cf. Am 6:10). Hence, when reading the OT the Jews substituted either <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> From this, the practice of adding the vowels of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<\/p>\n<p>The interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused much debate. “And God said to Moses, ‘I am <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">El Shaddai<\/span><em>,<\/em> but by my name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> I did not make myself known to them.’ ” This passage has been understood to mean that the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> was not known or used prior to the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states; rather, it speaks of the patriarchs not knowing God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> They knew him as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> in actual revelatory historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character, that is, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> In other words, God had always been <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> he is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<\/p>\n<p>This name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes, or presupposes, the meaning of the other names. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of service and inheritance. Moses is told by God that Israel is about to behold and experience the unchangeableness of God as he steadfastly and wondrously remembers his word and executes it to the fullest degree. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies: merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Ex 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>” (Gn 49:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> he is a faithful covenant God who, having given his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own.<\/p>\n<p>In view of the richness of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Lv 24:11, 16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Pss 104:35; 106:1; 149:1; 150:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used in a number of phrases that are considered names of or ascriptions of God. The most common of these compound names is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> (“hosts”). The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (cf. Nm 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">saba<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to wage” war. It also means “to serve” in some contexts; for example, Numbers 8:24 clearly has reference to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for confirmation.<\/p>\n<p>The compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> in 1—2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Sm 12:9; 14:50; 17:55; 2 Sm 2:8; 8:16; 10:16), it is thought that the compound name refers to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as the God of armies, that is, God has his armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> is used most frequently by the prophets (Jeremiah, 88 times; Zechariah, 55 times; Malachi, 25 times; Haggai, 14 times) at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Therefore, the compound name was used to remind them that their covenant God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Thus, though Israel’s armies failed, their covenant God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. And it was to this <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> that Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance (Jos 5:14-15), and in whose name Israel was blessed (2 Sm 6:18).<\/p>\n<p>Several other compound names occur infrequently:<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Nissi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my banner”) is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:15). Isaiah uses the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span> when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Is 11:10).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rapha<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">rapha’<\/span><em>,<\/em> “healer”) appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel. Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the healing One (e.g., Ps 103:3; Is 30:26; Jer 6:14).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rohi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ro‘i<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my shepherd”) appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as shepherd is explicated in Ezekiel 34. “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (v 15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when as a shepherd he gave his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Jireh<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yir’eh<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to see ahead or to provide”) appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Shalom<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> “peace”) is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Jgs 6:24).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> appears with a few forms of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsadaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> “righteousness.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6; the thought evidently is that David’s Righteous Branch (the Messiah) will attribute God’s righteousness to those who are incorporated in the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously; that is, God provides a way of sanctification (cf. Lv 20:8; 22:9).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as a name for God appears about 360 times in the OT, though it is not uniformly used. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears repeatedly in the Psalms (over 50 times), and certain of the prophets use it frequently (Isaiah, 47 times; Jeremiah, 29 times; Ezekiel, over 150 times; and Amos, 27 times).<\/p>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adan<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adon<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is frequently used of men. For example, in Genesis and 1—2 Samuel the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> thus, is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Pss 16:2; 57:9-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Name Combinations<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT the names of God appear in various combinations. For example <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-’Adonai<\/span> are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>-God-Israel (Jgs 5:3; Is 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names—for example, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Qedosh Yisrael<\/span> (“Holy One of Israel,” Is 43:14) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abir Yisrael<\/span> (“Mighty One of Israel,” Gn 49:24; Ps 132:2; Is 49:26). By means of these phrases, the covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was positively acknowledged.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Personal Names<\/h5>\n<p>The personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abh<\/span> (“father”) appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the OT. But it is not used there of God but rather of one who has generated children (i.e., the male parent), the progenitor—head, chief, and ruler of the family group or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one through whom God has spoken, with whom God has dealt, and through whom he has given a rich heritage to the children and descendants of the patriarchs.<\/p>\n<p>In the poetical books, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named as such. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Jb 38:28). The reference is to God as the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5 God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless”; the parallel phrase, “protector of widows,” indicates the sense. Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father,” and the parallels use the terms “God” and “Rock of my salvation.” The idea here is of God as Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used analogously, “As a father pities his children.”<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Is 63:16; 64:8). Isaiah says the promised child is to be named Everlasting Father (9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4, 19, meaning the origin, keeper, and friend of his people Israel. Malachi 1:6 and 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children and as the origin and ruler of all people.<\/p>\n<p>The term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the OT; it commonly occurs in the sense of offspring and descendant. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references to the second person of the Trinity.<\/p>\n<p>The messianic Psalm 2 has such a reference: “You are my son” (v 7). It is stated in the context of the king speaking to one who rules and is to rule with and under the sovereign. The immediate reference may be to the theocratic king; however, the reference is revealed in the NT to be the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Thus, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who is set forth as the divine sovereign ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is perceived to be equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such NT passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah speaks of the son to be given (Is 9:6), the One born of the virgin (7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.<\/p>\n<p>The name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the OT. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Gn 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Is 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ez 37:1), “the Spirit” (Nm 11:17; 27:18), “my Spirit” (Gn 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Ps 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the OT as in the NT, it can be safely stated that the relationship posited between God and the Spirit is such that there is no doubt that the OT teaches the deity of the Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Gn 1:2; Ps 33:6; etc.) and the equipping of servants for the service of God—for example, craftsmanship (Ex 35:31), leadership (Nm 11:17; 27:18), and prophecy (1 Sm 10:6; 2 Sm 23:2; 2 Chr 15:1; Ez 11:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheNewTestament\">The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Names of God<\/h5>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> is the NT equivalent of the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span>and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>;<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> appears in the NT as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hupsistos<\/span><em>,<\/em> the Highest (Mk 5:7; Lk 1:32, 76). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘El Shaddai<\/span>) appears with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> (2 Cor 6:18; Rv 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s transcendency, power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is one who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span><em>.<\/em> The name <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> appears over 1,000 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> “Lord,” is used to express the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Adonai<\/span> in the Septuagint, and the NT follows it. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> means “power,” so the meaning is not the same as with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> yet the NT does give <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> the full weight of meaning that the OT gave to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> especially when used of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:36; Phil 2:9-11; etc.)<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Despotes<\/span> is used five times of God or Jesus in the NT (Lk 2:29; Acts 4:24; 2 Pt 2:11; Jude 1:4; Rv 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern concept “despot” is absent from the NT usage even when applied to men, where its central thought is ownership (2 Tm 2:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Names of God<\/h5>\n<p>In the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Mt 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the OT meaning, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explicated, the NT meaning of the names is enriched.<\/p>\n<p>“Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Mt 1:21). The root of this name “to save” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the OT root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The NT explanation (“save from sin”) is not contrary to the OT meaning. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; Holy Spirit; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah; Names, Significance of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOD, Names of God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being. Preview • The Biblical Idea of Name • The Names of God in the Old Testament • The Names of God in the New Testament The Biblical Idea of Name In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies. In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (onom...","summary_en":"GOD, Names of God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being. Preview • The Biblical Idea of Name • The Names of God in the Old Testament • The Names of God in the New Testament The Biblical Idea of Name In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies. In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (onom...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22673,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Biblical Concept of Law","title_en":"Biblical Concept of Law","content_ro":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","summary_en":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31439,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Promise","title_en":"Promise","content_ro":"<h3>PROMISE<\/h3>\n<p>Declaration by one person to another that something will or will not be done, giving the person to whom it is made the right to expect the performance of whatever has been specified.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofPromise\">Types of Promise<\/p>\n<p>In biblical usage there are scattered examples of promises that people give either to one another (e.g., Nm 22:17; Est 4:7) or to God (e.g., Neh 5:12), but the promises that God gives to man are far more significant. These divine promises are absolutely trustworthy because the one who gives them is totally able to perform that which he has promised (Rom 4:21).<\/p>\n<p>Divine promises in Scripture assure their recipients of many spiritual and temporal benefits, including sonship (2 Cor 6:16–7:1), forgiveness of sin (1 Jn 1:9), answer to prayer (Lk 11:9), deliverance from temptations (1 Cor 10:13), sustaining grace for difficult times (2 Cor 12:9), provision for all needs (Phil 4:19), reward for obedience (Jas 1:12), and eternal life (Lk 18:29-30; Jn 3:16; Rom 6:22-23). God’s promises are certain and sure, but participation in their blessing often requires that certain conditions on which they are predicated be met. Divine promises also are not always guarantees of blessing. Indeed, there are promises announcing the certainty of judgment on those who refuse to obey the gospel of the Lord Jesus (2 Thes 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the promises of God, which have subjective and individual application to many different people in widely different times and places, there are a great many promises that pertain to the programmatic unfolding of God’s plan of redemption in a grand procession of historical events. These promises have neither repeated applications nor conditional natures. In such cases, promise becomes nearly synonymous with prophecy, and promises of this type, along with their subsequent fulfillment, are intricately intertwined in the entire fabric of redemptive history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PromisesintheOldTestament\">Promises in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The highlights of the promise theme in the OT can be seen in the promise of what is often termed the protevangelium (i.e., the first announcement of the gospel) given to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden immediately after the fall into sin (Gn 3:15). Subsequent promises are the covenants God made with Abraham (chs 12; 15; 17) and with David (2 Sm 7), followed by the promise of a new covenant (Jer 31).<\/p>\n<h5>The Protevangelium<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 3:15b says: “Your [Satan’s] offspring and her [Eve’s] offspring will be enemies. He will crush your head, and you will strike his heel” (<span>nlt<\/span>). This statement is a promise that at some future time the offspring of the woman will crush Satan. The offspring of the woman is individualized in the “he” of the last phrase. “He” shall strike you (i.e., Satan) on the head, although Satan will inflict a wound on the offspring of the woman. Here, then, is the promise that gives Adam and Eve, as well as their descendants, the basis to expect the eventual destruction of their adversary Satan through their offspring.<\/p>\n<h5>The Promise to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>In Genesis 12:1-7 Abraham is told to leave his people and country and to go to a land that the Lord would show to him. God, in turn, promises him that (1) his offspring would become a great nation; (2) he would be blessed and his name made great; (3) through him other nations would be blessed; and (4) the land of Canaan would be given to his descendants. Of particular significance among these promises given to Abraham is that through his offspring he will bless many nations. This promise is repeated five times in the book of Genesis (Gn 12:3; 18:18; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14) and points back to the promise of Genesis 3:15 as well as forward to Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Promise to David<\/h5>\n<p>In 2 Samuel 7, God gave a promise to King David that his dynasty would endure forever (2 Sm 7:16; Ps 89:34-37). It is with this Davidic covenant that the promised line, which had previously run from Adam through Seth, Shem, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Judah, is now narrowed to the royal line of the house of David. David is to be the ancestor of the Messiah-King to come (Ps 89:3, 27-37). David thus became a central figure in the history of God’s plan to redeem the world. Jesus Christ is referred to as the son of David, the son of Abraham (Mt 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Promise of a New Covenant<\/h5>\n<p>In Jeremiah 31:31-37, it is promised that in future days the Lord would make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah. The content of this new covenant reemphasizes and extends the basic promises of the former covenant: “I will be their God, and they will be my people. . . . I will forgive their wickedness and will never again remember their sins” (vv 33-34, <span>nlt<\/span>). It would appear that the “new covenant” of Jeremiah is to be viewed as a restatement of the same basic promises included in the Abrahamic and Davidic covenants.<\/p>\n<p>The new covenant was inaugurated with the first advent of Christ, and believers in Christ are now recipients by the Holy Spirit of the blessings of that new covenant (Heb 8:6-13). The complete and final realization of these blessings in all their fullness awaits the return of Christ, the complete establishment of his kingdom in its outward and final form, and the blessedness of life in the new heavens and new earth. In the intervening time, God’s people live in a day in which some of the benefits of the age to come are a present reality but the fullness of the new age is yet future.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePromiseThemeintheNewTestament\">The Promise Theme in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>New Testament writers refer to the OT promises in a way that indicates that they did not view these promises as separate and isolated assertions but rather as portions of a unitary promise that is ultimately fulfilled in Christ (see Lk 1:54-55, 69-73; Acts 13:23, 32-33; 26:6-7; 2 Cor 1:20). Jesus is the fulfillment of the promises made to the patriarchs and David, and these promises are accordingly to be viewed as having a single focal point in him.<\/p>\n<p>In the books of Galatians and Ephesians, Paul develops this idea in more detail, saying to the Gentile Christians that they are made “heirs together with Israel, members together of one body, and sharers together in the promise in Christ Jesus” (Eph 3:6, <span>niv<\/span>). In fact, Paul says that Gentiles who trust in Christ are incorporated into the seed of Abraham and are thus heirs according to the promise (Gal 3:29), and he even goes so far as to equate the gospel with the promise given to Abraham when he states, “The Scripture foresaw that God would justify the Gentiles by faith, and announced the gospel in advance to Abraham: ‘All nations will be blessed through you’ ” (Gal 3:8, <span>niv<\/span>). These and other NT texts establish the close connection between the coming of Christ and the fulfillment of the promise. The promises of God find their point of convergence in Christ and all that he accomplished, and will yet accomplish, for his people.<\/p>\n<p>One further aspect of the promise particularly emphasized in the NT concerns the coming of the Holy Spirit. Paul refers to believers as sealed with the promised Holy Spirit (Eph 1:13), and as receiving the promise of the Spirit (Gal 3:14). The gift of the Holy Spirit is not only the fulfillment of an OT promise (Is 32:15; Ez 36:27; Jl 2:28), and that of Christ himself (Lk 24:49; Jn 14:16, 20; Acts 1:4), but it is also itself a promise of something yet future. Paul speaks of the Holy Spirit’s presence within the believer as a guarantee of our inheritance (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:14). The Holy Spirit is the “firstfruit” of future glory (Rom 8:23).<\/p>\n<p>One final aspect of the promise theme in the NT concerns the assurance of Christ’s second advent and the establishment of the new heavens and the new earth (cf. Jn 14:1-3; 2 Pt 3:4, 9, 13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; God, Being and Attributes of; Hope; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROMISE<\/h3>\n<p>Declaration by one person to another that something will or will not be done, giving the person to whom it is made the right to expect the performance of whatever has been specified.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofPromise\">Types of Promise<\/p>\n<p>In biblical usage there are scattered examples of promises that people give either to one another (e.g., Nm 22:17; Est 4:7) or to God (e.g., Neh 5:12), but the promises that God gives to man are far more significant. These divine promises are absolutely trustworthy because the one who gives them is totally able to perform that which he has promised (Rom 4:21).<\/p>\n<p>Divine promises in Scripture assure their recipients of many spiritual and temporal benefits, including sonship (2 Cor 6:16–7:1), forgiveness of sin (1 Jn 1:9), answer to prayer (Lk 11:9), deliverance from temptations (1 Cor 10:13), sustaining grace for difficult times (2 Cor 12:9), provision for all needs (Phil 4:19), reward for obedience (Jas 1:12), and eternal life (Lk 18:29-30; Jn 3:16; Rom 6:22-23). God’s promises are certain and sure, but participation in their blessing often requires that certain conditions on which they are predicated be met. Divine promises also are not always guarantees of blessing. Indeed, there are promises announcing the certainty of judgment on those who refuse to obey the gospel of the Lord Jesus (2 Thes 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the promises of God, which have subjective and individual application to many different people in widely different times and places, there are a great many promises that pertain to the programmatic unfolding of God’s plan of redemption in a grand procession of historical events. These promises have neither repeated applications nor conditional natures. In such cases, promise becomes nearly synonymous with prophecy, and promises of this type, along with their subsequent fulfillment, are intricately intertwined in the entire fabric of redemptive history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PromisesintheOldTestament\">Promises in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The highlights of the promise theme in the OT can be seen in the promise of what is often termed the protevangelium (i.e., the first announcement of the gospel) given to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden immediately after the fall into sin (Gn 3:15). Subsequent promises are the covenants God made with Abraham (chs 12; 15; 17) and with David (2 Sm 7), followed by the promise of a new covenant (Jer 31).<\/p>\n<h5>The Protevangelium<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 3:15b says: “Your [Satan’s] offspring and her [Eve’s] offspring will be enemies. He will crush your head, and you will strike his heel” (<span>nlt<\/span>). This statement is a promise that at some future time the offspring of the woman will crush Satan. The offspring of the woman is individualized in the “he” of the last phrase. “He” shall strike you (i.e., Satan) on the head, although Satan will inflict a wound on the offspring of the woman. Here, then, is the promise that gives Adam and Eve, as well as their descendants, the basis to expect the eventual destruction of their adversary Satan through their offspring.<\/p>\n<h5>The Promise to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>In Genesis 12:1-7 Abraham is told to leave his people and country and to go to a land that the Lord would show to him. God, in turn, promises him that (1) his offspring would become a great nation; (2) he would be blessed and his name made great; (3) through him other nations would be blessed; and (4) the land of Canaan would be given to his descendants. Of particular significance among these promises given to Abraham is that through his offspring he will bless many nations. This promise is repeated five times in the book of Genesis (Gn 12:3; 18:18; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14) and points back to the promise of Genesis 3:15 as well as forward to Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Promise to David<\/h5>\n<p>In 2 Samuel 7, God gave a promise to King David that his dynasty would endure forever (2 Sm 7:16; Ps 89:34-37). It is with this Davidic covenant that the promised line, which had previously run from Adam through Seth, Shem, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Judah, is now narrowed to the royal line of the house of David. David is to be the ancestor of the Messiah-King to come (Ps 89:3, 27-37). David thus became a central figure in the history of God’s plan to redeem the world. Jesus Christ is referred to as the son of David, the son of Abraham (Mt 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Promise of a New Covenant<\/h5>\n<p>In Jeremiah 31:31-37, it is promised that in future days the Lord would make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah. The content of this new covenant reemphasizes and extends the basic promises of the former covenant: “I will be their God, and they will be my people. . . . I will forgive their wickedness and will never again remember their sins” (vv 33-34, <span>nlt<\/span>). It would appear that the “new covenant” of Jeremiah is to be viewed as a restatement of the same basic promises included in the Abrahamic and Davidic covenants.<\/p>\n<p>The new covenant was inaugurated with the first advent of Christ, and believers in Christ are now recipients by the Holy Spirit of the blessings of that new covenant (Heb 8:6-13). The complete and final realization of these blessings in all their fullness awaits the return of Christ, the complete establishment of his kingdom in its outward and final form, and the blessedness of life in the new heavens and new earth. In the intervening time, God’s people live in a day in which some of the benefits of the age to come are a present reality but the fullness of the new age is yet future.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePromiseThemeintheNewTestament\">The Promise Theme in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>New Testament writers refer to the OT promises in a way that indicates that they did not view these promises as separate and isolated assertions but rather as portions of a unitary promise that is ultimately fulfilled in Christ (see Lk 1:54-55, 69-73; Acts 13:23, 32-33; 26:6-7; 2 Cor 1:20). Jesus is the fulfillment of the promises made to the patriarchs and David, and these promises are accordingly to be viewed as having a single focal point in him.<\/p>\n<p>In the books of Galatians and Ephesians, Paul develops this idea in more detail, saying to the Gentile Christians that they are made “heirs together with Israel, members together of one body, and sharers together in the promise in Christ Jesus” (Eph 3:6, <span>niv<\/span>). In fact, Paul says that Gentiles who trust in Christ are incorporated into the seed of Abraham and are thus heirs according to the promise (Gal 3:29), and he even goes so far as to equate the gospel with the promise given to Abraham when he states, “The Scripture foresaw that God would justify the Gentiles by faith, and announced the gospel in advance to Abraham: ‘All nations will be blessed through you’ ” (Gal 3:8, <span>niv<\/span>). These and other NT texts establish the close connection between the coming of Christ and the fulfillment of the promise. The promises of God find their point of convergence in Christ and all that he accomplished, and will yet accomplish, for his people.<\/p>\n<p>One further aspect of the promise particularly emphasized in the NT concerns the coming of the Holy Spirit. Paul refers to believers as sealed with the promised Holy Spirit (Eph 1:13), and as receiving the promise of the Spirit (Gal 3:14). The gift of the Holy Spirit is not only the fulfillment of an OT promise (Is 32:15; Ez 36:27; Jl 2:28), and that of Christ himself (Lk 24:49; Jn 14:16, 20; Acts 1:4), but it is also itself a promise of something yet future. Paul speaks of the Holy Spirit’s presence within the believer as a guarantee of our inheritance (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:14). The Holy Spirit is the “firstfruit” of future glory (Rom 8:23).<\/p>\n<p>One final aspect of the promise theme in the NT concerns the assurance of Christ’s second advent and the establishment of the new heavens and the new earth (cf. Jn 14:1-3; 2 Pt 3:4, 9, 13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; God, Being and Attributes of; Hope; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROMISE Declaration by one person to another that something will or will not be done, giving the person to whom it is made the right to expect the performance of whatever has been specified. Types of Promise In biblical usage there are scattered examples of promises that people give either to one another (e.g., Nm 22:17; Est 4:7) or to God (e.g., Neh 5:12), but the promises that God gives to man are far more significant. These divine promises are absolutely trustworthy because the one who giv...","summary_en":"PROMISE Declaration by one person to another that something will or will not be done, giving the person to whom it is made the right to expect the performance of whatever has been specified. Types of Promise In biblical usage there are scattered examples of promises that people give either to one another (e.g., Nm 22:17; Est 4:7) or to God (e.g., Neh 5:12), but the promises that God gives to man are far more significant. These divine promises are absolutely trustworthy because the one who giv...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33130,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Righteousness","title_en":"Righteousness","content_ro":"<h3>RIGHTEOUSNESS<\/h3>\n<p>The establishment of a right relationship—primarily between God and people, secondarily between people themselves. Righteousness is the fulfillment of just expectations in any relationship, whether with God or other people. It is applicable at all levels of society and is relevant in every area of life. Therefore, righteousness denotes the fulfilled expectations in relationships between man and wife, parents and children, fellow citizens, employer and employee, merchant and customers, ruler and citizens, and God and people. Depending on the fulfillment of one’s expectations, an individual could be called righteous and his or her acts and speech could be designated as righteous. The opposite of righteous is “evil,” “wicked,” or “wrong” (cf. Ps 1:6; Zep 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>In Israel the concept of righteousness transformed all of life, both religious and secular. Israel had been called into existence as a separate nation through which Yahweh was to witness to the nations concerning his universal rule, his nature, and his expectations of life on earth. This meant that Israel required a revelation from God so that they might learn his will and be instructed in maintaining a relationship with him. The quality of a person’s relationship with God is directly linked to his relationship with his fellow human.<\/p>\n<p>God is righteous (2 Chr 12:6; Pss 7:9; 103:17; Zep 3:5; Zec 8:8). His righteousness is dynamic, since it describes his acts on behalf of his people and also the nature of his relationship with them. All of God’s acts are righteous (cf. Dt 32:4; Jgs 5:11; Ps 103:6), and God’s people rejoiced in the righteous acts of God (Ps 89:16). Because God is righteous, he expects righteousness of others, who are to reflect the nature of their Creator. The expected response to God’s rule is in the form of righteousness, that is, conformity to his rule and will. In this basic sense, Noah is called “righteous” because he walked with God and showed integrity in comparison to his contemporaries (Gn 6:9). After humanity’s fall and acts of rebellion, culminating in the Flood and the dispersion at Babel, God renewed his relationship with humanity in Abraham and his descendants. Abraham was righteous because he ordered his life by the revealed will of God (15:6; cf. 17:1; 18:19; 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord revealed to Israel even more clearly how they were to relate to him and to each other. The law in Israel was for the purpose of helping the people of God to live in conformity to the will of God and thereby be righteous. The person who was devoted to the service of God in worship and life was called righteous (cf. Mal 3:18). Thus, righteousness is a state of integrity in relation to God and one’s neighbor, expressing itself in one’s acts and speech.<\/p>\n<p>The hope for an era characterized by righteousness was rooted in the prophetic revelation of the messianic rule and the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth (Is 11:1-9), whose rule will extend to the nations (vv 10-16) and last forever (9:7). Isaiah developed the revelation of the glorious, victorious entrance of the kingdom of God in a most exquisite way, when his enemies will be subdued and his people will be gathered together and will live in a state of peace in his presence. The acts of restoration, extending from Israel’s return from exile until the final coming of the external kingdom are, in his prophetic purview, the demonstration of God’s righteous acts. He forgives, restores, remains faithful, loves, elects, and sends his Spirit to renew his people and to bestow on them all the benefits of the renewed covenant relationship. Both Jews and Gentiles will be the recipients of his righteous acts (Is 45:8, 23; 46:13, 48:18; 51:5, 8, 16; 56:1; 59:17; 60:17; 61:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Out of concern for the salvation of his people and the establishment of his everlasting kingdom, God revealed his righteousness in the sending of his beloved Son. The coming of Christ marks an era of renewal of his relationship with people, the renewal of the covenant and renewal of his kingdom on earth. The older covenant was mediated by Moses; the covenant was renewed by the Son of God, who came “to fulfill all righteousness” (Mt 3:15). The message of Jesus is consistent with the OT in the close identification of God’s kingdom with his righteousness (6:33; 13:43). Jesus also taught that God expects all people to live in harmony with his will (7:21). Jesus is God’s final revelation of what God requires of individuals so as to enter the kingdom and to live righteously.<\/p>\n<p> But individuals cannot attain this righteousness by their own merits; it is a gift from God (Rom 3:21–5:21). There is no righteousness apart from Jesus Christ. In the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus we discover that “it is through faith that a righteous person has life” (Rom 1:17; cf. Hb 2:4). Therefore, the Father requires acceptance of his Son as his appointed means of justification (Rom 3:25-26; 5:9). God declares people to be righteous when they put their trust in his Son (Rom 8:33-34; 2 Cor 3:18; 11:15). God pardons sins, is reconciled with sinners, and grants his peace to them (Rom 5:1, 9-11; Eph 2:14-17). Those who have been declared righteous enjoy a new relationship. They are “sons of God” by adoption. The Father relates to his children righteously and expects them to relate righteously to him.<\/p>\n<p>The fullness of righteousness will be manifest at the coming of the Lord Jesus, when all those who have been justified will also be glorified (Rom 8:30). The goal of salvation history moves toward the final glorious manifestation of God’s kingdom, when all creation will be renewed in “righteousness”—that is, all creation will be right with God (2 Pt 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Justification, Justified; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RIGHTEOUSNESS<\/h3>\n<p>The establishment of a right relationship—primarily between God and people, secondarily between people themselves. Righteousness is the fulfillment of just expectations in any relationship, whether with God or other people. It is applicable at all levels of society and is relevant in every area of life. Therefore, righteousness denotes the fulfilled expectations in relationships between man and wife, parents and children, fellow citizens, employer and employee, merchant and customers, ruler and citizens, and God and people. Depending on the fulfillment of one’s expectations, an individual could be called righteous and his or her acts and speech could be designated as righteous. The opposite of righteous is “evil,” “wicked,” or “wrong” (cf. Ps 1:6; Zep 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>In Israel the concept of righteousness transformed all of life, both religious and secular. Israel had been called into existence as a separate nation through which Yahweh was to witness to the nations concerning his universal rule, his nature, and his expectations of life on earth. This meant that Israel required a revelation from God so that they might learn his will and be instructed in maintaining a relationship with him. The quality of a person’s relationship with God is directly linked to his relationship with his fellow human.<\/p>\n<p>God is righteous (2 Chr 12:6; Pss 7:9; 103:17; Zep 3:5; Zec 8:8). His righteousness is dynamic, since it describes his acts on behalf of his people and also the nature of his relationship with them. All of God’s acts are righteous (cf. Dt 32:4; Jgs 5:11; Ps 103:6), and God’s people rejoiced in the righteous acts of God (Ps 89:16). Because God is righteous, he expects righteousness of others, who are to reflect the nature of their Creator. The expected response to God’s rule is in the form of righteousness, that is, conformity to his rule and will. In this basic sense, Noah is called “righteous” because he walked with God and showed integrity in comparison to his contemporaries (Gn 6:9). After humanity’s fall and acts of rebellion, culminating in the Flood and the dispersion at Babel, God renewed his relationship with humanity in Abraham and his descendants. Abraham was righteous because he ordered his life by the revealed will of God (15:6; cf. 17:1; 18:19; 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord revealed to Israel even more clearly how they were to relate to him and to each other. The law in Israel was for the purpose of helping the people of God to live in conformity to the will of God and thereby be righteous. The person who was devoted to the service of God in worship and life was called righteous (cf. Mal 3:18). Thus, righteousness is a state of integrity in relation to God and one’s neighbor, expressing itself in one’s acts and speech.<\/p>\n<p>The hope for an era characterized by righteousness was rooted in the prophetic revelation of the messianic rule and the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth (Is 11:1-9), whose rule will extend to the nations (vv 10-16) and last forever (9:7). Isaiah developed the revelation of the glorious, victorious entrance of the kingdom of God in a most exquisite way, when his enemies will be subdued and his people will be gathered together and will live in a state of peace in his presence. The acts of restoration, extending from Israel’s return from exile until the final coming of the external kingdom are, in his prophetic purview, the demonstration of God’s righteous acts. He forgives, restores, remains faithful, loves, elects, and sends his Spirit to renew his people and to bestow on them all the benefits of the renewed covenant relationship. Both Jews and Gentiles will be the recipients of his righteous acts (Is 45:8, 23; 46:13, 48:18; 51:5, 8, 16; 56:1; 59:17; 60:17; 61:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Out of concern for the salvation of his people and the establishment of his everlasting kingdom, God revealed his righteousness in the sending of his beloved Son. The coming of Christ marks an era of renewal of his relationship with people, the renewal of the covenant and renewal of his kingdom on earth. The older covenant was mediated by Moses; the covenant was renewed by the Son of God, who came “to fulfill all righteousness” (Mt 3:15). The message of Jesus is consistent with the OT in the close identification of God’s kingdom with his righteousness (6:33; 13:43). Jesus also taught that God expects all people to live in harmony with his will (7:21). Jesus is God’s final revelation of what God requires of individuals so as to enter the kingdom and to live righteously.<\/p>\n<p> But individuals cannot attain this righteousness by their own merits; it is a gift from God (Rom 3:21–5:21). There is no righteousness apart from Jesus Christ. In the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus we discover that “it is through faith that a righteous person has life” (Rom 1:17; cf. Hb 2:4). Therefore, the Father requires acceptance of his Son as his appointed means of justification (Rom 3:25-26; 5:9). God declares people to be righteous when they put their trust in his Son (Rom 8:33-34; 2 Cor 3:18; 11:15). God pardons sins, is reconciled with sinners, and grants his peace to them (Rom 5:1, 9-11; Eph 2:14-17). Those who have been declared righteous enjoy a new relationship. They are “sons of God” by adoption. The Father relates to his children righteously and expects them to relate righteously to him.<\/p>\n<p>The fullness of righteousness will be manifest at the coming of the Lord Jesus, when all those who have been justified will also be glorified (Rom 8:30). The goal of salvation history moves toward the final glorious manifestation of God’s kingdom, when all creation will be renewed in “righteousness”—that is, all creation will be right with God (2 Pt 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Justification, Justified; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RIGHTEOUSNESS The establishment of a right relationship—primarily between God and people, secondarily between people themselves. Righteousness is the fulfillment of just expectations in any relationship, whether with God or other people. It is applicable at all levels of society and is relevant in every area of life. Therefore, righteousness denotes the fulfilled expectations in relationships between man and wife, parents and children, fellow citizens, employer and employee, merchant and cust...","summary_en":"RIGHTEOUSNESS The establishment of a right relationship—primarily between God and people, secondarily between people themselves. Righteousness is the fulfillment of just expectations in any relationship, whether with God or other people. It is applicable at all levels of society and is relevant in every area of life. Therefore, righteousness denotes the fulfilled expectations in relationships between man and wife, parents and children, fellow citizens, employer and employee, merchant and cust...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43080,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:1-27<\/strong> God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:1-27<\/strong> God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:1-27 God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).","summary_en":"17:1-27 God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43081,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:1<\/strong> <em>El-Shaddai:<\/em> This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • <em>Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life:<\/em> Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:1<\/strong> <em>El-Shaddai:<\/em> This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • <em>Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life:<\/em> Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:1 El-Shaddai: This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life: Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.","summary_en":"17:1 El-Shaddai: This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life: Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70706,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:1-27<\/strong> God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:1-27<\/strong> God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:1-27 God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).","summary_en":"17:1-27 God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70707,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:1<\/strong> <em>El-Shaddai:<\/em> This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • <em>Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life:<\/em> Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:1<\/strong> <em>El-Shaddai:<\/em> This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • <em>Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life:<\/em> Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:1 El-Shaddai: This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life: Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.","summary_en":"17:1 El-Shaddai: This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life: Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98332,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:1-27<\/strong> God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:1-27<\/strong> God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:1-27 God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).","summary_en":"17:1-27 God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98333,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:1<\/strong> <em>El-Shaddai:<\/em> This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • <em>Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life:<\/em> Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:1<\/strong> <em>El-Shaddai:<\/em> This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • <em>Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life:<\/em> Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:1 El-Shaddai: This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life: Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.","summary_en":"17:1 El-Shaddai: This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life: Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125958,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:1-27<\/strong> God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:1-27<\/strong> God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:1-27 God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).","summary_en":"17:1-27 God now gave the family signs that the promises would be fulfilled. He changed Abram’s name to Abraham (17:1-8), instituted the rite of circumcision as the sign of the covenant (17:9-14, 23-27), and changed Sarai’s name to Sarah (17:15-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125959,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:1<\/strong> <em>El-Shaddai:<\/em> This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • <em>Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life:<\/em> Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:1<\/strong> <em>El-Shaddai:<\/em> This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • <em>Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life:<\/em> Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:1 El-Shaddai: This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life: Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.","summary_en":"17:1 El-Shaddai: This name for God emphasizes his power (see also 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; 49:25). • Serve me faithfully and live a blameless life: Being a blessing to the nations required obedience from Abram; his conduct would be guided by Almighty God.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59807,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Noah","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Noah","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Noah<\/h3>\n<p>The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite human faithlessness (see 6:1-7). Through this covenant, God guaranteed that he would maintain a relationship with this one family even as other divine-human relationships were being severed. God’s covenant promise to Noah came with his command to build an ark (6:14); Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to this divine command (6:22; 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>When Noah made an offering to God after the Flood (8:20-22), God elaborated on his covenant with Noah, indicating that it was a universal covenant with humans and with all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world.<\/p>\n<p>This covenant helps us understand God as a covenant maker. Although human beings deserve punishment because of their wickedness, God withholds ultimate destruction. God’s covenant with Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being, but it recalibrated moral and ecological life to be as God intended it (9:1-7), leaving open the possibility of a more intimate covenant to come (see 17:1-21). Despite their evil, human beings are allowed to live in God’s world and seek a deeper relationship with the world’s Creator during their time on earth. God’s later covenants with his people made intimacy with him freely available to all (see Acts 2:22-40; 3:17-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; Ezek 14:12-23; Matt 24:37-39; Heb 11:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Noah<\/h3>\n<p>The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite human faithlessness (see 6:1-7). Through this covenant, God guaranteed that he would maintain a relationship with this one family even as other divine-human relationships were being severed. God’s covenant promise to Noah came with his command to build an ark (6:14); Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to this divine command (6:22; 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>When Noah made an offering to God after the Flood (8:20-22), God elaborated on his covenant with Noah, indicating that it was a universal covenant with humans and with all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world.<\/p>\n<p>This covenant helps us understand God as a covenant maker. Although human beings deserve punishment because of their wickedness, God withholds ultimate destruction. God’s covenant with Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being, but it recalibrated moral and ecological life to be as God intended it (9:1-7), leaving open the possibility of a more intimate covenant to come (see 17:1-21). Despite their evil, human beings are allowed to live in God’s world and seek a deeper relationship with the world’s Creator during their time on earth. God’s later covenants with his people made intimacy with him freely available to all (see Acts 2:22-40; 3:17-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; Ezek 14:12-23; Matt 24:37-39; Heb 11:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Noah The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite hu...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Noah The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite hu...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59819,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations","title_en":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Babel: The Dispersion of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord. God saw the danger that this posed: Their independence and arrogance would set them right back into a whirlpool of wickedness and, ultimately, destruction. So God intervened to “confuse the people with different languages” (11:7) and “[scatter] them all over the world” (11:9). Babel thus begins the history of differences and misunderstandings between peoples and nations who cannot understand one another’s languages and cultures—a separation that only begins to be reversed with the coming of the Holy Spirit (see Acts 2).<\/p>\n<p>After the dispersion of the nations at Babel, God renewed his relationship with humanity in Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-9). In contrast with the people at Babel, Abraham was righteous because he “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>” and lived by faith in God rather than pride in his accomplishments (15:6; 17:1; 18:19; 26:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:1-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Babel: The Dispersion of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord. God saw the danger that this posed: Their independence and arrogance would set them right back into a whirlpool of wickedness and, ultimately, destruction. So God intervened to “confuse the people with different languages” (11:7) and “[scatter] them all over the world” (11:9). Babel thus begins the history of differences and misunderstandings between peoples and nations who cannot understand one another’s languages and cultures—a separation that only begins to be reversed with the coming of the Holy Spirit (see Acts 2).<\/p>\n<p>After the dispersion of the nations at Babel, God renewed his relationship with humanity in Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-9). In contrast with the people at Babel, Abraham was righteous because he “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>” and lived by faith in God rather than pride in his accomplishments (15:6; 17:1; 18:19; 26:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:1-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord...","summary_en":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59879,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61338,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with David","title_en":"God’s Covenant with David","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with David<\/h3>\n<p>God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when he promised a royal dynasty to David (2 Sam 7:4-17). In addition, God promised through Jeremiah to make a “new covenant” in the future (Jer 31:31-34).<\/p>\n<p>God’s promise to David is not explicitly identified as a covenant in 2 Samuel 7. However, other passages do identify the event as a covenant (see 23:5; 2 Chr 7:18; 21:7; Pss 89:3-4, 28-29; 132:11-12; Isa 55:3; Jer 33:20-21). God’s promise to David that his “favor will not be taken from him” (2 Sam 7:15) speaks of a covenant relationship. Like God’s promise to Abraham, his covenant with David is unconditional: It does not depend on human obedience or faithfulness but only on God’s unchanging love.<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of this covenant is God’s promise to raise up David’s successors forever and to be a father to them (cp. 1 Kgs 11:36; 15:4; 2 Kgs 8:19). God’s blessing on Solomon’s reign is a partial fulfillment of this promise (cp. 2 Sam 7:10-11 with 1 Kgs 8:56; see also 1 Kgs 8:20, 24). God’s patience with the kings of Judah even when they turned away from him was the result of his covenant promise to David (see 1 Kgs 11:12-13; 15:3-5).<\/p>\n<p>The complete and final fulfillment of God’s covenant with David is found in the Messiah, Jesus Christ, the “son of David” (e.g., see Matt 9:27; 20:30-31; 21:9, 15). Isaiah foretold of one who would rule “from the throne of his ancestor David for all eternity” (Isa 9:7) and called him the “shoot” growing “out of the stump of David’s family” (Isa 11:1). Both of these references point to the coming Messiah. Four passages in the New Testament teach that Jesus is the ultimate fulfillment of the promises made to David by referring directly to 2 Sam 7:1-29 (Luke 1:32-33; Acts 2:29-31; 13:22-23; Heb 1:5). The New Testament opens (Matt 1:1) and closes (Rev 22:16) with reference to Jesus as the son of David, the successor to his throne.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 7:5-16; 1 Kgs 8:20-24; 11:9-13; 15:1-5; 2 Kgs 8:18-19; 2 Chr 7:17-22; Pss 89:3-4, 18-51; 132:10-12; Isa 9:6-7; 11:1-10; Jer 33:20-26; Matt 1:1; 20:30-31; 21:1-9; Luke 1:30-33, 67-79; Acts 2:22-36; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with David<\/h3>\n<p>God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when he promised a royal dynasty to David (2 Sam 7:4-17). In addition, God promised through Jeremiah to make a “new covenant” in the future (Jer 31:31-34).<\/p>\n<p>God’s promise to David is not explicitly identified as a covenant in 2 Samuel 7. However, other passages do identify the event as a covenant (see 23:5; 2 Chr 7:18; 21:7; Pss 89:3-4, 28-29; 132:11-12; Isa 55:3; Jer 33:20-21). God’s promise to David that his “favor will not be taken from him” (2 Sam 7:15) speaks of a covenant relationship. Like God’s promise to Abraham, his covenant with David is unconditional: It does not depend on human obedience or faithfulness but only on God’s unchanging love.<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of this covenant is God’s promise to raise up David’s successors forever and to be a father to them (cp. 1 Kgs 11:36; 15:4; 2 Kgs 8:19). God’s blessing on Solomon’s reign is a partial fulfillment of this promise (cp. 2 Sam 7:10-11 with 1 Kgs 8:56; see also 1 Kgs 8:20, 24). God’s patience with the kings of Judah even when they turned away from him was the result of his covenant promise to David (see 1 Kgs 11:12-13; 15:3-5).<\/p>\n<p>The complete and final fulfillment of God’s covenant with David is found in the Messiah, Jesus Christ, the “son of David” (e.g., see Matt 9:27; 20:30-31; 21:9, 15). Isaiah foretold of one who would rule “from the throne of his ancestor David for all eternity” (Isa 9:7) and called him the “shoot” growing “out of the stump of David’s family” (Isa 11:1). Both of these references point to the coming Messiah. Four passages in the New Testament teach that Jesus is the ultimate fulfillment of the promises made to David by referring directly to 2 Sam 7:1-29 (Luke 1:32-33; Acts 2:29-31; 13:22-23; Heb 1:5). The New Testament opens (Matt 1:1) and closes (Rev 22:16) with reference to Jesus as the son of David, the successor to his throne.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 7:5-16; 1 Kgs 8:20-24; 11:9-13; 15:1-5; 2 Kgs 8:18-19; 2 Chr 7:17-22; Pss 89:3-4, 18-51; 132:10-12; Isa 9:6-7; 11:1-10; Jer 33:20-26; Matt 1:1; 20:30-31; 21:1-9; Luke 1:30-33, 67-79; Acts 2:22-36; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with David God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when h...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with David God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when h...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64723,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65230,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds","title_en":"Faith and Good Deeds","content_ro":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","summary_en":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87433,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Noah","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Noah","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Noah<\/h3>\n<p>The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite human faithlessness (see 6:1-7). Through this covenant, God guaranteed that he would maintain a relationship with this one family even as other divine-human relationships were being severed. God’s covenant promise to Noah came with his command to build an ark (6:14); Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to this divine command (6:22; 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>When Noah made an offering to God after the Flood (8:20-22), God elaborated on his covenant with Noah, indicating that it was a universal covenant with humans and with all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world.<\/p>\n<p>This covenant helps us understand God as a covenant maker. Although human beings deserve punishment because of their wickedness, God withholds ultimate destruction. God’s covenant with Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being, but it recalibrated moral and ecological life to be as God intended it (9:1-7), leaving open the possibility of a more intimate covenant to come (see 17:1-21). Despite their evil, human beings are allowed to live in God’s world and seek a deeper relationship with the world’s Creator during their time on earth. God’s later covenants with his people made intimacy with him freely available to all (see Acts 2:22-40; 3:17-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; Ezek 14:12-23; Matt 24:37-39; Heb 11:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Noah<\/h3>\n<p>The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite human faithlessness (see 6:1-7). Through this covenant, God guaranteed that he would maintain a relationship with this one family even as other divine-human relationships were being severed. God’s covenant promise to Noah came with his command to build an ark (6:14); Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to this divine command (6:22; 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>When Noah made an offering to God after the Flood (8:20-22), God elaborated on his covenant with Noah, indicating that it was a universal covenant with humans and with all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world.<\/p>\n<p>This covenant helps us understand God as a covenant maker. Although human beings deserve punishment because of their wickedness, God withholds ultimate destruction. God’s covenant with Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being, but it recalibrated moral and ecological life to be as God intended it (9:1-7), leaving open the possibility of a more intimate covenant to come (see 17:1-21). Despite their evil, human beings are allowed to live in God’s world and seek a deeper relationship with the world’s Creator during their time on earth. God’s later covenants with his people made intimacy with him freely available to all (see Acts 2:22-40; 3:17-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; Ezek 14:12-23; Matt 24:37-39; Heb 11:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Noah The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite hu...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Noah The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite hu...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87445,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations","title_en":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Babel: The Dispersion of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord. God saw the danger that this posed: Their independence and arrogance would set them right back into a whirlpool of wickedness and, ultimately, destruction. So God intervened to “confuse the people with different languages” (11:7) and “[scatter] them all over the world” (11:9). Babel thus begins the history of differences and misunderstandings between peoples and nations who cannot understand one another’s languages and cultures—a separation that only begins to be reversed with the coming of the Holy Spirit (see Acts 2).<\/p>\n<p>After the dispersion of the nations at Babel, God renewed his relationship with humanity in Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-9). In contrast with the people at Babel, Abraham was righteous because he “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>” and lived by faith in God rather than pride in his accomplishments (15:6; 17:1; 18:19; 26:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:1-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Babel: The Dispersion of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord. God saw the danger that this posed: Their independence and arrogance would set them right back into a whirlpool of wickedness and, ultimately, destruction. So God intervened to “confuse the people with different languages” (11:7) and “[scatter] them all over the world” (11:9). Babel thus begins the history of differences and misunderstandings between peoples and nations who cannot understand one another’s languages and cultures—a separation that only begins to be reversed with the coming of the Holy Spirit (see Acts 2).<\/p>\n<p>After the dispersion of the nations at Babel, God renewed his relationship with humanity in Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-9). In contrast with the people at Babel, Abraham was righteous because he “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>” and lived by faith in God rather than pride in his accomplishments (15:6; 17:1; 18:19; 26:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:1-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord...","summary_en":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87505,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88964,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with David","title_en":"God’s Covenant with David","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with David<\/h3>\n<p>God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when he promised a royal dynasty to David (2 Sam 7:4-17). In addition, God promised through Jeremiah to make a “new covenant” in the future (Jer 31:31-34).<\/p>\n<p>God’s promise to David is not explicitly identified as a covenant in 2 Samuel 7. However, other passages do identify the event as a covenant (see 23:5; 2 Chr 7:18; 21:7; Pss 89:3-4, 28-29; 132:11-12; Isa 55:3; Jer 33:20-21). God’s promise to David that his “favor will not be taken from him” (2 Sam 7:15) speaks of a covenant relationship. Like God’s promise to Abraham, his covenant with David is unconditional: It does not depend on human obedience or faithfulness but only on God’s unchanging love.<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of this covenant is God’s promise to raise up David’s successors forever and to be a father to them (cp. 1 Kgs 11:36; 15:4; 2 Kgs 8:19). God’s blessing on Solomon’s reign is a partial fulfillment of this promise (cp. 2 Sam 7:10-11 with 1 Kgs 8:56; see also 1 Kgs 8:20, 24). God’s patience with the kings of Judah even when they turned away from him was the result of his covenant promise to David (see 1 Kgs 11:12-13; 15:3-5).<\/p>\n<p>The complete and final fulfillment of God’s covenant with David is found in the Messiah, Jesus Christ, the “son of David” (e.g., see Matt 9:27; 20:30-31; 21:9, 15). Isaiah foretold of one who would rule “from the throne of his ancestor David for all eternity” (Isa 9:7) and called him the “shoot” growing “out of the stump of David’s family” (Isa 11:1). Both of these references point to the coming Messiah. Four passages in the New Testament teach that Jesus is the ultimate fulfillment of the promises made to David by referring directly to 2 Sam 7:1-29 (Luke 1:32-33; Acts 2:29-31; 13:22-23; Heb 1:5). The New Testament opens (Matt 1:1) and closes (Rev 22:16) with reference to Jesus as the son of David, the successor to his throne.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 7:5-16; 1 Kgs 8:20-24; 11:9-13; 15:1-5; 2 Kgs 8:18-19; 2 Chr 7:17-22; Pss 89:3-4, 18-51; 132:10-12; Isa 9:6-7; 11:1-10; Jer 33:20-26; Matt 1:1; 20:30-31; 21:1-9; Luke 1:30-33, 67-79; Acts 2:22-36; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with David<\/h3>\n<p>God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when he promised a royal dynasty to David (2 Sam 7:4-17). In addition, God promised through Jeremiah to make a “new covenant” in the future (Jer 31:31-34).<\/p>\n<p>God’s promise to David is not explicitly identified as a covenant in 2 Samuel 7. However, other passages do identify the event as a covenant (see 23:5; 2 Chr 7:18; 21:7; Pss 89:3-4, 28-29; 132:11-12; Isa 55:3; Jer 33:20-21). God’s promise to David that his “favor will not be taken from him” (2 Sam 7:15) speaks of a covenant relationship. Like God’s promise to Abraham, his covenant with David is unconditional: It does not depend on human obedience or faithfulness but only on God’s unchanging love.<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of this covenant is God’s promise to raise up David’s successors forever and to be a father to them (cp. 1 Kgs 11:36; 15:4; 2 Kgs 8:19). God’s blessing on Solomon’s reign is a partial fulfillment of this promise (cp. 2 Sam 7:10-11 with 1 Kgs 8:56; see also 1 Kgs 8:20, 24). God’s patience with the kings of Judah even when they turned away from him was the result of his covenant promise to David (see 1 Kgs 11:12-13; 15:3-5).<\/p>\n<p>The complete and final fulfillment of God’s covenant with David is found in the Messiah, Jesus Christ, the “son of David” (e.g., see Matt 9:27; 20:30-31; 21:9, 15). Isaiah foretold of one who would rule “from the throne of his ancestor David for all eternity” (Isa 9:7) and called him the “shoot” growing “out of the stump of David’s family” (Isa 11:1). Both of these references point to the coming Messiah. Four passages in the New Testament teach that Jesus is the ultimate fulfillment of the promises made to David by referring directly to 2 Sam 7:1-29 (Luke 1:32-33; Acts 2:29-31; 13:22-23; Heb 1:5). The New Testament opens (Matt 1:1) and closes (Rev 22:16) with reference to Jesus as the son of David, the successor to his throne.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 7:5-16; 1 Kgs 8:20-24; 11:9-13; 15:1-5; 2 Kgs 8:18-19; 2 Chr 7:17-22; Pss 89:3-4, 18-51; 132:10-12; Isa 9:6-7; 11:1-10; Jer 33:20-26; Matt 1:1; 20:30-31; 21:1-9; Luke 1:30-33, 67-79; Acts 2:22-36; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with David God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when h...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with David God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when h...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92349,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92856,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds","title_en":"Faith and Good Deeds","content_ro":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","summary_en":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115059,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Noah","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Noah","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Noah<\/h3>\n<p>The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite human faithlessness (see 6:1-7). Through this covenant, God guaranteed that he would maintain a relationship with this one family even as other divine-human relationships were being severed. God’s covenant promise to Noah came with his command to build an ark (6:14); Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to this divine command (6:22; 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>When Noah made an offering to God after the Flood (8:20-22), God elaborated on his covenant with Noah, indicating that it was a universal covenant with humans and with all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world.<\/p>\n<p>This covenant helps us understand God as a covenant maker. Although human beings deserve punishment because of their wickedness, God withholds ultimate destruction. God’s covenant with Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being, but it recalibrated moral and ecological life to be as God intended it (9:1-7), leaving open the possibility of a more intimate covenant to come (see 17:1-21). Despite their evil, human beings are allowed to live in God’s world and seek a deeper relationship with the world’s Creator during their time on earth. God’s later covenants with his people made intimacy with him freely available to all (see Acts 2:22-40; 3:17-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; Ezek 14:12-23; Matt 24:37-39; Heb 11:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Noah<\/h3>\n<p>The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite human faithlessness (see 6:1-7). Through this covenant, God guaranteed that he would maintain a relationship with this one family even as other divine-human relationships were being severed. God’s covenant promise to Noah came with his command to build an ark (6:14); Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to this divine command (6:22; 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>When Noah made an offering to God after the Flood (8:20-22), God elaborated on his covenant with Noah, indicating that it was a universal covenant with humans and with all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world.<\/p>\n<p>This covenant helps us understand God as a covenant maker. Although human beings deserve punishment because of their wickedness, God withholds ultimate destruction. God’s covenant with Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being, but it recalibrated moral and ecological life to be as God intended it (9:1-7), leaving open the possibility of a more intimate covenant to come (see 17:1-21). Despite their evil, human beings are allowed to live in God’s world and seek a deeper relationship with the world’s Creator during their time on earth. God’s later covenants with his people made intimacy with him freely available to all (see Acts 2:22-40; 3:17-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; Ezek 14:12-23; Matt 24:37-39; Heb 11:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Noah The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite hu...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Noah The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite hu...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115071,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations","title_en":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Babel: The Dispersion of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord. God saw the danger that this posed: Their independence and arrogance would set them right back into a whirlpool of wickedness and, ultimately, destruction. So God intervened to “confuse the people with different languages” (11:7) and “[scatter] them all over the world” (11:9). Babel thus begins the history of differences and misunderstandings between peoples and nations who cannot understand one another’s languages and cultures—a separation that only begins to be reversed with the coming of the Holy Spirit (see Acts 2).<\/p>\n<p>After the dispersion of the nations at Babel, God renewed his relationship with humanity in Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-9). In contrast with the people at Babel, Abraham was righteous because he “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>” and lived by faith in God rather than pride in his accomplishments (15:6; 17:1; 18:19; 26:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:1-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Babel: The Dispersion of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord. God saw the danger that this posed: Their independence and arrogance would set them right back into a whirlpool of wickedness and, ultimately, destruction. So God intervened to “confuse the people with different languages” (11:7) and “[scatter] them all over the world” (11:9). Babel thus begins the history of differences and misunderstandings between peoples and nations who cannot understand one another’s languages and cultures—a separation that only begins to be reversed with the coming of the Holy Spirit (see Acts 2).<\/p>\n<p>After the dispersion of the nations at Babel, God renewed his relationship with humanity in Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-9). In contrast with the people at Babel, Abraham was righteous because he “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>” and lived by faith in God rather than pride in his accomplishments (15:6; 17:1; 18:19; 26:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:1-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord...","summary_en":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115131,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116590,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with David","title_en":"God’s Covenant with David","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with David<\/h3>\n<p>God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when he promised a royal dynasty to David (2 Sam 7:4-17). In addition, God promised through Jeremiah to make a “new covenant” in the future (Jer 31:31-34).<\/p>\n<p>God’s promise to David is not explicitly identified as a covenant in 2 Samuel 7. However, other passages do identify the event as a covenant (see 23:5; 2 Chr 7:18; 21:7; Pss 89:3-4, 28-29; 132:11-12; Isa 55:3; Jer 33:20-21). God’s promise to David that his “favor will not be taken from him” (2 Sam 7:15) speaks of a covenant relationship. Like God’s promise to Abraham, his covenant with David is unconditional: It does not depend on human obedience or faithfulness but only on God’s unchanging love.<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of this covenant is God’s promise to raise up David’s successors forever and to be a father to them (cp. 1 Kgs 11:36; 15:4; 2 Kgs 8:19). God’s blessing on Solomon’s reign is a partial fulfillment of this promise (cp. 2 Sam 7:10-11 with 1 Kgs 8:56; see also 1 Kgs 8:20, 24). God’s patience with the kings of Judah even when they turned away from him was the result of his covenant promise to David (see 1 Kgs 11:12-13; 15:3-5).<\/p>\n<p>The complete and final fulfillment of God’s covenant with David is found in the Messiah, Jesus Christ, the “son of David” (e.g., see Matt 9:27; 20:30-31; 21:9, 15). Isaiah foretold of one who would rule “from the throne of his ancestor David for all eternity” (Isa 9:7) and called him the “shoot” growing “out of the stump of David’s family” (Isa 11:1). Both of these references point to the coming Messiah. Four passages in the New Testament teach that Jesus is the ultimate fulfillment of the promises made to David by referring directly to 2 Sam 7:1-29 (Luke 1:32-33; Acts 2:29-31; 13:22-23; Heb 1:5). The New Testament opens (Matt 1:1) and closes (Rev 22:16) with reference to Jesus as the son of David, the successor to his throne.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 7:5-16; 1 Kgs 8:20-24; 11:9-13; 15:1-5; 2 Kgs 8:18-19; 2 Chr 7:17-22; Pss 89:3-4, 18-51; 132:10-12; Isa 9:6-7; 11:1-10; Jer 33:20-26; Matt 1:1; 20:30-31; 21:1-9; Luke 1:30-33, 67-79; Acts 2:22-36; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with David<\/h3>\n<p>God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when he promised a royal dynasty to David (2 Sam 7:4-17). In addition, God promised through Jeremiah to make a “new covenant” in the future (Jer 31:31-34).<\/p>\n<p>God’s promise to David is not explicitly identified as a covenant in 2 Samuel 7. However, other passages do identify the event as a covenant (see 23:5; 2 Chr 7:18; 21:7; Pss 89:3-4, 28-29; 132:11-12; Isa 55:3; Jer 33:20-21). God’s promise to David that his “favor will not be taken from him” (2 Sam 7:15) speaks of a covenant relationship. Like God’s promise to Abraham, his covenant with David is unconditional: It does not depend on human obedience or faithfulness but only on God’s unchanging love.<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of this covenant is God’s promise to raise up David’s successors forever and to be a father to them (cp. 1 Kgs 11:36; 15:4; 2 Kgs 8:19). God’s blessing on Solomon’s reign is a partial fulfillment of this promise (cp. 2 Sam 7:10-11 with 1 Kgs 8:56; see also 1 Kgs 8:20, 24). God’s patience with the kings of Judah even when they turned away from him was the result of his covenant promise to David (see 1 Kgs 11:12-13; 15:3-5).<\/p>\n<p>The complete and final fulfillment of God’s covenant with David is found in the Messiah, Jesus Christ, the “son of David” (e.g., see Matt 9:27; 20:30-31; 21:9, 15). Isaiah foretold of one who would rule “from the throne of his ancestor David for all eternity” (Isa 9:7) and called him the “shoot” growing “out of the stump of David’s family” (Isa 11:1). Both of these references point to the coming Messiah. Four passages in the New Testament teach that Jesus is the ultimate fulfillment of the promises made to David by referring directly to 2 Sam 7:1-29 (Luke 1:32-33; Acts 2:29-31; 13:22-23; Heb 1:5). The New Testament opens (Matt 1:1) and closes (Rev 22:16) with reference to Jesus as the son of David, the successor to his throne.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 7:5-16; 1 Kgs 8:20-24; 11:9-13; 15:1-5; 2 Kgs 8:18-19; 2 Chr 7:17-22; Pss 89:3-4, 18-51; 132:10-12; Isa 9:6-7; 11:1-10; Jer 33:20-26; Matt 1:1; 20:30-31; 21:1-9; Luke 1:30-33, 67-79; Acts 2:22-36; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with David God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when h...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with David God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when h...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119975,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120482,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds","title_en":"Faith and Good Deeds","content_ro":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","summary_en":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142685,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Noah","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Noah","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Noah<\/h3>\n<p>The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite human faithlessness (see 6:1-7). Through this covenant, God guaranteed that he would maintain a relationship with this one family even as other divine-human relationships were being severed. God’s covenant promise to Noah came with his command to build an ark (6:14); Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to this divine command (6:22; 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>When Noah made an offering to God after the Flood (8:20-22), God elaborated on his covenant with Noah, indicating that it was a universal covenant with humans and with all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world.<\/p>\n<p>This covenant helps us understand God as a covenant maker. Although human beings deserve punishment because of their wickedness, God withholds ultimate destruction. God’s covenant with Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being, but it recalibrated moral and ecological life to be as God intended it (9:1-7), leaving open the possibility of a more intimate covenant to come (see 17:1-21). Despite their evil, human beings are allowed to live in God’s world and seek a deeper relationship with the world’s Creator during their time on earth. God’s later covenants with his people made intimacy with him freely available to all (see Acts 2:22-40; 3:17-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; Ezek 14:12-23; Matt 24:37-39; Heb 11:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Noah<\/h3>\n<p>The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite human faithlessness (see 6:1-7). Through this covenant, God guaranteed that he would maintain a relationship with this one family even as other divine-human relationships were being severed. God’s covenant promise to Noah came with his command to build an ark (6:14); Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to this divine command (6:22; 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>When Noah made an offering to God after the Flood (8:20-22), God elaborated on his covenant with Noah, indicating that it was a universal covenant with humans and with all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world.<\/p>\n<p>This covenant helps us understand God as a covenant maker. Although human beings deserve punishment because of their wickedness, God withholds ultimate destruction. God’s covenant with Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being, but it recalibrated moral and ecological life to be as God intended it (9:1-7), leaving open the possibility of a more intimate covenant to come (see 17:1-21). Despite their evil, human beings are allowed to live in God’s world and seek a deeper relationship with the world’s Creator during their time on earth. God’s later covenants with his people made intimacy with him freely available to all (see Acts 2:22-40; 3:17-26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; Ezek 14:12-23; Matt 24:37-39; Heb 11:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Noah The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite hu...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Noah The first explicit reference to a covenant in Scripture occurs immediately after the Flood (Gen 9:1-17). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger (6:11-13), but his gracious favor remained with Noah (6:8). When God charged Noah to build an ark to escape the impending deluge (6:13-17), he also promised to establish a covenant with him (6:18). God took the initiative to bind himself again to human beings and to the whole creation despite hu...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142697,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations","title_en":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Babel: The Dispersion of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord. God saw the danger that this posed: Their independence and arrogance would set them right back into a whirlpool of wickedness and, ultimately, destruction. So God intervened to “confuse the people with different languages” (11:7) and “[scatter] them all over the world” (11:9). Babel thus begins the history of differences and misunderstandings between peoples and nations who cannot understand one another’s languages and cultures—a separation that only begins to be reversed with the coming of the Holy Spirit (see Acts 2).<\/p>\n<p>After the dispersion of the nations at Babel, God renewed his relationship with humanity in Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-9). In contrast with the people at Babel, Abraham was righteous because he “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>” and lived by faith in God rather than pride in his accomplishments (15:6; 17:1; 18:19; 26:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:1-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Babel: The Dispersion of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord. God saw the danger that this posed: Their independence and arrogance would set them right back into a whirlpool of wickedness and, ultimately, destruction. So God intervened to “confuse the people with different languages” (11:7) and “[scatter] them all over the world” (11:9). Babel thus begins the history of differences and misunderstandings between peoples and nations who cannot understand one another’s languages and cultures—a separation that only begins to be reversed with the coming of the Holy Spirit (see Acts 2).<\/p>\n<p>After the dispersion of the nations at Babel, God renewed his relationship with humanity in Abraham and his descendants (Gen 12:1-9). In contrast with the people at Babel, Abraham was righteous because he “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>” and lived by faith in God rather than pride in his accomplishments (15:6; 17:1; 18:19; 26:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:1-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord...","summary_en":"Babel: The Dispersion of Nations The story of the tower of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven, explains how nations and ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically. After the Flood, when God had judged an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again rebelled against their Creator by constructing a tower “that reaches into the sky” (Gen 11:4). Instead of worshiping the Lord, their intention was to exalt themselves and unify themselves apart from the Lord...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142757,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144216,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with David","title_en":"God’s Covenant with David","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with David<\/h3>\n<p>God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when he promised a royal dynasty to David (2 Sam 7:4-17). In addition, God promised through Jeremiah to make a “new covenant” in the future (Jer 31:31-34).<\/p>\n<p>God’s promise to David is not explicitly identified as a covenant in 2 Samuel 7. However, other passages do identify the event as a covenant (see 23:5; 2 Chr 7:18; 21:7; Pss 89:3-4, 28-29; 132:11-12; Isa 55:3; Jer 33:20-21). God’s promise to David that his “favor will not be taken from him” (2 Sam 7:15) speaks of a covenant relationship. Like God’s promise to Abraham, his covenant with David is unconditional: It does not depend on human obedience or faithfulness but only on God’s unchanging love.<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of this covenant is God’s promise to raise up David’s successors forever and to be a father to them (cp. 1 Kgs 11:36; 15:4; 2 Kgs 8:19). God’s blessing on Solomon’s reign is a partial fulfillment of this promise (cp. 2 Sam 7:10-11 with 1 Kgs 8:56; see also 1 Kgs 8:20, 24). God’s patience with the kings of Judah even when they turned away from him was the result of his covenant promise to David (see 1 Kgs 11:12-13; 15:3-5).<\/p>\n<p>The complete and final fulfillment of God’s covenant with David is found in the Messiah, Jesus Christ, the “son of David” (e.g., see Matt 9:27; 20:30-31; 21:9, 15). Isaiah foretold of one who would rule “from the throne of his ancestor David for all eternity” (Isa 9:7) and called him the “shoot” growing “out of the stump of David’s family” (Isa 11:1). Both of these references point to the coming Messiah. Four passages in the New Testament teach that Jesus is the ultimate fulfillment of the promises made to David by referring directly to 2 Sam 7:1-29 (Luke 1:32-33; Acts 2:29-31; 13:22-23; Heb 1:5). The New Testament opens (Matt 1:1) and closes (Rev 22:16) with reference to Jesus as the son of David, the successor to his throne.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 7:5-16; 1 Kgs 8:20-24; 11:9-13; 15:1-5; 2 Kgs 8:18-19; 2 Chr 7:17-22; Pss 89:3-4, 18-51; 132:10-12; Isa 9:6-7; 11:1-10; Jer 33:20-26; Matt 1:1; 20:30-31; 21:1-9; Luke 1:30-33, 67-79; Acts 2:22-36; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with David<\/h3>\n<p>God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when he promised a royal dynasty to David (2 Sam 7:4-17). In addition, God promised through Jeremiah to make a “new covenant” in the future (Jer 31:31-34).<\/p>\n<p>God’s promise to David is not explicitly identified as a covenant in 2 Samuel 7. However, other passages do identify the event as a covenant (see 23:5; 2 Chr 7:18; 21:7; Pss 89:3-4, 28-29; 132:11-12; Isa 55:3; Jer 33:20-21). God’s promise to David that his “favor will not be taken from him” (2 Sam 7:15) speaks of a covenant relationship. Like God’s promise to Abraham, his covenant with David is unconditional: It does not depend on human obedience or faithfulness but only on God’s unchanging love.<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of this covenant is God’s promise to raise up David’s successors forever and to be a father to them (cp. 1 Kgs 11:36; 15:4; 2 Kgs 8:19). God’s blessing on Solomon’s reign is a partial fulfillment of this promise (cp. 2 Sam 7:10-11 with 1 Kgs 8:56; see also 1 Kgs 8:20, 24). God’s patience with the kings of Judah even when they turned away from him was the result of his covenant promise to David (see 1 Kgs 11:12-13; 15:3-5).<\/p>\n<p>The complete and final fulfillment of God’s covenant with David is found in the Messiah, Jesus Christ, the “son of David” (e.g., see Matt 9:27; 20:30-31; 21:9, 15). Isaiah foretold of one who would rule “from the throne of his ancestor David for all eternity” (Isa 9:7) and called him the “shoot” growing “out of the stump of David’s family” (Isa 11:1). Both of these references point to the coming Messiah. Four passages in the New Testament teach that Jesus is the ultimate fulfillment of the promises made to David by referring directly to 2 Sam 7:1-29 (Luke 1:32-33; Acts 2:29-31; 13:22-23; Heb 1:5). The New Testament opens (Matt 1:1) and closes (Rev 22:16) with reference to Jesus as the son of David, the successor to his throne.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 7:5-16; 1 Kgs 8:20-24; 11:9-13; 15:1-5; 2 Kgs 8:18-19; 2 Chr 7:17-22; Pss 89:3-4, 18-51; 132:10-12; Isa 9:6-7; 11:1-10; Jer 33:20-26; Matt 1:1; 20:30-31; 21:1-9; Luke 1:30-33, 67-79; Acts 2:22-36; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with David God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when h...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with David God made covenants with his people five times in the Old Testament: (1) when he promised Noah that humanity would never again be destroyed by a flood (Gen 6:18; 9:1-17); (2) when he promised Abraham that he would inherit the land of Canaan and establish a great nation (Gen 15:1-21; 17:1-27); (3) when he formed a unique relationship with Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses (Exod 19–23); (4) when he promised a priestly dynasty to Phinehas (Num 25:10-13); and (5) when h...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147601,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148108,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds","title_en":"Faith and Good Deeds","content_ro":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Faith and Good Deeds<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consistent feature of Jesus’ teachings (e.g., Matt 7:13-27; 13:3-9, 18-23; 16:27). For Jesus, works are a sure indicator of faith, which begins with repentance—a conversion of the heart and mind that involves turning away from sin to God (Matt 4:17; see also 3:2, 8-10; 11:20-24; 12:38-42).<\/p>\n<p>A misapplication of the concept of salvation by grace alone has led to a false dichotomy between faith and works. Salvation is not achieved by works, but neither is it without works (see Gal 5:6, 21; Eph 2:10; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:8). Jesus promises blessing and reward to those who live in accord with God’s will (Matt 5:3-12). Consequently, righteousness is required of those who want to enter the Kingdom (5:20-48; 7:21; 22:11-14; 23:3). Faith that does not result in works is not saving faith (Jas 2:14-26).<\/p>\n<p>James, in his conspicuous emphasis on faithfulness to God, argues for charitable deeds as an expression of faith (2:14-26). A faith relationship with God cannot be based merely on believing a true statement (2:19). Saving faith results in actions (1:22-25; 2:14). Faithful actions emulate God, who generously gives good gifts (1:5, 17; 4:6). Faith and good deeds are therefore inseparable. As with Abraham, good deeds show that a person has complete faith and is righteous before God (2:23; see Gen 15:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught and modeled faith that does good deeds (see Matt 5:13-16), and Paul also affirmed the need for good deeds (Rom 2:6; Gal 6:5-10; Eph 2:10; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Thes 1:3). James points to some specific actions which demonstrate faith, including caring for orphans and widows (1:27), avoiding favoritism toward the rich (2:1-7), providing food and clothing for the poor (2:15-17), controlling one’s tongue (3:1-12), promoting peace (3:17-18), and refraining from judging others (4:11-12). All of these things can be understood as “faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:1; 22:1-19; Lev 22:31; Hab 2:4; Matt 3:2, 8-10; 4:17; 5:3-12, 20-48; 7:13-27; 10:32-33; 11:20-24; 12:33-42; 13:3-9, 18-23; 15:15-20; 16:27; 25:31-46; John 15:2; Rom 2:6; Gal 5:6, 16-26; 6:5-10; Eph 2:8-10; 5:3-9; Phil 2:12-13; Heb 11:1-40; Jas 2:14-26; 1 Jn 1:5-10; Rev 21:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","summary_en":"Faith and Good Deeds Jesus did not teach salvation by works—he taught the necessity of a conversion (an internal reorientation toward God by an act of God’s grace), which results in a life of obedience. Good works are the natural consequence of a relationship with Jesus Christ (see, e.g., Matt 7:15-20; 12:33-37; 15:15-20). The parable of the sheep and the goats is an example of the indissoluble link between faith and works. The connection between faith, works, and final approval is a consiste...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":59906,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87532,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115158,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142784,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":14712,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Grace","title_en":"Grace","content_ro":"<h3>GRACE<\/h3>\n<p>The gift of God as expressed in his actions of extending mercy, loving-kindness, and salvation to people.<\/p>\n<p>Grace is the dimension of divine activity that enables God to confront human indifference and rebellion with an inexhaustible capacity to forgive and to bless. God is gracious in action. The doctrine of divine grace underlies the thought of both the OT and NT. However, the OT merely anticipates and prepares for the full expression of grace that becomes manifest in the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GraceintheOldTestament\">Grace in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Early in the narrative of the OT, God reveals himself as a “God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). As a result, it becomes possible for undeserving humans to approach him with the prayer, “If now I have found favor [or grace] in thy sight, O Lord, . . .” (Ex 34:9, <span>rsv<\/span>). Through divine initiative, human alienation from God is turned by him into a state of unmerited acceptance that opens the way for reconciliation and redemptive usefulness.<\/p>\n<p>Divine grace was already operative in the Garden of Eden when God responded to the debacle of the fall with the promise of redemption (Gn 3:15) and solicitous care rather than with abandonment or retributive annihilation. The call to Abraham was an extension of grace, not only to him as an individual, but through him as a means of universal outreach. As an inseparable part of God’s promise of individual blessing to Abraham and of a national blessing to his descendants, the indication was given that the individual and the national blessings would be instrumental in bringing about a universal blessing to “all the families of the earth” (Gn 12:2-3). Consequently, both the election of Abraham and the promise of universal blessing find expression in a God-given covenant, the object of which is to extend God’s grace to the whole human race. In a solemn confirmation of the promise to Abraham, God affirmed, “My covenant is with you, and you shall be the father of a multitude of nations. . . . And I will establish my covenant between me and you and your descendants after you throughout their generations for an everlasting covenant” (Gn 17:4, 7, <span>rsv<\/span>). This promise was to be understood as finding fulfillment on the basis of grace, not of race, so that it would become applicable to all Abraham’s offspring—not only to Jewish believers, his racial descendants, but also to his spiritual descendants, believers from all nations who profess a faith like Abraham’s (Rom 4:16). Thus, from the perspective of divine grace, the election of Abraham and of national Israel was not an end in itself. It was God’s plan for extending his redemptive designs to all believers, from all nations. In extending his grace to Abraham, God was establishing the beginnings of the church, the community of grace.<\/p>\n<p>The divine particularism evidenced in the election of Abraham and in his becoming the recipient of God’s grace provides a model for the selection of all the individuals used by God in the history of redemption. Beyond the benefits of grace accorded to individuals such as Abraham, David, the prophets, and later the apostles, by virtue of their call, loomed the potential of their contributions to the fulfillment of the covenant of God on behalf of the community of those who share the faith of Abraham—the church. In the gracious dealings of God with Israel, with its patriarchs and its leaders, God was laying the basis for his outreach of grace to the church universal. God’s gracious interventions in the old covenant were intended to manifest the ultimacy of the church in his redemptive purposes. In the exercise of their ministries, the prophets of the old covenant knew that they were serving not themselves but the church (1 Pt 1:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>As a transitional, mediatory expression of divine grace, the institutions of the old covenant possessed only a temporary validity that has been superseded by the ultimate manifestations of God’s grace in the new covenant (Heb 8:6-7). Consequently, the old covenant was to become obsolete and replaced by a new covenant that would display the full manifestation of God’s grace. The proverbial tension between law and grace becomes intelligible in this perspective. Like the election of racial Israel, the law (as one of the most visible institutions of the old covenant) was a temporary measure of divine grace accorded to anticipate and prepare the covenant of justification through grace by faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 3:23-29; Heb 10:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GraceintheNewTestament\">Grace in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The concept of grace defined as God’s active involvement on behalf of his people receives a sharper focus in the NT. Divine grace becomes embodied in the person of Jesus Christ, who demonstrates visibly the dynamic nature of God’s grace and fulfills in his ministry of redemption the old covenant promises relative to God’s gracious dealings with humanity (Jn 1:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s grace manifested in Jesus Christ makes it possible for God to forgive sinners and to gather them in the church, the new covenant community. During his ministry, Jesus repeatedly pronounced the words of forgiveness on a great number of sinners and ministered God’s benevolent succor to a variety of desperate human needs. Through teachings such as the father’s forgiveness of the prodigal son and the search for the lost sheep, Jesus made it clear that he had come to seek and save those who were lost. But ultimately it was his redemptive death on the cross that opened wide the gate of salvation for repentant sinners to find access to God’s forgiving and restorative grace. This simple truth is formulated in the doctrine of justification by faith through grace (Rom 3:23; Ti 3:7). According to this teaching, God’s gracious provision of the substitutionary death of Christ enables him to pronounce a verdict of “just” or “not guilty” on repentant sinners and to include them in his eternal purposes. As a result, they enter into the realm of God’s gracious activity, which enables them to implement the process of individual sanctification in cooperation with the Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>God’s grace manifested in Jesus Christ also makes it possible for God to bestow on believers undeserved benefits that enrich their lives and unite them together in the church, the body of Christ. Their acceptance on the basis of grace endows them with a new status as children of God, members of the household of God, so that they relate to him as to their heavenly Father (Gal 4:4-6). Consequently, they become members of a community where race, class, and sex distinctions are irrelevant, since they all became equal inheritors of God’s age-long promise to Abraham of universal blessing (3:28-29). In order to enrich their individual lives and to assure the usefulness of their participation in the life of the new community, the Holy Spirit graciously energizes believers with a variety of gifts for the performance of ministries designed to benefit the church (Rom 12:6-8). Foremost among those ministries is that of apostle, itself closely linked to God’s gracious provision (1:5; 15:15-16) since it combines with the ministry of the prophets of old to provide the foundational structure of the church (Eph 2:20). Because the riches of divine grace are freely lavished upon believers in their community life upon earth (1:7-8), the church translated into eternity will demonstrate, by its very existence, the immeasurable riches of God’s grace in Jesus Christ (2:6).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God’s grace manifested in Jesus Christ makes it possible for God to cause believers to reflect his grace in their character and relationships. The irreducible condition for receiving God’s grace is humility (Jas 4:6; 1 Pt 5:5). Such humility in relation to God enables believers to practice humility in regard to other people. From a position of grace, they can set aside selfishness and conceit in order to treat others with deference (Phil 2:3-4) in an attitude of mutual servanthood (Eph 5:21), and in a spirit of mutual forgiveness (Mt 18:23-35) so that even their communication can exhibit divine grace (Col 4:6). Since the grace of Jesus Christ constitutes the existential context of the lives and relationships of believers, they are exhorted not to pervert the grace of God into ungodly practice (Jude 1:4) but instead to grow in the grace of the Lord (2 Pt 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>The essential meaning of grace in the Bible refers to God’s disposition to exercise goodwill toward his creatures. This favorable disposition of God finds its supreme expression in Jesus Christ. By its very definition, this grace is rendered fully accessible to all humans with no other precondition than a repentant desire to receive it (Ti 2:11-12). As a result, the human condition of alienation from God and from his purposes becomes replaced with access to the otherwise unapproachable majesty of God represented by a throne, so that his grace may become available to meet human need (Heb 4:16). The tragic alternative to receiving God’s grace is to remain in hopeless alienation or to pursue sterile attempts to merit God’s favor through human efforts doomed to futility (Rom 1:21). God’s unconditional acceptance of sinners may be conditioned only by their rejection of his acceptance.<\/p>\n<p>Because Christ represents the fulfillment, the embodiment, and the dispenser of divine grace, the early Christians freely referred to God’s grace as “the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ.” This grace was conceived as being so basic and so pervasive to their individual lives and to the existence of their communities of faith that they naturally coupled the traditional greeting of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> (“peace”) with a reference to the grace of Jesus Christ. This is the reason for the ubiquitous repetition of numerous variations on the basic greeting formula found in almost every book of the NT, “The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all” (2 Thes 3:18).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Love; Mercy.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GRACE<\/h3>\n<p>The gift of God as expressed in his actions of extending mercy, loving-kindness, and salvation to people.<\/p>\n<p>Grace is the dimension of divine activity that enables God to confront human indifference and rebellion with an inexhaustible capacity to forgive and to bless. God is gracious in action. The doctrine of divine grace underlies the thought of both the OT and NT. However, the OT merely anticipates and prepares for the full expression of grace that becomes manifest in the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GraceintheOldTestament\">Grace in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Early in the narrative of the OT, God reveals himself as a “God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). As a result, it becomes possible for undeserving humans to approach him with the prayer, “If now I have found favor [or grace] in thy sight, O Lord, . . .” (Ex 34:9, <span>rsv<\/span>). Through divine initiative, human alienation from God is turned by him into a state of unmerited acceptance that opens the way for reconciliation and redemptive usefulness.<\/p>\n<p>Divine grace was already operative in the Garden of Eden when God responded to the debacle of the fall with the promise of redemption (Gn 3:15) and solicitous care rather than with abandonment or retributive annihilation. The call to Abraham was an extension of grace, not only to him as an individual, but through him as a means of universal outreach. As an inseparable part of God’s promise of individual blessing to Abraham and of a national blessing to his descendants, the indication was given that the individual and the national blessings would be instrumental in bringing about a universal blessing to “all the families of the earth” (Gn 12:2-3). Consequently, both the election of Abraham and the promise of universal blessing find expression in a God-given covenant, the object of which is to extend God’s grace to the whole human race. In a solemn confirmation of the promise to Abraham, God affirmed, “My covenant is with you, and you shall be the father of a multitude of nations. . . . And I will establish my covenant between me and you and your descendants after you throughout their generations for an everlasting covenant” (Gn 17:4, 7, <span>rsv<\/span>). This promise was to be understood as finding fulfillment on the basis of grace, not of race, so that it would become applicable to all Abraham’s offspring—not only to Jewish believers, his racial descendants, but also to his spiritual descendants, believers from all nations who profess a faith like Abraham’s (Rom 4:16). Thus, from the perspective of divine grace, the election of Abraham and of national Israel was not an end in itself. It was God’s plan for extending his redemptive designs to all believers, from all nations. In extending his grace to Abraham, God was establishing the beginnings of the church, the community of grace.<\/p>\n<p>The divine particularism evidenced in the election of Abraham and in his becoming the recipient of God’s grace provides a model for the selection of all the individuals used by God in the history of redemption. Beyond the benefits of grace accorded to individuals such as Abraham, David, the prophets, and later the apostles, by virtue of their call, loomed the potential of their contributions to the fulfillment of the covenant of God on behalf of the community of those who share the faith of Abraham—the church. In the gracious dealings of God with Israel, with its patriarchs and its leaders, God was laying the basis for his outreach of grace to the church universal. God’s gracious interventions in the old covenant were intended to manifest the ultimacy of the church in his redemptive purposes. In the exercise of their ministries, the prophets of the old covenant knew that they were serving not themselves but the church (1 Pt 1:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>As a transitional, mediatory expression of divine grace, the institutions of the old covenant possessed only a temporary validity that has been superseded by the ultimate manifestations of God’s grace in the new covenant (Heb 8:6-7). Consequently, the old covenant was to become obsolete and replaced by a new covenant that would display the full manifestation of God’s grace. The proverbial tension between law and grace becomes intelligible in this perspective. Like the election of racial Israel, the law (as one of the most visible institutions of the old covenant) was a temporary measure of divine grace accorded to anticipate and prepare the covenant of justification through grace by faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 3:23-29; Heb 10:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GraceintheNewTestament\">Grace in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The concept of grace defined as God’s active involvement on behalf of his people receives a sharper focus in the NT. Divine grace becomes embodied in the person of Jesus Christ, who demonstrates visibly the dynamic nature of God’s grace and fulfills in his ministry of redemption the old covenant promises relative to God’s gracious dealings with humanity (Jn 1:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s grace manifested in Jesus Christ makes it possible for God to forgive sinners and to gather them in the church, the new covenant community. During his ministry, Jesus repeatedly pronounced the words of forgiveness on a great number of sinners and ministered God’s benevolent succor to a variety of desperate human needs. Through teachings such as the father’s forgiveness of the prodigal son and the search for the lost sheep, Jesus made it clear that he had come to seek and save those who were lost. But ultimately it was his redemptive death on the cross that opened wide the gate of salvation for repentant sinners to find access to God’s forgiving and restorative grace. This simple truth is formulated in the doctrine of justification by faith through grace (Rom 3:23; Ti 3:7). According to this teaching, God’s gracious provision of the substitutionary death of Christ enables him to pronounce a verdict of “just” or “not guilty” on repentant sinners and to include them in his eternal purposes. As a result, they enter into the realm of God’s gracious activity, which enables them to implement the process of individual sanctification in cooperation with the Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>God’s grace manifested in Jesus Christ also makes it possible for God to bestow on believers undeserved benefits that enrich their lives and unite them together in the church, the body of Christ. Their acceptance on the basis of grace endows them with a new status as children of God, members of the household of God, so that they relate to him as to their heavenly Father (Gal 4:4-6). Consequently, they become members of a community where race, class, and sex distinctions are irrelevant, since they all became equal inheritors of God’s age-long promise to Abraham of universal blessing (3:28-29). In order to enrich their individual lives and to assure the usefulness of their participation in the life of the new community, the Holy Spirit graciously energizes believers with a variety of gifts for the performance of ministries designed to benefit the church (Rom 12:6-8). Foremost among those ministries is that of apostle, itself closely linked to God’s gracious provision (1:5; 15:15-16) since it combines with the ministry of the prophets of old to provide the foundational structure of the church (Eph 2:20). Because the riches of divine grace are freely lavished upon believers in their community life upon earth (1:7-8), the church translated into eternity will demonstrate, by its very existence, the immeasurable riches of God’s grace in Jesus Christ (2:6).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God’s grace manifested in Jesus Christ makes it possible for God to cause believers to reflect his grace in their character and relationships. The irreducible condition for receiving God’s grace is humility (Jas 4:6; 1 Pt 5:5). Such humility in relation to God enables believers to practice humility in regard to other people. From a position of grace, they can set aside selfishness and conceit in order to treat others with deference (Phil 2:3-4) in an attitude of mutual servanthood (Eph 5:21), and in a spirit of mutual forgiveness (Mt 18:23-35) so that even their communication can exhibit divine grace (Col 4:6). Since the grace of Jesus Christ constitutes the existential context of the lives and relationships of believers, they are exhorted not to pervert the grace of God into ungodly practice (Jude 1:4) but instead to grow in the grace of the Lord (2 Pt 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>The essential meaning of grace in the Bible refers to God’s disposition to exercise goodwill toward his creatures. This favorable disposition of God finds its supreme expression in Jesus Christ. By its very definition, this grace is rendered fully accessible to all humans with no other precondition than a repentant desire to receive it (Ti 2:11-12). As a result, the human condition of alienation from God and from his purposes becomes replaced with access to the otherwise unapproachable majesty of God represented by a throne, so that his grace may become available to meet human need (Heb 4:16). The tragic alternative to receiving God’s grace is to remain in hopeless alienation or to pursue sterile attempts to merit God’s favor through human efforts doomed to futility (Rom 1:21). God’s unconditional acceptance of sinners may be conditioned only by their rejection of his acceptance.<\/p>\n<p>Because Christ represents the fulfillment, the embodiment, and the dispenser of divine grace, the early Christians freely referred to God’s grace as “the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ.” This grace was conceived as being so basic and so pervasive to their individual lives and to the existence of their communities of faith that they naturally coupled the traditional greeting of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span> (“peace”) with a reference to the grace of Jesus Christ. This is the reason for the ubiquitous repetition of numerous variations on the basic greeting formula found in almost every book of the NT, “The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all” (2 Thes 3:18).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Love; Mercy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GRACE The gift of God as expressed in his actions of extending mercy, loving-kindness, and salvation to people. Grace is the dimension of divine activity that enables God to confront human indifference and rebellion with an inexhaustible capacity to forgive and to bless. God is gracious in action. The doctrine of divine grace underlies the thought of both the OT and NT. However, the OT merely anticipates and prepares for the full expression of grace that becomes manifest in the NT. Grace in t...","summary_en":"GRACE The gift of God as expressed in his actions of extending mercy, loving-kindness, and salvation to people. Grace is the dimension of divine activity that enables God to confront human indifference and rebellion with an inexhaustible capacity to forgive and to bless. God is gracious in action. The doctrine of divine grace underlies the thought of both the OT and NT. However, the OT merely anticipates and prepares for the full expression of grace that becomes manifest in the NT. Grace in t...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22669,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Biblical Concept of Law","title_en":"Biblical Concept of Law","content_ro":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","summary_en":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43082,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:4","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:4-5<\/strong> God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. <em>Abram<\/em> referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, <em>Abraham<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ab hamon<\/span>) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:4-5<\/strong> God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. <em>Abram<\/em> referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, <em>Abraham<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ab hamon<\/span>) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:4-5 God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. Abram referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, Abraham (Hebrew ’ab hamon) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.","summary_en":"17:4-5 God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. Abram referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, Abraham (Hebrew ’ab hamon) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70708,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:4","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:4-5<\/strong> God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. <em>Abram<\/em> referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, <em>Abraham<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ab hamon<\/span>) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:4-5<\/strong> God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. <em>Abram<\/em> referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, <em>Abraham<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ab hamon<\/span>) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:4-5 God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. Abram referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, Abraham (Hebrew ’ab hamon) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.","summary_en":"17:4-5 God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. Abram referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, Abraham (Hebrew ’ab hamon) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98334,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:4","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:4-5<\/strong> God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. <em>Abram<\/em> referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, <em>Abraham<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ab hamon<\/span>) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:4-5<\/strong> God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. <em>Abram<\/em> referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, <em>Abraham<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ab hamon<\/span>) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:4-5 God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. Abram referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, Abraham (Hebrew ’ab hamon) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.","summary_en":"17:4-5 God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. Abram referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, Abraham (Hebrew ’ab hamon) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125960,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:4","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:4-5<\/strong> God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. <em>Abram<\/em> referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, <em>Abraham<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ab hamon<\/span>) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:4-5<\/strong> God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. <em>Abram<\/em> referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, <em>Abraham<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ab hamon<\/span>) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:4-5 God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. Abram referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, Abraham (Hebrew ’ab hamon) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.","summary_en":"17:4-5 God guaranteed his promise by changing Abram’s name. Abram referred to his noble lineage, as Terah was the “exalted father” (11:27). His new name, Abraham (Hebrew ’ab hamon) was a wordplay on the promise of his own progeny (see also John 8:31-59; Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:7, 15-19, 29). Whenever the new name was used, he and his household would remember that a multitude of nations would issue from him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":40801,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68427,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96053,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123679,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":268,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>ABRAHAM<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut separation from pagan roots. The new name, interpreted by the biblical text as meaning “father of a multitude,” was also a statement of God’s promise to Abraham that he would have many descendants, as well as a significant test of his faith in God—since he was 99 years old at the time and his childless wife was 90 (Gn 11:30; 17:1-4, 17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AbrahamsLife\">Abraham’s Life<\/p>\n<p>The story of Abram begins in Genesis 11, where his family relationships are recorded (Gn 11:26-32). Terah, Abram’s father, was named after the moon deity worshiped at Ur. Terah had three sons, Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Haran, the father of Lot, died before the family left Ur. Terah took Lot, Abram, and Abram’s wife, Sarai, from Ur to go to Canaan but settled at the city of Haran (v 31). It is stated in Acts 7:2-4 that Abraham heard the call of God to leave for a new land while he was still in Ur.<\/p>\n<p>A note of major importance to the course of Abram’s life is found in Genesis 11:30: “Sarai was not able to have any children” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The problem of Sarai’s barrenness provided the basis for great crises of faith, promise, and fulfillment in the lives of Abram and Sarai.<\/p>\n\n<p>After Terah’s death, God told Abram, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you.” This command was the basis of a “covenant,” in which God promised to make Abram the founder of a new nation in that new land (Gn 12:1-3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Abram, trusting God’s promise, left Haran at the age of 74. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, an important Canaanite royal city between Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal. Near the oak of Moreh, a Canaanite shrine, God appeared to him (12:7). Abram built an altar at Shechem, then moved to the vicinity of Bethel and again built an altar to the Lord (12:8). The expression “to call on the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>rsv<\/span>) means more than just to pray. Rather, Abram made a proclamation, declaring the reality of God to the Canaanites in their centers of false worship. Later Abram moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, where again he built an altar to worship God. Another blessing given in a vision (15:1) led Abram to exclaim that he was still childless and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). Discovery of the Nuzi documents has helped to clarify that otherwise obscure statement. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of station and substance would adopt an heir. Often a slave, the heir would be responsible for the burial and mourning of his adoptive parents. If a son should be born after the adoption of a slave-heir, the natural son would of course supplant him. Thus God’s response to Abram’s question is directly to the point: “No, your servant will not be your heir, for you will have a son of your own to inherit everything I am giving you” (Gn 15:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). God then made a covenant with Abram insuring an heir, a nation, and the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abram was 86 years old when Ishmael was born. When Abram was 99, the Lord appeared to the aged patriarch and again reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and blessing (Gn 17). Circumcision was added as the seal of covenantal relationship (17:9-14), and at that point the names Abram and Sarai were changed to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham’s response to the promise of another son was to laugh: “Then Abraham bowed down to the ground, but he laughed to himself in disbelief. ‘How could I become a father at the age of one hundred?’ he wondered. ‘Besides, Sarah is ninety; how could she have a baby?’ ” (Gn 17:17, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 18 and 19 recount the total destruction of two cities of the Jordan plain, Sodom and Gomorrah. Chapter 18 begins with three individuals seeking comfort in the heat of the day. Abraham offered refreshment and a meal to his guests. They turned out to be no ordinary travelers, however, but the Angel of the Lord along with two other angels (18:1-2; 19:1). There is reason to believe that the Angel of the Lord was God himself (18:17, 33). Another announcement of a promised son made Sarah laugh in unbelief and then deny having laughed (18:12-15).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 21 to 23 form the climax of the story of Abraham. At long last, when Abraham was 100 years old and his wife 90, “the <span>Lord<\/span> did exactly what he had promised” (Gn 21:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). The joy of the aged couple on the birth of their long-promised son could not be contained. Both Abraham and Sarah had laughed in unbelief in the days of promise; now they laughed in joy as God had “the last laugh.” The baby, born at the time God promised, was named Isaac (“he laughs!”). Sarah said, “God has brought me laughter! All who hear about this will laugh with me” (Gn 21:6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The laughter over Isaac’s birth subsided entirely in the test of Abraham’s faith described in chapter 22, God’s command to sacrifice Isaac. Only when one has experienced vicariously with Abraham the long 25 years of God’s promise of a son can one imagine the trauma of such a supreme test. Just as the knife was about to fall, and only then, did the angel of God break the silence of heaven with the call, “Abraham!” (22:11). The name of promise, “father of a multitude,” took on its most significant meaning when Abraham’s son was spared and the test was explained: “I know that you truly fear God. You have not withheld even your beloved son from me” (Gn 22:12, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Those words were coupled with a promise implicit in the discovery of a ram caught in the thicket. The Lord provided an alternative sacrifice, a substitute. The place was named “the Lord will provide.” Christian believers generally see the whole episode as looking ahead to God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Patriarchs, Period of the; Israel, History of; “Abraham’s Bosom”; Sarah #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ABRAHAM<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut separation from pagan roots. The new name, interpreted by the biblical text as meaning “father of a multitude,” was also a statement of God’s promise to Abraham that he would have many descendants, as well as a significant test of his faith in God—since he was 99 years old at the time and his childless wife was 90 (Gn 11:30; 17:1-4, 17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AbrahamsLife\">Abraham’s Life<\/p>\n<p>The story of Abram begins in Genesis 11, where his family relationships are recorded (Gn 11:26-32). Terah, Abram’s father, was named after the moon deity worshiped at Ur. Terah had three sons, Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Haran, the father of Lot, died before the family left Ur. Terah took Lot, Abram, and Abram’s wife, Sarai, from Ur to go to Canaan but settled at the city of Haran (v 31). It is stated in Acts 7:2-4 that Abraham heard the call of God to leave for a new land while he was still in Ur.<\/p>\n<p>A note of major importance to the course of Abram’s life is found in Genesis 11:30: “Sarai was not able to have any children” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The problem of Sarai’s barrenness provided the basis for great crises of faith, promise, and fulfillment in the lives of Abram and Sarai.<\/p>\n\n<p>After Terah’s death, God told Abram, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you.” This command was the basis of a “covenant,” in which God promised to make Abram the founder of a new nation in that new land (Gn 12:1-3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Abram, trusting God’s promise, left Haran at the age of 74. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, an important Canaanite royal city between Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal. Near the oak of Moreh, a Canaanite shrine, God appeared to him (12:7). Abram built an altar at Shechem, then moved to the vicinity of Bethel and again built an altar to the Lord (12:8). The expression “to call on the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>rsv<\/span>) means more than just to pray. Rather, Abram made a proclamation, declaring the reality of God to the Canaanites in their centers of false worship. Later Abram moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, where again he built an altar to worship God. Another blessing given in a vision (15:1) led Abram to exclaim that he was still childless and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). Discovery of the Nuzi documents has helped to clarify that otherwise obscure statement. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of station and substance would adopt an heir. Often a slave, the heir would be responsible for the burial and mourning of his adoptive parents. If a son should be born after the adoption of a slave-heir, the natural son would of course supplant him. Thus God’s response to Abram’s question is directly to the point: “No, your servant will not be your heir, for you will have a son of your own to inherit everything I am giving you” (Gn 15:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). God then made a covenant with Abram insuring an heir, a nation, and the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abram was 86 years old when Ishmael was born. When Abram was 99, the Lord appeared to the aged patriarch and again reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and blessing (Gn 17). Circumcision was added as the seal of covenantal relationship (17:9-14), and at that point the names Abram and Sarai were changed to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham’s response to the promise of another son was to laugh: “Then Abraham bowed down to the ground, but he laughed to himself in disbelief. ‘How could I become a father at the age of one hundred?’ he wondered. ‘Besides, Sarah is ninety; how could she have a baby?’ ” (Gn 17:17, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 18 and 19 recount the total destruction of two cities of the Jordan plain, Sodom and Gomorrah. Chapter 18 begins with three individuals seeking comfort in the heat of the day. Abraham offered refreshment and a meal to his guests. They turned out to be no ordinary travelers, however, but the Angel of the Lord along with two other angels (18:1-2; 19:1). There is reason to believe that the Angel of the Lord was God himself (18:17, 33). Another announcement of a promised son made Sarah laugh in unbelief and then deny having laughed (18:12-15).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 21 to 23 form the climax of the story of Abraham. At long last, when Abraham was 100 years old and his wife 90, “the <span>Lord<\/span> did exactly what he had promised” (Gn 21:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). The joy of the aged couple on the birth of their long-promised son could not be contained. Both Abraham and Sarah had laughed in unbelief in the days of promise; now they laughed in joy as God had “the last laugh.” The baby, born at the time God promised, was named Isaac (“he laughs!”). Sarah said, “God has brought me laughter! All who hear about this will laugh with me” (Gn 21:6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The laughter over Isaac’s birth subsided entirely in the test of Abraham’s faith described in chapter 22, God’s command to sacrifice Isaac. Only when one has experienced vicariously with Abraham the long 25 years of God’s promise of a son can one imagine the trauma of such a supreme test. Just as the knife was about to fall, and only then, did the angel of God break the silence of heaven with the call, “Abraham!” (22:11). The name of promise, “father of a multitude,” took on its most significant meaning when Abraham’s son was spared and the test was explained: “I know that you truly fear God. You have not withheld even your beloved son from me” (Gn 22:12, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Those words were coupled with a promise implicit in the discovery of a ram caught in the thicket. The Lord provided an alternative sacrifice, a substitute. The place was named “the Lord will provide.” Christian believers generally see the whole episode as looking ahead to God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Patriarchs, Period of the; Israel, History of; “Abraham’s Bosom”; Sarah #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ABRAHAM One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people. Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut s...","summary_en":"ABRAHAM One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people. Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut s...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7859,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Covenant","title_en":"Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the OT is developed from Noah to Abraham and reaches its first climax in the covenant formed between God and Israel at Mt Sinai. After King David’s time, the history of the covenant becomes a less prominent theme.<\/p>\n<p>At a low point in covenant history the Bible introduces the prophet Jeremiah’s prophecy of a “new covenant” in Israel’s future. Christians believe that Jeremiah’s prophecy eventually found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ. It is not accidental that the two volumes of the Christian Bible have been called the Old Covenant and New Covenant (the word commonly translated “testament” means “covenant”).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<p>• The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>• The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMeaningofCovenant\">The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The essence of covenant is to be found in a particular kind of relationship between persons. Mutual obligations characterize that kind of relationship. Thus a covenant relationship is not merely a mutual acquaintance but a commitment to responsibility and action. A key word in Scripture to describe that commitment is “faithfulness,” acted out in a context of abiding friendship.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the word “covenant” was used in an ordinary human sense as well as in a theological sense. An understanding of human covenants provides a starting point for understanding the covenant between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HumanCovenants\">Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>A variety of human relationships, from profoundly personal to distantly political, may be described as covenantal. The deep brotherly love that David and Jonathan shared led to a formal covenant between them (1 Sm 18:3). Their covenant of friendship was more than a token of esteem; it bound them to demonstrate mutual loyalty and loving-kindness in certain tangible ways. Jonathan’s covenant faithfulness was typified on an occasion when David was out of favor with the king; Jonathan braved his father’s wrath to speak favorably for his friend. Subsequently, he warned David secretly to flee into hiding (1 Sm 19–20).<\/p>\n<p>To appreciate the many OT laws on marriage and divorce, one must understand that marriage itself was a covenant relationship (Mal 2:14). The solemn promises exchanged by a man and woman became their covenant obligations. Faithfulness to those promises brought marital blessing (cf. Ps 128; Prv 18:22); violation brought a curse.<\/p>\n<p>An individual could, at least figuratively, make a covenant or vow with himself or herself (something like a New Year’s resolution). Job, arguing his integrity before God, referred to a covenant he had made with his eyes to keep him from looking at women licentiously (Jb 31:1).<\/p>\n<p>Covenants could also have a national or international character. The elders of Israel made a national covenant with King David in Hebron (2 Sm 5:3). Probably it contained explicit promises both from the elders on behalf of the people to submit themselves to the king’s authority and from David to rule the nation justly and according to the law of God (Dt 17:15-20). The covenant relationship described mutual obligations between a senior partner (the king) and junior partners (the Israelites). In international relationships OT covenants were similar to modern treaties or alliances. King Solomon entered into such a covenant with Hiram, king of Tyre; that covenant, like many modern international treaties, was a trade agreement between the two nations (1 Kgs 5:12).<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is thus an interpersonal framework of trust, responsibilities, and benefits, with broad application to almost every human relationship from personal friendship to international trade agreements. In Scripture covenant is also the most comprehensive concept covering an individual’s relationship to God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Divine-HumanCovenants\">Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>The same basic characteristics of a strictly human covenant are present in a divine covenant: (1) a relationship between two parties (God and a human being or nation), and (2) mutual obligations between the covenant partners. To the OT believer, religion meant covenant. OT religion was faithfulness to the covenant relationship between God and his chosen people; religious responsibilities for both the faith and practice of Israel were covenant responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a divine-human covenant in the OT was not static. Although the fundamental character of covenant remains the same throughout the Bible, the specific nature and form of the covenant changed and developed in the course of ancient Israel’s history. A brief survey of covenant history will further clarify its dimensions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BeginningsoftheCovenantTradition\">Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<h5>Adam<\/h5>\n<p>Adam and Eve were placed in the Garden. God was their Creator; they were his creatures. The meaning of their lives was to be found in relationship with each other and with God, the giver of the Garden. The fall, however, brought a disruption of the divine relationship, and they were expelled from the Garden.<\/p>\n<p>The fall substantially influenced the nature of subsequent religious covenants. The separation of humankind from God clarifies the nature of the human predicament. Created for a relationship with the Creator, sinning humans are excluded from that relationship and cannot, on their own accord, reestablish it. From that circumstance emerges a distinctive feature of divine-human covenants, namely, that God alone can initiate the relationship of covenant.<\/p>\n<h5>Noah<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit mention of covenant in Scripture refers to the initiative taken by God to bind himself again to human beings in a covenant, despite human faithlessness. When God warned Noah to build an ark in order to escape the impending Flood, he also promised to establish a covenant with him (Gn 6:18). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger, but his grace was shown in his dealings with Noah. The promised covenant provided that God would maintain a relationship with one family, even though other divine-human relationships were being formally severed. Significantly, God’s covenant promise to Noah came in a context of demand: God ordered Noah to build an ark (v 14). Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to a divine command.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant was elaborated only after the Flood, when Noah had made an offering to God (Gn 8:20-22). The covenant with Noah was in fact a universal covenant with humankind and all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world. The sign of that covenant was the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant with Noah affords some perspective for understanding the “covenant God.” Although human beings may deserve destruction because of their wickedness, God withholds that destruction. The covenant of Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being; nevertheless, it left open the possibility of a more intimate covenant. Human beings, in spite of their evil, are allowed for a time to live in God’s world; during those years, they may seek a deeper relationship with that world’s Creator.<\/p>\n<h5>Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit reference to God’s covenant with Abraham is in Genesis 15. When the Lord called the 75-year-old Abram (as he was first called) to leave his home city of Ur and set out on a journey, a relationship already existed between God and Abram. In that relationship, which enabled God to command Abram’s obedience, God made certain promises to him: “I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing” (Gn 12:2, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Formal establishment of the covenant with Abram is described in Genesis 15 as a profound religious experience. The initiative lay entirely with God, who approached Abram in a vision and spoke with him. Abram raised a fundamental objection: how could he experience the blessing of God if it was to come to him through a son he did not have? His wife Sarai was past the childbearing age, and he himself was “as good as dead” (Rom 4:19). God assured the old man that he would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abram’s belief at that point introduced the theme of righteousness central to the covenant concept: Abram “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>, and he reckoned it to him as righteousness” (Gn 15:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). At the end of that day, Abram knew that his own future and the future of his descendants were firmly in the hands of the covenant God. “On that day the <span>Lord<\/span> made a covenant with Abram, saying, ‘To your descendants I give this land’ ” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The covenant is more fully expressed in Genesis 17, which probably records a renewal of God’s covenant with Abram. The initiative once again lay with God (Gn 17:1). God addressed the 99-year-old Abram in words that made clear that the covenant was not a relationship between equal partners. God was the Almighty; Abram was a human being to whom an extraordinary privilege had been granted.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the details of the covenant in Genesis 17 show that both partners assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abram and his descendants while requiring certain commitments from Abram. The blessing Abram would receive as a covenant partner became clear from the new name God gave him. “I am changing your name. It will no longer be Abram; now you will be known as Abraham, for you will be the father of many nations” (Gn 17:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). God would give to Abraham, through his descendants, the land of Canaan as an everlasting gift and would be the personal God of Abraham and his family in perpetuity (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s giving required a response of obedience from Abraham: “Live a blameless life” (Gn 17:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Those simple words indicate the essence of covenant relationship: to relate to God is to live in his presence; since God is holy, one who knows him is expected to live a life of integrity and blamelessness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant also had a more formal aspect. Abraham and the male members of his household were to undergo the rite of circumcision as a symbol of covenant commitment. Abraham was an old man when he was circumcised (Gn 17:24), though male children born into the covenant family were to be circumcised when they were eight days old (v 12). Circumcision was not in itself a ritual peculiar to the Hebrews; it was practiced in most societies in the ancient Near East (the Philistines were one exception). The distinctiveness lay in what the act symbolized: among other things, a continuing and faithful relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham was characterized by both present and future realities. The covenant established a continuing relationship between Abraham and his Creator. Yet its thrust pointed to future blessing—in the children yet to be born, the “chosen people,” and in the land that eventually his descendants would call their own.<\/p>\n<p>Another dimension of the covenant lay still further in the future: “All the families of the earth will be blessed through you” (Gn 12:3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Early in the OT, the idea of election (God’s unconditional preference; cf. 2 Thes 2:13) is present. God chose to enter into a covenant relationship with a particular man and his particular descendants. Yet God always elects a person to serve: Adam, to cultivate the Garden; Noah, to build an ark; Abraham, to leave his home for another land and to live blamelessly before God (cf. Eph 2:8-10). Further, the “particularity” of Abraham’s election contained within it a universality: through his descendants the blessing of God would be offered to all.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the future aspects of Abraham’s covenant reflect two stages. From Abraham’s perspective, in the relatively near future his descendants would possess a land given them by God. But in the more distant future was the prospect of a universal blessing, the culmination of God’s work in the world. The initial fulfillment of that distant future is perceived in the NT, but the more immediate fulfillment of God’s promise was the Sinai covenant at the time of Moses.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSinaiCovenant\">The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The covenant established between God and Israel at Mt Sinai is the focal point of the covenant tradition in the OT. It was anticipated in the covenant of Abraham and lay behind the covenant of David and the proclamation of the prophets. It was central to OT religion, laying down the foundations of Judaism that continue into the modern world. The Sinai covenant was the formal institution of a relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In order to appreciate the impact of the Sinai covenant, one must understand its historical context. It was preceded by the exodus of the Hebrew people from Egypt under the leadership of Moses. The exodus was an extraordinary act of liberation in which God intervened in the normal course of history to free his people from slavery in Egypt. The exodus is interpreted in the OT as a divine act comparable to Creation, the act through which God “created” the nation of Israel. Examination of the two versions of the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11; Dt 5:12-15) shows that the exodus from Egypt directly parallels the creation of the world as a basis for Sabbath observance. Although Israel was created in the exodus, the nation had neither a constitution nor land. The covenant provided the nascent state of Israel with a constitution, making it a theocratic state (a state ruled by God).<\/p>\n<p>The basic account of the Sinai covenant is contained in Exodus 19 and 20. The initiative came from God, who gave instructions through Moses to prepare for the covenant; God spoke the words that contained the covenant offer. There was no doubt that the God of Israel was the senior partner in the relationship made formal at Sinai. The God who had revealed himself through his acts in the exodus then revealed himself in words. Those two aspects—the God who acts and speaks—are central to OT theology. And although the covenant contained law, it was preceded by the exodus, an act of divine grace.<\/p>\n<p>God’s offer of covenant carried with it a divine promise: “You will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). The promise was one of extraordinary privilege; an entire nation was called upon to represent all other nations before the God of the universe. But the priestly office, though it carried privilege, was also a demanding office. A priest had to be pure and had to know the God whose presence he was required to enter. Thus Israel, the priestly nation, received a law that would provide direction in living, in loving God, and in serving all people. The law given with the covenant expressed the requirements for God’s covenant people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Covenant Law<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant law had two principal parts. First, the Ten Commandments expressed God’s requirements of Israel in a concise form (Ex 20:2-17). The commandments specified the covenant people’s relationship both to God and to other human beings. Although the tendency in the present day is to view the Ten Commandments as a system of ethics or morality, they had a different role in ancient Israel. The covenant law was the foundation or constitution of a new nation, a special “nation of priests.” The head of the nation-state was God. Hence, in ancient Israel the status of the Ten Commandments was approximately that of the code of criminal law in a modern nation-state. To break one of those laws was to commit a crime against God, the head of the state. Yet the laws had a positive purpose. They set down a way of life that would result in a full and rich communion with God and community with others.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the covenant law was a detailed law code covering the activities of everyday life. Examples of such laws are found in Exodus 21–23. These laws were compiled and recorded in the “Book of the Covenant” (Ex 24:7). Although many laws were contained in this book, it was impossible to codify every aspect of human behavior. The diversity of the examples given indicates that for the covenant member no area of human life was beyond the influence of the covenant. Persons who entered into a relationship with God entered into a relationship that impinged on every possible aspect of their lives.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Renewal<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant at Sinai was made with a particular group of people under the leadership of Moses but was binding on future generations. Consequently, the covenant was renewed from time to time. Covenant renewals are recorded in the time of Joshua (Jos 8:30-35; 24:1-28) and, much later, during the reign of King Josiah (2 Kgs 23:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The most important passage in the Bible for understanding covenant renewal and the nature of covenant is the book of Deuteronomy. The entire book describes a particular covenant renewal ceremony that occurred at a critical juncture in Israel’s early history. The Sinai covenant was renewed just before Moses’ death, before the transition of leadership to Joshua, and before a major military campaign to possess the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant since the time of Abraham had contained a promise of land. Immediately before they entered that land (c. 1250 <span>BC<\/span>), the covenant vows were renewed with a new generation of Israelites, most of whom had not stood at the foot of Mt Sinai some 40 years earlier. Although covenant renewal is the central theme of Deuteronomy, the writer focused primarily on Moses’ sermon rather than on a detailed account of the renewal ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ceremony were simply a repetition of what happened at the original ratification of the covenant. The Ten Commandments were repeated (Dt 5:6-21), and the laws of the Book of the Covenant were expounded in greater detail (Dt 12–26). Two points emerging in Deuteronomy are particularly significant for an understanding of covenant: a clear statement of covenant love and a detailed statement of the blessings and curses that accompanied the making and renewing of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCovenantwithDavid\">The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>The covenant tradition underwent modification during the time of King David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>). The Sinai covenant had been established between God and Israel, with Moses acting as mediator. In David’s time an additional element was added: God entered into a covenant with David as king. That royal covenant was intimated to David through the prophet Nathan (2 Sm 7:8-16), indicating once again the divine initiative. It was to be an everlasting covenant with David’s royal lineage (23:5).<\/p>\n\n<p>Christians generally interpret the covenant with David as a messianic covenant. For several centuries the dynasty established by David ruled a united Israel, then ruled the remaining southern kingdom of Judah. But in 586 <span>BC<\/span> Judah was conquered by the Babylonians. At that point a descendant of David was no longer ruling an independent kingdom of God’s chosen people. The everlasting nature of the covenant with David was brought out, however, not in the pages of ancient history but in the expectation of a Messiah who would be born of David’s descendants. Matthew and Luke both pointed to Jesus’ Davidic descent (Mt 1:1; Lk 3:31). The NT thus extends the covenant acts of God into the new age in the person of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNewCovenantPredictedintheOldTestament\">The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although David’s covenant with God was eternal, in a sense the covenant established with Israel on Mt Sinai was temporal. The Sinai covenant included conditional clauses, stated in the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy. Israel’s disobedience of the covenant law would at worst bring exile from the Promised Land, a central covenant theme from Abraham to Moses and beyond.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew prophets often perceived the danger of an end to the covenant as a result of Israel’s sins. Some of the prophets, especially Hosea and Jeremiah, also perceived a deeper truth; namely, that the covenant was rooted in divine love and that therefore even the curse of God could not be final.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea dramatically expressed that truth through the “living parable” of his marriage (Hos 1–3). He married Gomer at God’s command, but later, as a result of her unfaithfulness, the marital covenant was dissolved by divorce. Although Gomer’s adulterous acts compelled Hosea to divorce her, he did not cease to love her. God later commanded Hosea to go back to Gomer (Hos 3:1). Despite her unfaithfulness, the prophet was to take her again into the covenant relationship of marriage. That acted-out parable depicted God’s actions with Israel. Israel’s sin would inevitably culminate in a divorce from God, but Hosea perceived a new marriage. In the new covenant between God and Israel, Israel would be graciously accepted back into a relationship with God (2:14-18).<\/p>\n<p>The new covenant is given powerful expression in the writings of the prophet Jeremiah, who lived through the end of the seventh and beginning of the sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In his lifetime Jeremiah saw the kingdom of Judah defeated in war. The nation lost its independence and became a vassal of the Babylonian Empire. In an external sense, that defeat in 586 <span>BC<\/span> marked the end of the Sinai covenant. Israel could no longer call the Promised Land its own. Yet Jeremiah perceived a truth beyond the contemporary political realities. God’s work in the world, like his love for the world, was not over.<\/p>\n<p>Thus Jeremiah spoke of a new covenant that God would bring into effect: “The days are coming, says the <span>Lord<\/span>, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah” (Jer 31:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The new covenant would be marked by an act of God within human hearts, a radical spiritual transformation (Jer 31:34). At the Last Supper Jesus declared to his disciples that “this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20, <span>rsv<\/span>). To the writer of Hebrews, the new covenant was central to a full understanding of the ministry of Jesus Christ (Heb 8:8-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is a concept central to the message and the history of the OT. The covenant theme continues into the NT as a way of interpreting the Christian gospel. Meaning in human life is to be found in a covenant relationship with the living God. Yet sinful human beings cannot work their way into such a relationship; God alone can initiate it. According to the NT, God’s act in giving his son, Jesus, to die opened up the covenant relationship to all human beings. The forgiveness made available by Jesus’ “blood of the new covenant” makes it possible for any individual to enter into a covenant relationship with God. Entry into such a relationship, today as in Abraham’s time, hinges upon faith (Gal 3:6-14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alliance; Covenant, The New; Law, Biblical Concept of; Oath; Vows.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the OT is developed from Noah to Abraham and reaches its first climax in the covenant formed between God and Israel at Mt Sinai. After King David’s time, the history of the covenant becomes a less prominent theme.<\/p>\n<p>At a low point in covenant history the Bible introduces the prophet Jeremiah’s prophecy of a “new covenant” in Israel’s future. Christians believe that Jeremiah’s prophecy eventually found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ. It is not accidental that the two volumes of the Christian Bible have been called the Old Covenant and New Covenant (the word commonly translated “testament” means “covenant”).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<p>• The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>• The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMeaningofCovenant\">The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The essence of covenant is to be found in a particular kind of relationship between persons. Mutual obligations characterize that kind of relationship. Thus a covenant relationship is not merely a mutual acquaintance but a commitment to responsibility and action. A key word in Scripture to describe that commitment is “faithfulness,” acted out in a context of abiding friendship.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the word “covenant” was used in an ordinary human sense as well as in a theological sense. An understanding of human covenants provides a starting point for understanding the covenant between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HumanCovenants\">Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>A variety of human relationships, from profoundly personal to distantly political, may be described as covenantal. The deep brotherly love that David and Jonathan shared led to a formal covenant between them (1 Sm 18:3). Their covenant of friendship was more than a token of esteem; it bound them to demonstrate mutual loyalty and loving-kindness in certain tangible ways. Jonathan’s covenant faithfulness was typified on an occasion when David was out of favor with the king; Jonathan braved his father’s wrath to speak favorably for his friend. Subsequently, he warned David secretly to flee into hiding (1 Sm 19–20).<\/p>\n<p>To appreciate the many OT laws on marriage and divorce, one must understand that marriage itself was a covenant relationship (Mal 2:14). The solemn promises exchanged by a man and woman became their covenant obligations. Faithfulness to those promises brought marital blessing (cf. Ps 128; Prv 18:22); violation brought a curse.<\/p>\n<p>An individual could, at least figuratively, make a covenant or vow with himself or herself (something like a New Year’s resolution). Job, arguing his integrity before God, referred to a covenant he had made with his eyes to keep him from looking at women licentiously (Jb 31:1).<\/p>\n<p>Covenants could also have a national or international character. The elders of Israel made a national covenant with King David in Hebron (2 Sm 5:3). Probably it contained explicit promises both from the elders on behalf of the people to submit themselves to the king’s authority and from David to rule the nation justly and according to the law of God (Dt 17:15-20). The covenant relationship described mutual obligations between a senior partner (the king) and junior partners (the Israelites). In international relationships OT covenants were similar to modern treaties or alliances. King Solomon entered into such a covenant with Hiram, king of Tyre; that covenant, like many modern international treaties, was a trade agreement between the two nations (1 Kgs 5:12).<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is thus an interpersonal framework of trust, responsibilities, and benefits, with broad application to almost every human relationship from personal friendship to international trade agreements. In Scripture covenant is also the most comprehensive concept covering an individual’s relationship to God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Divine-HumanCovenants\">Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>The same basic characteristics of a strictly human covenant are present in a divine covenant: (1) a relationship between two parties (God and a human being or nation), and (2) mutual obligations between the covenant partners. To the OT believer, religion meant covenant. OT religion was faithfulness to the covenant relationship between God and his chosen people; religious responsibilities for both the faith and practice of Israel were covenant responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a divine-human covenant in the OT was not static. Although the fundamental character of covenant remains the same throughout the Bible, the specific nature and form of the covenant changed and developed in the course of ancient Israel’s history. A brief survey of covenant history will further clarify its dimensions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BeginningsoftheCovenantTradition\">Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<h5>Adam<\/h5>\n<p>Adam and Eve were placed in the Garden. God was their Creator; they were his creatures. The meaning of their lives was to be found in relationship with each other and with God, the giver of the Garden. The fall, however, brought a disruption of the divine relationship, and they were expelled from the Garden.<\/p>\n<p>The fall substantially influenced the nature of subsequent religious covenants. The separation of humankind from God clarifies the nature of the human predicament. Created for a relationship with the Creator, sinning humans are excluded from that relationship and cannot, on their own accord, reestablish it. From that circumstance emerges a distinctive feature of divine-human covenants, namely, that God alone can initiate the relationship of covenant.<\/p>\n<h5>Noah<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit mention of covenant in Scripture refers to the initiative taken by God to bind himself again to human beings in a covenant, despite human faithlessness. When God warned Noah to build an ark in order to escape the impending Flood, he also promised to establish a covenant with him (Gn 6:18). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger, but his grace was shown in his dealings with Noah. The promised covenant provided that God would maintain a relationship with one family, even though other divine-human relationships were being formally severed. Significantly, God’s covenant promise to Noah came in a context of demand: God ordered Noah to build an ark (v 14). Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to a divine command.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant was elaborated only after the Flood, when Noah had made an offering to God (Gn 8:20-22). The covenant with Noah was in fact a universal covenant with humankind and all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world. The sign of that covenant was the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant with Noah affords some perspective for understanding the “covenant God.” Although human beings may deserve destruction because of their wickedness, God withholds that destruction. The covenant of Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being; nevertheless, it left open the possibility of a more intimate covenant. Human beings, in spite of their evil, are allowed for a time to live in God’s world; during those years, they may seek a deeper relationship with that world’s Creator.<\/p>\n<h5>Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit reference to God’s covenant with Abraham is in Genesis 15. When the Lord called the 75-year-old Abram (as he was first called) to leave his home city of Ur and set out on a journey, a relationship already existed between God and Abram. In that relationship, which enabled God to command Abram’s obedience, God made certain promises to him: “I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing” (Gn 12:2, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Formal establishment of the covenant with Abram is described in Genesis 15 as a profound religious experience. The initiative lay entirely with God, who approached Abram in a vision and spoke with him. Abram raised a fundamental objection: how could he experience the blessing of God if it was to come to him through a son he did not have? His wife Sarai was past the childbearing age, and he himself was “as good as dead” (Rom 4:19). God assured the old man that he would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abram’s belief at that point introduced the theme of righteousness central to the covenant concept: Abram “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>, and he reckoned it to him as righteousness” (Gn 15:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). At the end of that day, Abram knew that his own future and the future of his descendants were firmly in the hands of the covenant God. “On that day the <span>Lord<\/span> made a covenant with Abram, saying, ‘To your descendants I give this land’ ” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The covenant is more fully expressed in Genesis 17, which probably records a renewal of God’s covenant with Abram. The initiative once again lay with God (Gn 17:1). God addressed the 99-year-old Abram in words that made clear that the covenant was not a relationship between equal partners. God was the Almighty; Abram was a human being to whom an extraordinary privilege had been granted.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the details of the covenant in Genesis 17 show that both partners assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abram and his descendants while requiring certain commitments from Abram. The blessing Abram would receive as a covenant partner became clear from the new name God gave him. “I am changing your name. It will no longer be Abram; now you will be known as Abraham, for you will be the father of many nations” (Gn 17:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). God would give to Abraham, through his descendants, the land of Canaan as an everlasting gift and would be the personal God of Abraham and his family in perpetuity (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s giving required a response of obedience from Abraham: “Live a blameless life” (Gn 17:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Those simple words indicate the essence of covenant relationship: to relate to God is to live in his presence; since God is holy, one who knows him is expected to live a life of integrity and blamelessness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant also had a more formal aspect. Abraham and the male members of his household were to undergo the rite of circumcision as a symbol of covenant commitment. Abraham was an old man when he was circumcised (Gn 17:24), though male children born into the covenant family were to be circumcised when they were eight days old (v 12). Circumcision was not in itself a ritual peculiar to the Hebrews; it was practiced in most societies in the ancient Near East (the Philistines were one exception). The distinctiveness lay in what the act symbolized: among other things, a continuing and faithful relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham was characterized by both present and future realities. The covenant established a continuing relationship between Abraham and his Creator. Yet its thrust pointed to future blessing—in the children yet to be born, the “chosen people,” and in the land that eventually his descendants would call their own.<\/p>\n<p>Another dimension of the covenant lay still further in the future: “All the families of the earth will be blessed through you” (Gn 12:3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Early in the OT, the idea of election (God’s unconditional preference; cf. 2 Thes 2:13) is present. God chose to enter into a covenant relationship with a particular man and his particular descendants. Yet God always elects a person to serve: Adam, to cultivate the Garden; Noah, to build an ark; Abraham, to leave his home for another land and to live blamelessly before God (cf. Eph 2:8-10). Further, the “particularity” of Abraham’s election contained within it a universality: through his descendants the blessing of God would be offered to all.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the future aspects of Abraham’s covenant reflect two stages. From Abraham’s perspective, in the relatively near future his descendants would possess a land given them by God. But in the more distant future was the prospect of a universal blessing, the culmination of God’s work in the world. The initial fulfillment of that distant future is perceived in the NT, but the more immediate fulfillment of God’s promise was the Sinai covenant at the time of Moses.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSinaiCovenant\">The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The covenant established between God and Israel at Mt Sinai is the focal point of the covenant tradition in the OT. It was anticipated in the covenant of Abraham and lay behind the covenant of David and the proclamation of the prophets. It was central to OT religion, laying down the foundations of Judaism that continue into the modern world. The Sinai covenant was the formal institution of a relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In order to appreciate the impact of the Sinai covenant, one must understand its historical context. It was preceded by the exodus of the Hebrew people from Egypt under the leadership of Moses. The exodus was an extraordinary act of liberation in which God intervened in the normal course of history to free his people from slavery in Egypt. The exodus is interpreted in the OT as a divine act comparable to Creation, the act through which God “created” the nation of Israel. Examination of the two versions of the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11; Dt 5:12-15) shows that the exodus from Egypt directly parallels the creation of the world as a basis for Sabbath observance. Although Israel was created in the exodus, the nation had neither a constitution nor land. The covenant provided the nascent state of Israel with a constitution, making it a theocratic state (a state ruled by God).<\/p>\n<p>The basic account of the Sinai covenant is contained in Exodus 19 and 20. The initiative came from God, who gave instructions through Moses to prepare for the covenant; God spoke the words that contained the covenant offer. There was no doubt that the God of Israel was the senior partner in the relationship made formal at Sinai. The God who had revealed himself through his acts in the exodus then revealed himself in words. Those two aspects—the God who acts and speaks—are central to OT theology. And although the covenant contained law, it was preceded by the exodus, an act of divine grace.<\/p>\n<p>God’s offer of covenant carried with it a divine promise: “You will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). The promise was one of extraordinary privilege; an entire nation was called upon to represent all other nations before the God of the universe. But the priestly office, though it carried privilege, was also a demanding office. A priest had to be pure and had to know the God whose presence he was required to enter. Thus Israel, the priestly nation, received a law that would provide direction in living, in loving God, and in serving all people. The law given with the covenant expressed the requirements for God’s covenant people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Covenant Law<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant law had two principal parts. First, the Ten Commandments expressed God’s requirements of Israel in a concise form (Ex 20:2-17). The commandments specified the covenant people’s relationship both to God and to other human beings. Although the tendency in the present day is to view the Ten Commandments as a system of ethics or morality, they had a different role in ancient Israel. The covenant law was the foundation or constitution of a new nation, a special “nation of priests.” The head of the nation-state was God. Hence, in ancient Israel the status of the Ten Commandments was approximately that of the code of criminal law in a modern nation-state. To break one of those laws was to commit a crime against God, the head of the state. Yet the laws had a positive purpose. They set down a way of life that would result in a full and rich communion with God and community with others.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the covenant law was a detailed law code covering the activities of everyday life. Examples of such laws are found in Exodus 21–23. These laws were compiled and recorded in the “Book of the Covenant” (Ex 24:7). Although many laws were contained in this book, it was impossible to codify every aspect of human behavior. The diversity of the examples given indicates that for the covenant member no area of human life was beyond the influence of the covenant. Persons who entered into a relationship with God entered into a relationship that impinged on every possible aspect of their lives.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Renewal<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant at Sinai was made with a particular group of people under the leadership of Moses but was binding on future generations. Consequently, the covenant was renewed from time to time. Covenant renewals are recorded in the time of Joshua (Jos 8:30-35; 24:1-28) and, much later, during the reign of King Josiah (2 Kgs 23:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The most important passage in the Bible for understanding covenant renewal and the nature of covenant is the book of Deuteronomy. The entire book describes a particular covenant renewal ceremony that occurred at a critical juncture in Israel’s early history. The Sinai covenant was renewed just before Moses’ death, before the transition of leadership to Joshua, and before a major military campaign to possess the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant since the time of Abraham had contained a promise of land. Immediately before they entered that land (c. 1250 <span>BC<\/span>), the covenant vows were renewed with a new generation of Israelites, most of whom had not stood at the foot of Mt Sinai some 40 years earlier. Although covenant renewal is the central theme of Deuteronomy, the writer focused primarily on Moses’ sermon rather than on a detailed account of the renewal ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ceremony were simply a repetition of what happened at the original ratification of the covenant. The Ten Commandments were repeated (Dt 5:6-21), and the laws of the Book of the Covenant were expounded in greater detail (Dt 12–26). Two points emerging in Deuteronomy are particularly significant for an understanding of covenant: a clear statement of covenant love and a detailed statement of the blessings and curses that accompanied the making and renewing of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCovenantwithDavid\">The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>The covenant tradition underwent modification during the time of King David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>). The Sinai covenant had been established between God and Israel, with Moses acting as mediator. In David’s time an additional element was added: God entered into a covenant with David as king. That royal covenant was intimated to David through the prophet Nathan (2 Sm 7:8-16), indicating once again the divine initiative. It was to be an everlasting covenant with David’s royal lineage (23:5).<\/p>\n\n<p>Christians generally interpret the covenant with David as a messianic covenant. For several centuries the dynasty established by David ruled a united Israel, then ruled the remaining southern kingdom of Judah. But in 586 <span>BC<\/span> Judah was conquered by the Babylonians. At that point a descendant of David was no longer ruling an independent kingdom of God’s chosen people. The everlasting nature of the covenant with David was brought out, however, not in the pages of ancient history but in the expectation of a Messiah who would be born of David’s descendants. Matthew and Luke both pointed to Jesus’ Davidic descent (Mt 1:1; Lk 3:31). The NT thus extends the covenant acts of God into the new age in the person of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNewCovenantPredictedintheOldTestament\">The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although David’s covenant with God was eternal, in a sense the covenant established with Israel on Mt Sinai was temporal. The Sinai covenant included conditional clauses, stated in the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy. Israel’s disobedience of the covenant law would at worst bring exile from the Promised Land, a central covenant theme from Abraham to Moses and beyond.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew prophets often perceived the danger of an end to the covenant as a result of Israel’s sins. Some of the prophets, especially Hosea and Jeremiah, also perceived a deeper truth; namely, that the covenant was rooted in divine love and that therefore even the curse of God could not be final.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea dramatically expressed that truth through the “living parable” of his marriage (Hos 1–3). He married Gomer at God’s command, but later, as a result of her unfaithfulness, the marital covenant was dissolved by divorce. Although Gomer’s adulterous acts compelled Hosea to divorce her, he did not cease to love her. God later commanded Hosea to go back to Gomer (Hos 3:1). Despite her unfaithfulness, the prophet was to take her again into the covenant relationship of marriage. That acted-out parable depicted God’s actions with Israel. Israel’s sin would inevitably culminate in a divorce from God, but Hosea perceived a new marriage. In the new covenant between God and Israel, Israel would be graciously accepted back into a relationship with God (2:14-18).<\/p>\n<p>The new covenant is given powerful expression in the writings of the prophet Jeremiah, who lived through the end of the seventh and beginning of the sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In his lifetime Jeremiah saw the kingdom of Judah defeated in war. The nation lost its independence and became a vassal of the Babylonian Empire. In an external sense, that defeat in 586 <span>BC<\/span> marked the end of the Sinai covenant. Israel could no longer call the Promised Land its own. Yet Jeremiah perceived a truth beyond the contemporary political realities. God’s work in the world, like his love for the world, was not over.<\/p>\n<p>Thus Jeremiah spoke of a new covenant that God would bring into effect: “The days are coming, says the <span>Lord<\/span>, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah” (Jer 31:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The new covenant would be marked by an act of God within human hearts, a radical spiritual transformation (Jer 31:34). At the Last Supper Jesus declared to his disciples that “this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20, <span>rsv<\/span>). To the writer of Hebrews, the new covenant was central to a full understanding of the ministry of Jesus Christ (Heb 8:8-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is a concept central to the message and the history of the OT. The covenant theme continues into the NT as a way of interpreting the Christian gospel. Meaning in human life is to be found in a covenant relationship with the living God. Yet sinful human beings cannot work their way into such a relationship; God alone can initiate it. According to the NT, God’s act in giving his son, Jesus, to die opened up the covenant relationship to all human beings. The forgiveness made available by Jesus’ “blood of the new covenant” makes it possible for any individual to enter into a covenant relationship with God. Entry into such a relationship, today as in Abraham’s time, hinges upon faith (Gal 3:6-14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alliance; Covenant, The New; Law, Biblical Concept of; Oath; Vows.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COVENANT Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings. The covenant theme in the OT is developed from...","summary_en":"COVENANT Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings. The covenant theme in the OT is developed from...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12303,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Firstborn","title_en":"Firstborn","content_ro":"<h3>FIRSTBORN<\/h3>\n<p>Term used in the Bible to describe a family’s oldest son or daughter (Gn 22:21; 29:26). Israel was called God’s firstborn because of that nation’s miraculous beginning and special deliverance out of Egypt (Gn 17:5, 15-16; Ex 4:22). As God’s firstborn, Israel had unique privileges over all other nations. Gentiles were “blessed” only in relation to their kindness to Israel (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:6; Dt 4:5-8). The prophet Isaiah foresaw a day when Israel would have a double portion of inheritance (Is 61:7). Thus, being firstborn implies priority or preeminence, as well as an inheritance.<\/p>\n<p>The expression “first-born of the poor,” (Is 14:30, <span>rsv<\/span>) means one who is supremely poor, the poorest of the poor. Another figurative expression, “first-born of death” (Jb 18:13, <span>rsv<\/span>), implied that Job’s disease was fatal.<\/p>\n<p>Because God delivered Israel’s firstborn sons from death in Egypt, he expected each firstborn to be sanctified to him (Ex 11:4-7; 13:12). The first male child was a representative of the entire offspring (Gn 49:3; Ex 22:29; Nm 3:13). The firstborn of all animals used in sacrifice was to be sanctified to the Lord (Ex 13:2, 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirstbornandRedemption\">Firstborn and Redemption<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn of every tribe except Levi’s was to be redeemed by a sum not to exceed five shekels (Nm 18:15-16). Redemption implied a previous bondage and was to remind Israel of their redemption from bondage in Egypt (Ex 13:2-8).<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn of ritually clean animals was devoted to the Lord. It was brought to the tabernacle (or later, the temple) within a year from the eighth day after birth. This animal was then sacrificed and its blood sprinkled on the altar. The meat of the sacrificed animal was for the priests (Ex 13:13; 22:30; cf. Nm 18:17). The firstborn of unclean animals could be redeemed with an addition of one-fifth of the value as determined by the priest. If not redeemed, these animals were sold, exchanged, or destroyed by the priests (Lv 27:27). The colt of an ass was to be redeemed with a lamb (Ex 13:13). If not redeemed, it was to be killed. Meat from unclean animals was not eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirstbornandBirthright\">Firstborn and Birthright<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn acted as priest of the family in the father’s absence or death. Esau and Reuben are both examples (Gn 27:19, 32; 1 Chr 5:1-2). This position of the firstborn ceased when the priesthood was committed to Levi’s tribe (Nm 3:12-13). All the firstborn of succeeding generations had to be redeemed. The redemption money became part of the Levites’ yearly income (8:17; 18:16).<\/p>\n<p>A double portion of the family inheritance was the right of the firstborn. This protected the firstborn when there was a polygamous marriage. The son of a favorite wife could not take the place of the first son born of the household (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>The title “firstborn” is applied to Christ (Lk 2:7; Rom 8:29; Col 1:15, 18; Heb 1:6; Rv 1:5). It stresses Christ’s preeminence over all because he was the first to rise from the dead. As firstborn, Christ is heir of all things (Heb 1:2) and the head of the church (Eph 1:20-23; Col 1:18, 24; Heb 2:10-12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Birthright; Heir; Inheritance; Primogeniture.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FIRSTBORN<\/h3>\n<p>Term used in the Bible to describe a family’s oldest son or daughter (Gn 22:21; 29:26). Israel was called God’s firstborn because of that nation’s miraculous beginning and special deliverance out of Egypt (Gn 17:5, 15-16; Ex 4:22). As God’s firstborn, Israel had unique privileges over all other nations. Gentiles were “blessed” only in relation to their kindness to Israel (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:6; Dt 4:5-8). The prophet Isaiah foresaw a day when Israel would have a double portion of inheritance (Is 61:7). Thus, being firstborn implies priority or preeminence, as well as an inheritance.<\/p>\n<p>The expression “first-born of the poor,” (Is 14:30, <span>rsv<\/span>) means one who is supremely poor, the poorest of the poor. Another figurative expression, “first-born of death” (Jb 18:13, <span>rsv<\/span>), implied that Job’s disease was fatal.<\/p>\n<p>Because God delivered Israel’s firstborn sons from death in Egypt, he expected each firstborn to be sanctified to him (Ex 11:4-7; 13:12). The first male child was a representative of the entire offspring (Gn 49:3; Ex 22:29; Nm 3:13). The firstborn of all animals used in sacrifice was to be sanctified to the Lord (Ex 13:2, 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirstbornandRedemption\">Firstborn and Redemption<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn of every tribe except Levi’s was to be redeemed by a sum not to exceed five shekels (Nm 18:15-16). Redemption implied a previous bondage and was to remind Israel of their redemption from bondage in Egypt (Ex 13:2-8).<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn of ritually clean animals was devoted to the Lord. It was brought to the tabernacle (or later, the temple) within a year from the eighth day after birth. This animal was then sacrificed and its blood sprinkled on the altar. The meat of the sacrificed animal was for the priests (Ex 13:13; 22:30; cf. Nm 18:17). The firstborn of unclean animals could be redeemed with an addition of one-fifth of the value as determined by the priest. If not redeemed, these animals were sold, exchanged, or destroyed by the priests (Lv 27:27). The colt of an ass was to be redeemed with a lamb (Ex 13:13). If not redeemed, it was to be killed. Meat from unclean animals was not eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirstbornandBirthright\">Firstborn and Birthright<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn acted as priest of the family in the father’s absence or death. Esau and Reuben are both examples (Gn 27:19, 32; 1 Chr 5:1-2). This position of the firstborn ceased when the priesthood was committed to Levi’s tribe (Nm 3:12-13). All the firstborn of succeeding generations had to be redeemed. The redemption money became part of the Levites’ yearly income (8:17; 18:16).<\/p>\n<p>A double portion of the family inheritance was the right of the firstborn. This protected the firstborn when there was a polygamous marriage. The son of a favorite wife could not take the place of the first son born of the household (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>The title “firstborn” is applied to Christ (Lk 2:7; Rom 8:29; Col 1:15, 18; Heb 1:6; Rv 1:5). It stresses Christ’s preeminence over all because he was the first to rise from the dead. As firstborn, Christ is heir of all things (Heb 1:2) and the head of the church (Eph 1:20-23; Col 1:18, 24; Heb 2:10-12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Birthright; Heir; Inheritance; Primogeniture.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FIRSTBORN Term used in the Bible to describe a family’s oldest son or daughter (Gn 22:21; 29:26). Israel was called God’s firstborn because of that nation’s miraculous beginning and special deliverance out of Egypt (Gn 17:5, 15-16; Ex 4:22). As God’s firstborn, Israel had unique privileges over all other nations. Gentiles were “blessed” only in relation to their kindness to Israel (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:6; Dt 4:5-8). The prophet Isaiah foresaw a day when Israel would have a double portion of inherit...","summary_en":"FIRSTBORN Term used in the Bible to describe a family’s oldest son or daughter (Gn 22:21; 29:26). Israel was called God’s firstborn because of that nation’s miraculous beginning and special deliverance out of Egypt (Gn 17:5, 15-16; Ex 4:22). As God’s firstborn, Israel had unique privileges over all other nations. Gentiles were “blessed” only in relation to their kindness to Israel (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:6; Dt 4:5-8). The prophet Isaiah foresaw a day when Israel would have a double portion of inherit...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14213,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Names of God","title_en":"Names of God","content_ro":"<h3>GOD, Names of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalIdeaofName\">The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">onoma<\/span><em>)<\/em> is derived from a verb that means “to know.” A name, therefore, indicates that by which a person or object is to be known. But the idea of name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary means of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of that to which the name is given. Adam named the animals according to their nature (Gn 2:19-20); Noah means “one who brings relief and comfort” (5:29); Jesus means “savior” (Mt 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect—for example, Abraham (“father of many,” Gn 17:5), and Israel (“one who strives with God” or “God strives,” 32:28). The name of a person or people expressed what the person or people thought the proper description or statement of character was.<\/p>\n<p>With regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences, and these are most clearly seen when biblical scholars and theologians confront the question of whether the names of God are ascriptions given by God concerning himself or they are ascriptions given to God by people who observed his acts and reflected on his character as discerned through a study of divine deeds. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<\/p>\n<p>1. Proper names: El, Yahweh, Adonai, Theos (God), Kurios (Lord).<\/p>\n<li>2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>3. Titles: Creator, Messiah\/Christ, Paraclete\/Comforter.<\/li>\n<li>4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheOldTestament\">The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>El and Related Names<\/h5>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ul<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean “to be afraid.” Thus God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> as the strong one, is to be feared. Still others suggest the preposition <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> (“to, toward”) as the root; the idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alim<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to bind,” should be considered as a root also—that is, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, and of supreme excellence and greatness.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> in the OT is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s exercising dynamic power as distinguished from authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> speaks of God as the great doer and producer. He is the One who exercises such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing (cf. Ex 15). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and beyond creation (Ps 19:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is also commonly used as the name of God, occurring over 2,500 times in the OT. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some have suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is the plural form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>,<\/em> but it seems more likely that it is a plural of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which appears in the poetical writings. Some critical writers have suggested that this plural form is borrowed from pagan polytheistic sources, but no such plural form is found among pagans as the name of a deity. Others have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the triune nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Scriptures, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions are not contradictory.<\/p>\n<p>The plural form, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>,<\/em> is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he exercises his preeminence and power in the created cosmos. Hence, when the Scripture speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> created the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as revealed in Creation. In the book of Deuteronomy the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from bondage in Egypt, preservation in the wilderness, and preparation for entrance into the Promised Land. In this context, God <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully execute judgment on covenant breakers. The psalmists also used this named repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his omnipotence in many dimensions of life (see Ps 68, in which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> appears 26 times.)<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to the use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> to the patriarch and his seed; that is, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Gn 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is ever ready to use his power on behalf of those who are in covenant with him. Thus, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Elohim<\/span> also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<\/p>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> occurs mainly in the poetical writings, no fewer than 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Is 44:8). In like manner David asked, “Who is God [<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span>], but the <span>Lord<\/span>?” (2 Sm 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> in his song (Dt 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation and the incomparable One. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped; he is to be revered with a holy fear.<\/p>\n<p>Another closely related name is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span><em>,<\/em> found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Its root is said to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is the God to be feared and worshiped accordingly. In view of this meaning, it can be understood why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<\/p>\n<p>Three other names of God include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Elyon<\/span> is the name used to designate the God of Melchizedek (Gn 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalms 57:2 and 78:56 the Hebrew reads <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim ‘Elyon<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is believed that the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is used alone, but the context indicates that it is then used as a synonym for God (e.g., Nm 24:16; Ps 83:18; Is 14:14). The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘elyon<\/span> is used quite frequently as an adjective; it is then translated as “high, highest, upper, uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is employed is to One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler. He is incomparable in every way; he is subject to no one and no thing; he is the Exalted One.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is used in the longer form seven times in the Scriptures (Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ez 10:5). In the shorter form <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>),<\/em> it appears more frequently: in Job 30 times; in Psalms 19:1 and 68:14; once in Ruth (1:21), Isaiah (13:6), Ezekiel (1:24), and Joel (1:15). In these passages the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, sovereign ruler and disposer are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some have begun with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> as the first concept to be considered; its meaning is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadah<\/span><em>),<\/em> in Semitic usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> appears; nor is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> (demon), which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is a composite term of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sha<\/span> (“the one who”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dai<\/span> (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who can and does make final disposition. The Septuagint has adapted this meaning; it translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span><em>,<\/em> the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and an attribute of God are combined. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in lexicons as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of the Messiah’s reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting) to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting)” (Ps 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Is 40:28) and as everlasting strength (26:4), and Jeremiah spoke of God as everlasting King (Jer 10:10). God’s everlastingness or eternity speaks of his infinity in relation to time. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Olam<\/span><em>,<\/em> as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration prolonged indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcending all temporal limits; in addition, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Scriptures speak of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gibbor<\/span> alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two terms together always refer to God, and in some instances <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Haggadol<\/span> (“the greatest”) is added (Dt 10:17; Jer 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 (cf. Ps 45:4).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Ro’i<\/span> is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Gn 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the all-seeing One from whose eye nothing is hidden (cf. Ps 33:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods; neither is it used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the OT, occurring first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is abbreviated as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahu<\/span> (cf. Ex 15:2; Ps 68:4; Is 12:2; etc.).<\/p>\n<p>The exact meaning of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is difficult to determine. Some have sought the root in the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> (“to be”) or in an ancient form of that same verb, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hawah<\/span><em>.<\/em> There is no agreement as to whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form read <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> to mean “cause to be”; thus Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> and regard it as an original and independent term, expressing the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<\/p>\n\n<p>Translators of the OT have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> Since it is translated into the Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “Lord,” many have rendered <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “<span>Lord<\/span>.” But <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is best rendered “Lord,” appears with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in various instances. The <span>kjv<\/span>, for example, translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “God,” and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to use <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> (see <span>jb<\/span> and <span>njb<\/span>). The name Jehovah, as used in the <span>asv<\/span> (1901), has been judged unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> shall surely be put to death.” This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s deportation (cf. Am 6:10). Hence, when reading the OT the Jews substituted either <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> From this, the practice of adding the vowels of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<\/p>\n<p>The interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused much debate. “And God said to Moses, ‘I am <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">El Shaddai<\/span><em>,<\/em> but by my name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> I did not make myself known to them.’ ” This passage has been understood to mean that the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> was not known or used prior to the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states; rather, it speaks of the patriarchs not knowing God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> They knew him as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> in actual revelatory historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character, that is, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> In other words, God had always been <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> he is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<\/p>\n<p>This name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes, or presupposes, the meaning of the other names. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of service and inheritance. Moses is told by God that Israel is about to behold and experience the unchangeableness of God as he steadfastly and wondrously remembers his word and executes it to the fullest degree. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies: merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Ex 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>” (Gn 49:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> he is a faithful covenant God who, having given his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own.<\/p>\n<p>In view of the richness of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Lv 24:11, 16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Pss 104:35; 106:1; 149:1; 150:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used in a number of phrases that are considered names of or ascriptions of God. The most common of these compound names is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> (“hosts”). The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (cf. Nm 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">saba<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to wage” war. It also means “to serve” in some contexts; for example, Numbers 8:24 clearly has reference to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for confirmation.<\/p>\n<p>The compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> in 1—2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Sm 12:9; 14:50; 17:55; 2 Sm 2:8; 8:16; 10:16), it is thought that the compound name refers to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as the God of armies, that is, God has his armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> is used most frequently by the prophets (Jeremiah, 88 times; Zechariah, 55 times; Malachi, 25 times; Haggai, 14 times) at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Therefore, the compound name was used to remind them that their covenant God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Thus, though Israel’s armies failed, their covenant God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. And it was to this <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> that Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance (Jos 5:14-15), and in whose name Israel was blessed (2 Sm 6:18).<\/p>\n<p>Several other compound names occur infrequently:<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Nissi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my banner”) is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:15). Isaiah uses the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span> when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Is 11:10).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rapha<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">rapha’<\/span><em>,<\/em> “healer”) appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel. Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the healing One (e.g., Ps 103:3; Is 30:26; Jer 6:14).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rohi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ro‘i<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my shepherd”) appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as shepherd is explicated in Ezekiel 34. “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (v 15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when as a shepherd he gave his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Jireh<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yir’eh<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to see ahead or to provide”) appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Shalom<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> “peace”) is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Jgs 6:24).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> appears with a few forms of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsadaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> “righteousness.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6; the thought evidently is that David’s Righteous Branch (the Messiah) will attribute God’s righteousness to those who are incorporated in the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously; that is, God provides a way of sanctification (cf. Lv 20:8; 22:9).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as a name for God appears about 360 times in the OT, though it is not uniformly used. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears repeatedly in the Psalms (over 50 times), and certain of the prophets use it frequently (Isaiah, 47 times; Jeremiah, 29 times; Ezekiel, over 150 times; and Amos, 27 times).<\/p>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adan<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adon<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is frequently used of men. For example, in Genesis and 1—2 Samuel the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> thus, is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Pss 16:2; 57:9-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Name Combinations<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT the names of God appear in various combinations. For example <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-’Adonai<\/span> are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>-God-Israel (Jgs 5:3; Is 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names—for example, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Qedosh Yisrael<\/span> (“Holy One of Israel,” Is 43:14) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abir Yisrael<\/span> (“Mighty One of Israel,” Gn 49:24; Ps 132:2; Is 49:26). By means of these phrases, the covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was positively acknowledged.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Personal Names<\/h5>\n<p>The personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abh<\/span> (“father”) appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the OT. But it is not used there of God but rather of one who has generated children (i.e., the male parent), the progenitor—head, chief, and ruler of the family group or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one through whom God has spoken, with whom God has dealt, and through whom he has given a rich heritage to the children and descendants of the patriarchs.<\/p>\n<p>In the poetical books, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named as such. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Jb 38:28). The reference is to God as the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5 God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless”; the parallel phrase, “protector of widows,” indicates the sense. Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father,” and the parallels use the terms “God” and “Rock of my salvation.” The idea here is of God as Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used analogously, “As a father pities his children.”<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Is 63:16; 64:8). Isaiah says the promised child is to be named Everlasting Father (9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4, 19, meaning the origin, keeper, and friend of his people Israel. Malachi 1:6 and 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children and as the origin and ruler of all people.<\/p>\n<p>The term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the OT; it commonly occurs in the sense of offspring and descendant. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references to the second person of the Trinity.<\/p>\n<p>The messianic Psalm 2 has such a reference: “You are my son” (v 7). It is stated in the context of the king speaking to one who rules and is to rule with and under the sovereign. The immediate reference may be to the theocratic king; however, the reference is revealed in the NT to be the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Thus, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who is set forth as the divine sovereign ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is perceived to be equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such NT passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah speaks of the son to be given (Is 9:6), the One born of the virgin (7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.<\/p>\n<p>The name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the OT. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Gn 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Is 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ez 37:1), “the Spirit” (Nm 11:17; 27:18), “my Spirit” (Gn 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Ps 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the OT as in the NT, it can be safely stated that the relationship posited between God and the Spirit is such that there is no doubt that the OT teaches the deity of the Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Gn 1:2; Ps 33:6; etc.) and the equipping of servants for the service of God—for example, craftsmanship (Ex 35:31), leadership (Nm 11:17; 27:18), and prophecy (1 Sm 10:6; 2 Sm 23:2; 2 Chr 15:1; Ez 11:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheNewTestament\">The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Names of God<\/h5>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> is the NT equivalent of the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span>and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>;<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> appears in the NT as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hupsistos<\/span><em>,<\/em> the Highest (Mk 5:7; Lk 1:32, 76). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘El Shaddai<\/span>) appears with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> (2 Cor 6:18; Rv 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s transcendency, power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is one who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span><em>.<\/em> The name <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> appears over 1,000 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> “Lord,” is used to express the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Adonai<\/span> in the Septuagint, and the NT follows it. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> means “power,” so the meaning is not the same as with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> yet the NT does give <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> the full weight of meaning that the OT gave to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> especially when used of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:36; Phil 2:9-11; etc.)<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Despotes<\/span> is used five times of God or Jesus in the NT (Lk 2:29; Acts 4:24; 2 Pt 2:11; Jude 1:4; Rv 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern concept “despot” is absent from the NT usage even when applied to men, where its central thought is ownership (2 Tm 2:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Names of God<\/h5>\n<p>In the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Mt 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the OT meaning, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explicated, the NT meaning of the names is enriched.<\/p>\n<p>“Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Mt 1:21). The root of this name “to save” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the OT root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The NT explanation (“save from sin”) is not contrary to the OT meaning. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; Holy Spirit; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah; Names, Significance of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOD, Names of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalIdeaofName\">The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">onoma<\/span><em>)<\/em> is derived from a verb that means “to know.” A name, therefore, indicates that by which a person or object is to be known. But the idea of name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary means of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of that to which the name is given. Adam named the animals according to their nature (Gn 2:19-20); Noah means “one who brings relief and comfort” (5:29); Jesus means “savior” (Mt 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect—for example, Abraham (“father of many,” Gn 17:5), and Israel (“one who strives with God” or “God strives,” 32:28). The name of a person or people expressed what the person or people thought the proper description or statement of character was.<\/p>\n<p>With regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences, and these are most clearly seen when biblical scholars and theologians confront the question of whether the names of God are ascriptions given by God concerning himself or they are ascriptions given to God by people who observed his acts and reflected on his character as discerned through a study of divine deeds. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<\/p>\n<p>1. Proper names: El, Yahweh, Adonai, Theos (God), Kurios (Lord).<\/p>\n<li>2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>3. Titles: Creator, Messiah\/Christ, Paraclete\/Comforter.<\/li>\n<li>4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheOldTestament\">The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>El and Related Names<\/h5>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ul<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean “to be afraid.” Thus God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> as the strong one, is to be feared. Still others suggest the preposition <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> (“to, toward”) as the root; the idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alim<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to bind,” should be considered as a root also—that is, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, and of supreme excellence and greatness.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> in the OT is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s exercising dynamic power as distinguished from authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> speaks of God as the great doer and producer. He is the One who exercises such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing (cf. Ex 15). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and beyond creation (Ps 19:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is also commonly used as the name of God, occurring over 2,500 times in the OT. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some have suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is the plural form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>,<\/em> but it seems more likely that it is a plural of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which appears in the poetical writings. Some critical writers have suggested that this plural form is borrowed from pagan polytheistic sources, but no such plural form is found among pagans as the name of a deity. Others have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the triune nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Scriptures, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions are not contradictory.<\/p>\n<p>The plural form, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>,<\/em> is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he exercises his preeminence and power in the created cosmos. Hence, when the Scripture speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> created the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as revealed in Creation. In the book of Deuteronomy the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from bondage in Egypt, preservation in the wilderness, and preparation for entrance into the Promised Land. In this context, God <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully execute judgment on covenant breakers. The psalmists also used this named repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his omnipotence in many dimensions of life (see Ps 68, in which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> appears 26 times.)<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to the use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> to the patriarch and his seed; that is, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Gn 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is ever ready to use his power on behalf of those who are in covenant with him. Thus, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Elohim<\/span> also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<\/p>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> occurs mainly in the poetical writings, no fewer than 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Is 44:8). In like manner David asked, “Who is God [<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span>], but the <span>Lord<\/span>?” (2 Sm 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> in his song (Dt 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation and the incomparable One. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped; he is to be revered with a holy fear.<\/p>\n<p>Another closely related name is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span><em>,<\/em> found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Its root is said to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is the God to be feared and worshiped accordingly. In view of this meaning, it can be understood why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<\/p>\n<p>Three other names of God include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Elyon<\/span> is the name used to designate the God of Melchizedek (Gn 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalms 57:2 and 78:56 the Hebrew reads <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim ‘Elyon<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is believed that the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is used alone, but the context indicates that it is then used as a synonym for God (e.g., Nm 24:16; Ps 83:18; Is 14:14). The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘elyon<\/span> is used quite frequently as an adjective; it is then translated as “high, highest, upper, uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is employed is to One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler. He is incomparable in every way; he is subject to no one and no thing; he is the Exalted One.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is used in the longer form seven times in the Scriptures (Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ez 10:5). In the shorter form <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>),<\/em> it appears more frequently: in Job 30 times; in Psalms 19:1 and 68:14; once in Ruth (1:21), Isaiah (13:6), Ezekiel (1:24), and Joel (1:15). In these passages the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, sovereign ruler and disposer are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some have begun with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> as the first concept to be considered; its meaning is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadah<\/span><em>),<\/em> in Semitic usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> appears; nor is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> (demon), which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is a composite term of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sha<\/span> (“the one who”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dai<\/span> (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who can and does make final disposition. The Septuagint has adapted this meaning; it translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span><em>,<\/em> the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and an attribute of God are combined. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in lexicons as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of the Messiah’s reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting) to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting)” (Ps 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Is 40:28) and as everlasting strength (26:4), and Jeremiah spoke of God as everlasting King (Jer 10:10). God’s everlastingness or eternity speaks of his infinity in relation to time. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Olam<\/span><em>,<\/em> as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration prolonged indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcending all temporal limits; in addition, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Scriptures speak of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gibbor<\/span> alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two terms together always refer to God, and in some instances <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Haggadol<\/span> (“the greatest”) is added (Dt 10:17; Jer 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 (cf. Ps 45:4).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Ro’i<\/span> is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Gn 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the all-seeing One from whose eye nothing is hidden (cf. Ps 33:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods; neither is it used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the OT, occurring first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is abbreviated as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahu<\/span> (cf. Ex 15:2; Ps 68:4; Is 12:2; etc.).<\/p>\n<p>The exact meaning of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is difficult to determine. Some have sought the root in the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> (“to be”) or in an ancient form of that same verb, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hawah<\/span><em>.<\/em> There is no agreement as to whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form read <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> to mean “cause to be”; thus Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> and regard it as an original and independent term, expressing the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<\/p>\n\n<p>Translators of the OT have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> Since it is translated into the Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “Lord,” many have rendered <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “<span>Lord<\/span>.” But <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is best rendered “Lord,” appears with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in various instances. The <span>kjv<\/span>, for example, translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “God,” and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to use <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> (see <span>jb<\/span> and <span>njb<\/span>). The name Jehovah, as used in the <span>asv<\/span> (1901), has been judged unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> shall surely be put to death.” This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s deportation (cf. Am 6:10). Hence, when reading the OT the Jews substituted either <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> From this, the practice of adding the vowels of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<\/p>\n<p>The interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused much debate. “And God said to Moses, ‘I am <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">El Shaddai<\/span><em>,<\/em> but by my name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> I did not make myself known to them.’ ” This passage has been understood to mean that the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> was not known or used prior to the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states; rather, it speaks of the patriarchs not knowing God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> They knew him as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> in actual revelatory historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character, that is, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> In other words, God had always been <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> he is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<\/p>\n<p>This name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes, or presupposes, the meaning of the other names. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of service and inheritance. Moses is told by God that Israel is about to behold and experience the unchangeableness of God as he steadfastly and wondrously remembers his word and executes it to the fullest degree. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies: merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Ex 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>” (Gn 49:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> he is a faithful covenant God who, having given his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own.<\/p>\n<p>In view of the richness of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Lv 24:11, 16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Pss 104:35; 106:1; 149:1; 150:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used in a number of phrases that are considered names of or ascriptions of God. The most common of these compound names is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> (“hosts”). The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (cf. Nm 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">saba<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to wage” war. It also means “to serve” in some contexts; for example, Numbers 8:24 clearly has reference to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for confirmation.<\/p>\n<p>The compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> in 1—2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Sm 12:9; 14:50; 17:55; 2 Sm 2:8; 8:16; 10:16), it is thought that the compound name refers to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as the God of armies, that is, God has his armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> is used most frequently by the prophets (Jeremiah, 88 times; Zechariah, 55 times; Malachi, 25 times; Haggai, 14 times) at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Therefore, the compound name was used to remind them that their covenant God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Thus, though Israel’s armies failed, their covenant God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. And it was to this <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> that Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance (Jos 5:14-15), and in whose name Israel was blessed (2 Sm 6:18).<\/p>\n<p>Several other compound names occur infrequently:<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Nissi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my banner”) is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:15). Isaiah uses the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span> when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Is 11:10).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rapha<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">rapha’<\/span><em>,<\/em> “healer”) appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel. Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the healing One (e.g., Ps 103:3; Is 30:26; Jer 6:14).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rohi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ro‘i<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my shepherd”) appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as shepherd is explicated in Ezekiel 34. “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (v 15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when as a shepherd he gave his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Jireh<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yir’eh<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to see ahead or to provide”) appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Shalom<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> “peace”) is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Jgs 6:24).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> appears with a few forms of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsadaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> “righteousness.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6; the thought evidently is that David’s Righteous Branch (the Messiah) will attribute God’s righteousness to those who are incorporated in the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously; that is, God provides a way of sanctification (cf. Lv 20:8; 22:9).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as a name for God appears about 360 times in the OT, though it is not uniformly used. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears repeatedly in the Psalms (over 50 times), and certain of the prophets use it frequently (Isaiah, 47 times; Jeremiah, 29 times; Ezekiel, over 150 times; and Amos, 27 times).<\/p>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adan<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adon<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is frequently used of men. For example, in Genesis and 1—2 Samuel the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> thus, is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Pss 16:2; 57:9-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Name Combinations<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT the names of God appear in various combinations. For example <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-’Adonai<\/span> are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>-God-Israel (Jgs 5:3; Is 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names—for example, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Qedosh Yisrael<\/span> (“Holy One of Israel,” Is 43:14) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abir Yisrael<\/span> (“Mighty One of Israel,” Gn 49:24; Ps 132:2; Is 49:26). By means of these phrases, the covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was positively acknowledged.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Personal Names<\/h5>\n<p>The personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abh<\/span> (“father”) appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the OT. But it is not used there of God but rather of one who has generated children (i.e., the male parent), the progenitor—head, chief, and ruler of the family group or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one through whom God has spoken, with whom God has dealt, and through whom he has given a rich heritage to the children and descendants of the patriarchs.<\/p>\n<p>In the poetical books, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named as such. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Jb 38:28). The reference is to God as the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5 God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless”; the parallel phrase, “protector of widows,” indicates the sense. Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father,” and the parallels use the terms “God” and “Rock of my salvation.” The idea here is of God as Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used analogously, “As a father pities his children.”<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Is 63:16; 64:8). Isaiah says the promised child is to be named Everlasting Father (9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4, 19, meaning the origin, keeper, and friend of his people Israel. Malachi 1:6 and 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children and as the origin and ruler of all people.<\/p>\n<p>The term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the OT; it commonly occurs in the sense of offspring and descendant. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references to the second person of the Trinity.<\/p>\n<p>The messianic Psalm 2 has such a reference: “You are my son” (v 7). It is stated in the context of the king speaking to one who rules and is to rule with and under the sovereign. The immediate reference may be to the theocratic king; however, the reference is revealed in the NT to be the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Thus, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who is set forth as the divine sovereign ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is perceived to be equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such NT passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah speaks of the son to be given (Is 9:6), the One born of the virgin (7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.<\/p>\n<p>The name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the OT. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Gn 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Is 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ez 37:1), “the Spirit” (Nm 11:17; 27:18), “my Spirit” (Gn 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Ps 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the OT as in the NT, it can be safely stated that the relationship posited between God and the Spirit is such that there is no doubt that the OT teaches the deity of the Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Gn 1:2; Ps 33:6; etc.) and the equipping of servants for the service of God—for example, craftsmanship (Ex 35:31), leadership (Nm 11:17; 27:18), and prophecy (1 Sm 10:6; 2 Sm 23:2; 2 Chr 15:1; Ez 11:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheNewTestament\">The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Names of God<\/h5>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> is the NT equivalent of the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span>and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>;<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> appears in the NT as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hupsistos<\/span><em>,<\/em> the Highest (Mk 5:7; Lk 1:32, 76). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘El Shaddai<\/span>) appears with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> (2 Cor 6:18; Rv 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s transcendency, power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is one who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span><em>.<\/em> The name <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> appears over 1,000 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> “Lord,” is used to express the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Adonai<\/span> in the Septuagint, and the NT follows it. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> means “power,” so the meaning is not the same as with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> yet the NT does give <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> the full weight of meaning that the OT gave to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> especially when used of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:36; Phil 2:9-11; etc.)<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Despotes<\/span> is used five times of God or Jesus in the NT (Lk 2:29; Acts 4:24; 2 Pt 2:11; Jude 1:4; Rv 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern concept “despot” is absent from the NT usage even when applied to men, where its central thought is ownership (2 Tm 2:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Names of God<\/h5>\n<p>In the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Mt 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the OT meaning, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explicated, the NT meaning of the names is enriched.<\/p>\n<p>“Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Mt 1:21). The root of this name “to save” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the OT root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The NT explanation (“save from sin”) is not contrary to the OT meaning. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; Holy Spirit; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah; Names, Significance of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOD, Names of God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being. Preview • The Biblical Idea of Name • The Names of God in the Old Testament • The Names of God in the New Testament The Biblical Idea of Name In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies. In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (onom...","summary_en":"GOD, Names of God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being. Preview • The Biblical Idea of Name • The Names of God in the Old Testament • The Names of God in the New Testament The Biblical Idea of Name In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies. In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (onom...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26938,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Significance of Names","title_en":"Significance of Names","content_ro":"<h3>NAMES, Significance of<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names:<\/p>\n<p>1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births gave Jacob (Gn 25:26) and also Samuel (1 Sm 1:20) their names. In Samuel’s case it is interesting to note that his name, meaning “heard by God,” records not the offering of prayer but the hearing and answering of it. Something of the deeper and more far-reaching implications of naming is seen in the fact that while the names Jacob and Samuel arise from birth circumstances, they also reveal in advance the person the child will become: Jacob the sneaky opportunist (cf. Gn 27:36), Samuel the man of prayer (1 Sm 7:5-9; 8:6, 21; 12:19-23).<\/p>\n<li>2. To express parental reactions to the birth. Isaac means “laughter” (cf. Gn 17:17; 18:12; 21:3-6). Nabal (1 Sm 25:25), which means “fool,” must have been the essence of a mother’s prayer—“Let him not be a fool”—though sadly he was! Abimelech (Jgs 8:31) means “My father is king” and may express a secret ambition of Gideon’s, at variance with his public testimony (Jgs 8:22-23).<\/li>\n<li>3. To secure the solidarity of the family. This may explain the proposal to call the baby Zechariah in Luke 1:59.<\/li>\n<li>4. To reveal the nature of the person, his function, or some other significant thing about him. The preeminent example of this is Jesus (Mt 1:21), named for his saving vocation. Isaiah seems to have seen his own name as significant of his message “the Lord saves” (see Is 8:18 <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/li>\n<li>5. To communicate God’s message. Isaiah (see Is 7:3) called his first son Shear-jashub (“a remnant shall return”) in order to embody the double-sided thrust of his message: as a result of faithlessness, the people will be reduced to a mere remnant (“only a remnant shall return”); as a result of God’s faithfulness, his people will be preserved in life (“a remnant shall indeed return”). He called his second boy Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3), (“speed-prey-haste-spoil”), indicating the certainty of the imminent onset of a victorious foe.<\/li>\n<li>6. To establish religious affiliation. All the names in the Bible with the endings <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-iah<\/span> (alternatively <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-jah<\/span>) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span> (e.g., Jeremiah, Nathanael) are in fact statements with “the Lord” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-yah<\/span><em>)<\/em> or “God” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span><em>)<\/em> as subject. For example, Adonijah (2 Sm 3:4) means “the Lord is Sovereign”; Nathanael (Jn 1:47) means “God gave.” Such names were often chosen in times of religious decline in order to affirm the true faith of the parents.<\/li>\n<li>7. To affirm authority over another. In the ancient Near East, the naming of an object or person implied power and authority over what was named (Gn 2:19-20). Thus, a person not knowing another’s name could do neither harm nor good to that person (Ex 33:12, 17). In the ancient world a name described the person or his work in some way. When the individual or his situation changed, so did the name, as with Abram (Abraham) and Jacob (Israel). Pharaoh, as master of the patriarch Joseph, changed Joseph’s name when his status altered, calling him Zaphenath-paneah (Gn 41:45). When Eliakim was made king of Judah, the pharaoh changed the Jewish king’s name to Jehoiakim (2 Kgs 23:34). In captivity, Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were forced to change their names to Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego by order of the eunuch (Dn 1:6-7).<\/li>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist was named by an angel who represented God, and similarly Jesus was given his name by an angel. The naming of those children symbolized God’s authority over John the Baptist and his special relationship as Father to Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewNames\">New Names<\/p>\n<p>The ability of the name to reveal the nature or status of the person who bears it is well illustrated in the biblical practice of giving new names, as when Sarai became Sarah (Gn 17:15). Three motivations are possible:<\/p>\n<p>1. The new name replaces the old in order to signify the bestowal of powers not hitherto possessed. In this case the new name is equivalent to the experience of regeneration. The childless Abram becomes the “father of a multitude of nations,” Abraham (Gn 17:5).<\/p>\n<li>2. The new name may indicate a new character and status with God, as when Jacob the trickster became Israel the man of power with God (Gn 32:27; Hos 12:3-4); thus also, Simon became Peter (Jn 1:42).<\/li>\n<li>3. The new name may cement a new loyalty in the place of an old. Daniel the captive was given the name Belteshazzar, incorporating the name Bel, one of the gods of Babylon—presumably to turn him from the God of his fathers to that of his captors (Dn 1:7).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAMES, Significance of<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names:<\/p>\n<p>1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births gave Jacob (Gn 25:26) and also Samuel (1 Sm 1:20) their names. In Samuel’s case it is interesting to note that his name, meaning “heard by God,” records not the offering of prayer but the hearing and answering of it. Something of the deeper and more far-reaching implications of naming is seen in the fact that while the names Jacob and Samuel arise from birth circumstances, they also reveal in advance the person the child will become: Jacob the sneaky opportunist (cf. Gn 27:36), Samuel the man of prayer (1 Sm 7:5-9; 8:6, 21; 12:19-23).<\/p>\n<li>2. To express parental reactions to the birth. Isaac means “laughter” (cf. Gn 17:17; 18:12; 21:3-6). Nabal (1 Sm 25:25), which means “fool,” must have been the essence of a mother’s prayer—“Let him not be a fool”—though sadly he was! Abimelech (Jgs 8:31) means “My father is king” and may express a secret ambition of Gideon’s, at variance with his public testimony (Jgs 8:22-23).<\/li>\n<li>3. To secure the solidarity of the family. This may explain the proposal to call the baby Zechariah in Luke 1:59.<\/li>\n<li>4. To reveal the nature of the person, his function, or some other significant thing about him. The preeminent example of this is Jesus (Mt 1:21), named for his saving vocation. Isaiah seems to have seen his own name as significant of his message “the Lord saves” (see Is 8:18 <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/li>\n<li>5. To communicate God’s message. Isaiah (see Is 7:3) called his first son Shear-jashub (“a remnant shall return”) in order to embody the double-sided thrust of his message: as a result of faithlessness, the people will be reduced to a mere remnant (“only a remnant shall return”); as a result of God’s faithfulness, his people will be preserved in life (“a remnant shall indeed return”). He called his second boy Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3), (“speed-prey-haste-spoil”), indicating the certainty of the imminent onset of a victorious foe.<\/li>\n<li>6. To establish religious affiliation. All the names in the Bible with the endings <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-iah<\/span> (alternatively <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-jah<\/span>) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span> (e.g., Jeremiah, Nathanael) are in fact statements with “the Lord” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-yah<\/span><em>)<\/em> or “God” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span><em>)<\/em> as subject. For example, Adonijah (2 Sm 3:4) means “the Lord is Sovereign”; Nathanael (Jn 1:47) means “God gave.” Such names were often chosen in times of religious decline in order to affirm the true faith of the parents.<\/li>\n<li>7. To affirm authority over another. In the ancient Near East, the naming of an object or person implied power and authority over what was named (Gn 2:19-20). Thus, a person not knowing another’s name could do neither harm nor good to that person (Ex 33:12, 17). In the ancient world a name described the person or his work in some way. When the individual or his situation changed, so did the name, as with Abram (Abraham) and Jacob (Israel). Pharaoh, as master of the patriarch Joseph, changed Joseph’s name when his status altered, calling him Zaphenath-paneah (Gn 41:45). When Eliakim was made king of Judah, the pharaoh changed the Jewish king’s name to Jehoiakim (2 Kgs 23:34). In captivity, Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were forced to change their names to Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego by order of the eunuch (Dn 1:6-7).<\/li>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist was named by an angel who represented God, and similarly Jesus was given his name by an angel. The naming of those children symbolized God’s authority over John the Baptist and his special relationship as Father to Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewNames\">New Names<\/p>\n<p>The ability of the name to reveal the nature or status of the person who bears it is well illustrated in the biblical practice of giving new names, as when Sarai became Sarah (Gn 17:15). Three motivations are possible:<\/p>\n<p>1. The new name replaces the old in order to signify the bestowal of powers not hitherto possessed. In this case the new name is equivalent to the experience of regeneration. The childless Abram becomes the “father of a multitude of nations,” Abraham (Gn 17:5).<\/p>\n<li>2. The new name may indicate a new character and status with God, as when Jacob the trickster became Israel the man of power with God (Gn 32:27; Hos 12:3-4); thus also, Simon became Peter (Jn 1:42).<\/li>\n<li>3. The new name may cement a new loyalty in the place of an old. Daniel the captive was given the name Belteshazzar, incorporating the name Bel, one of the gods of Babylon—presumably to turn him from the God of his fathers to that of his captors (Dn 1:7).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAMES, Significance of In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names: 1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births...","summary_en":"NAMES, Significance of In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names: 1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59882,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87508,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115134,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142760,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":17980,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"History of Israel","title_en":"History of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>ISRAEL, History of<\/h3>\n<p>An account of God’s sovereign purpose in calling a people out of paganism and establishing them as witnesses for the true faith among the nations, of God’s sovereign power in protecting them from extinction, of his sovereign justice in dealing with their departure from his ways of holiness, of God’s sovereign grace in forgiving their sins and restoring them to fellowship with himself by providing through them a Savior for the entire world.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Patriarchal Age<\/p>\n<p>• Sojourn in Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Exodus<\/p>\n<p>• Wilderness Wanderings<\/p>\n<p>• The Conquest<\/p>\n<p>• The Judges<\/p>\n<p>• The United Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>• The Divided Kingdom<\/p>\n<p>• The Restoration<\/p>\n<p>• The Intertestamental Period<\/p>\n<p>• The Roman Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PatriarchalAge\">Patriarchal Age<\/p>\n<p>The story of Israel begins with Abraham, whom God called first at Ur, and perhaps later at Haran (Acts 7:2-4), to leave Mesopotamia and go into a land to which God would direct the way. In calling Abraham, God made with him a covenant (Gn 12:1-3) that promised him a land, special divine favor (“I will bless those who bless you, and the one who curses you I will curse,” <span>nasb<\/span>), and the privilege of being a channel of blessing to the entire world (“In you all the families of the earth shall be blessed,” <span>nasb<\/span>). In Genesis 12:4-8 God confirmed this unconditional covenant, promising Abraham this new land forever, along with innumerable descendants. Subsequently, in Genesis 15:1-21, God again confirmed the covenant but added the significant prediction that the guarantee of holding Canaan in perpetuity did not mean occupation of the land in every generation. God also spelled out the limits of the Promised Land (from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, some 500 to 600 miles or 804 to 965 kilometers in extent). A final confirmation of the covenant to Abraham appears in Genesis 17:6-8. It guaranteed the land of Canaan to Abraham’s posterity and added that kings (an anticipation of the Davidic dynasty) would arise in his line. The covenant was confirmed to Abraham’s son Isaac (Gn 26:3-5) and his grandson Jacob (ch 28).<\/p>\n<p>This period is known as the patriarchal age in Hebrew history. The patriarchs were Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. They were called patriarchs because they were fathers, not only to their immediate families, but also to the extended family of Hebrews, over which they exercised a fatherly control. They served as political, legal, and spiritual heads of their migratory community, looking after their interests and leading them in worship. Periodically they built altars on which they offered sacrifices. That the patriarchal community was very large can be seen from Genesis 14:14, which says that Abraham had 318 armed men in his camp. If one assumes that most of the men were married and had one or more children each, the total extended family may have numbered in excess of 1,000.<\/p>\n<p>Additional developments in the life of Abraham and Jacob were particularly important for world history. Abraham, frustrated at not having an heir, accepted Sarah’s suggestion to obtain an heir by the slave girl Hagar. (This was also the custom of the land.) The son born was named Ishmael, progenitor of the Arabs. Thus Abraham is revered by Arabs and Muslims as well as by Jews and Christians. He is the father of the Jews through his son Isaac, child of promise. He holds a special place in Christianity as an example of Christ, through whom all Christians obtain their salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob, a scheming scoundrel in his earlier years, wound up in exile in northern Mesopotamia for 20 years in the home of his uncle Laban. There he married Leah and Rachel and fathered the sons who became the progenitors of the 12 tribes of Israel. On his return to Palestine he met God along the banks of the Jabbok River (Gn 32), and God changed his name to Israel (“a prince of God,” <span>kjv<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<p>The patriarchal period in Canaan lasted for 215 years. One estimate places Abraham’s entry into Canaan at about 2085 <span>BC<\/span>, when he was 75 years of age. Jacob and his sons migrated to Egypt to escape a severe famine in Canaan in about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>. During much of the patriarchal period, Palestine experienced a decline in population and was occupied largely by nomadic or seminomadic tribes. It was relatively easy for the Hebrews to enter such a situation. After 1900 Palestine began to enjoy more settled conditions. Shortly thereafter, the Hebrews made the trek into Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SojourninEgypt\">Sojourn in Egypt<\/p>\n<p>If Jacob and his sons entered Egypt about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, it was the period of the Middle Kingdom. And by that time other migrants from Asia were coming in increasing numbers. The Hebrews settled in Goshen, in the eastern delta region, under the protecting care of Joseph, who held a position at the Egyptian court roughly equivalent to that of prime minister. As more and more Asiatic Hyksos came into Egypt, they began to take over the country—northern Egypt at least. During this same time the Hebrews became increasingly numerous. Some who hold to a different chronology believe the Hebrews were welcomed into Egypt during the days of Hyksos domination (after 1750 <span>BC<\/span>). At any rate, by about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> native Egyptian princes regained control of the country and expelled many of the Asiatics.<\/p>\n<p>In process of time there arose a king over Egypt who “knew not Joseph” (Ex 1:8, <span>kjv<\/span>). Very possibly this meant that a native Egyptian dynasty had arisen in Egypt and they were apprehensive over the fact that the growing numbers and wealth of the Hebrews might jeopardize their own supremacy. But Egyptian measures to subjugate the Hebrews and reduce their birthrate had a reverse effect (Ex 1:12). Finally, the Egyptians ordered the killing of all male Hebrew infants at birth. Among those who disobeyed were the parents of Moses, who set him afloat in a waterproof basket made of reeds. Found by a daughter of Pharaoh, he was brought up in the Egyptian court, was given a first-class education, and became a high official of the realm.<\/p>\n<p>At the age of 40, Moses identified himself with his own people. He killed an Egyptian in defense of a fellow Hebrew, and immediately fled to the land of Midian in the northeastern part of the Sinai Peninsula. He married and lived there for 40 years, becoming thoroughly familiar with the geography and the ways of the wilderness through which he would later lead the Hebrews. The Egyptians continued to oppress the Hebrew people severely until they cried urgently to God for deliverance. In response, God confronted Moses in the famous burning bush experience and called on him to return to Egypt and lead the people back into the land of Canaan (Ex 3–4). He was to have the help of his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheExodus\">The Exodus<\/p>\n<p>Understandably the pharaoh of Egypt was reluctant to permit the Hebrews to leave permanently. The value of this great labor force was incalculable. But finally, after suffering a series of ten plagues, lasting perhaps a year, the Egyptians were persuaded to let the Hebrews go (Ex 7–12).<\/p>\n<p>The plagues had a theological as well as a practical purpose. They discredited the gods of Egypt and exalted the most high God of heaven (Ex 12:12). The plagues clearly discredited specific gods of Egypt (e.g., the Nile was worshiped as Hapi, plague one; the frog, worshiped as Heqt, plague two; the bull, worshiped as Ptah, plague five; the sun, worshiped as Amon-Re\/Aton, plague nine). Taken together, they struck a direct blow at the Egyptian pantheon.<\/p>\n<p>Just before the last plague, which was the night in which the death angel invaded the homes of the Egyptians, the Israelites made the Passover sacrifice according to divine instructions. This involved killing a lamb for each household (unless the household was too small; in that event, households could combine). Anyone who was careless about applying the blood to the doorpost or who rejected this divine provision came under the judgment of God. After the death of the firstborn throughout the land, the Egyptians begged the Hebrews to leave. Their company numbered 600,000 men over 20 years of age, plus women and children, for a total of over 2,500,000. In addition they took their flocks and herds and personal belongings.<\/p>\n<p>The date they left Egypt is a matter of continuing debate. Traditionally a date of about 1446 <span>BC<\/span> is given for the exodus (cf. 1 Kgs 6:1, which places the exodus 480 years before construction of the temple started in 966 <span>BC<\/span>) and 1406 <span>BC<\/span> for the Conquest under Joshua, and there do not seem to be any compelling arguments for rejecting that position. But a great many scholars prefer 1275 <span>BC<\/span> for a variety of reasons.<\/p>\n<p>The early date of the exodus would place the later years of the wilderness wanderings and the subsequent conquest of Palestine during the reigns of Amenhotep III and IV (1412–1366), a time when the pharaohs allowed Egyptian control of Palestine to disintegrate. When the Egyptians did reassert their power, about 1300, they restricted their movements largely to the coastal area, and thus did not come in contact with the Hebrews who were living in the hill country of Judea, Samaria, and Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildernessWanderings\">Wilderness Wanderings<\/p>\n<p>The wilderness wanderings were an important interlude in the history of Israel. During those years, significant and basic institutions came into existence at God’s command. At Sinai, Moses delivered to Israel the law, the pattern of the tabernacle (which later became the model for the temple) and orders for its operation, as well as detailed instructions for the priesthood and sacrificial system of worship.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the wanderings was truly a remarkable time. The presence of God was evidenced by a pillar of cloud that hovered over the people by day and a pillar of fire by night. God provided food in the form of manna, periodically provided water by miraculous means, and made sure that clothes did not wear out. In spite of all that, the people murmured and complained continually.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God gave the law (Ex 19:2–24:18), and the people promptly made a commitment to keep it (24:3). Then God gave the pattern for the tabernacle and its furniture (chs 25–27, 30–31, 35–40) and established the priesthood (chs 28–29). While Moses was on the mountain receiving God’s revelation, the people grew restless and clamored for gods they could see. Even Aaron was carried away with the idolatrous wave and supervised the casting of a golden calf and building of an altar before it. The fact that they turned to Egyptian cattle worship so readily indicates that paganism must have made deep inroads among them while in captivity (chs 32–34). Moses’ intercessory response to God’s announcement that he would destroy Israel because of her idolatry led to a divine determination to execute judgment on only the worst offenders (32:9-14).<\/p>\n<p>Subsequently, God revealed the legal and priestly order (Lv 1:1–27:34). Among the divinely appointed institutions described or alluded to in Leviticus are several special days or feasts, including the Sabbath, Passover, Feast of Unleavened Bread, Firstfruits, Pentecost or Feast of Weeks, Feast of Trumpets, Day of Atonement, Feast of Tabernacles, the Year of Sabbath, and the Year of Jubilee.<\/p>\n<p>After camping at Sinai for about a year, the Israelites got their orders to go forward (Nm 10:11-12). Miriam (Moses’ sister) and Aaron criticized Moses’ leadership and suffered divine punishment as a consequence (ch 12). When the people arrived at Kadesh-barnea, the gate to southern Palestine, they were frightened by the report of most of the spies who had been reconnoitering in Canaan and decided that they should not advance into Canaan. They called for a new leader to bring them back to Egypt. God declared that the entire generation would wander in the wilderness until the adults had died. Only Joshua and Caleb (the two spies in favor of invading immediately) would enter the Promised Land (14:26-30). Near the end of the period of wandering, Moses also lost the privilege of entering the land by an act of disobedience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheConquest\">The Conquest<\/p>\n<p>The latter part of the book of Numbers describes how Moses led the Israelites to victory over the peoples living east of the Jordan River. Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh requested permission to settle there and reluctantly were allowed to do so on the condition that they would join the rest of the Israelites in conquering Canaan before settling down. Prior to victories in Transjordan, a new census of adult males was taken in order to determine the military capabilities of Israel and to provide a basis for equitable division of the land they were about to enter. The number of males above 20 years of age was 601,730 (Nm 26:51). The book of Deuteronomy consists primarily of a series of speeches delivered by Moses in a covenant renewal ceremony on the plains of Moab just before his death and the appointment of Joshua as leader.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua lost no time in moving forward. Spies sent across the Jordan to Jericho to reconnoiter reported a situation quite different from what the Hebrews had experienced at Kadesh-barnea a generation earlier. Now the people of Canaan were terrified because they had heard of the numerical strength and victories of the Hebrews. Apparently the day after the spies returned, Joshua moved the people to the edge of the Jordan and prepared to cross over. The waters parted for them here as the Red Sea had parted earlier.<\/p>\n<p>The narrative of conquest that appears in the book of Joshua is not a detailed battle account. It describes a thrust into the middle of Palestine around Jericho and Ai, a southerly drive to defeat the Amorite league, and a northern campaign against Hazor and other towns. The history of Joshua is extremely telescoped, for Joshua’s major military action must have required about six years. Joshua’s friend Caleb was 79 when the Conquest began and 85 after the last great battle with Jabin, king of Hazor (Jos 14:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>When the war was over, major strongholds (e.g., Jerusalem) still remained in enemy hands, but the land west of the Jordan was allocated to the nine and a half Hebrew tribes. The task of reducing enemy towns was left to the individual tribes in whose land they were located. The Joshua account was not so much a narrative of Israelite battle prowess as of God’s faithfulness and intervention on behalf of his people. For example, at Jericho they did not attack but merely followed divine orders and watched the defenses collapse; at Gibeon hailstones killed more Amorites than Israelite soldiers did (Jos 10:7-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheJudges\">The Judges<\/p>\n<p>Joshua died some 30 years after he had led the Hebrews into Canaan, and he was followed by a series of divinely appointed leaders who ruled sometimes over the whole of Israel as a loose confederacy and sometimes over one or more tribes. They were judges, civil functionaries, and military leaders all at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Judges pictures a series of recurring cycles: apostasy from God, punishment in the form of oppression by neighboring tribes, cries to God for relief, release from bondage under the leadership of a judge, and a period of rest from oppression.<\/p>\n<p>Establishment of the chronology of the judges is one of the thorniest problems of Scripture. Adding up all years of oppression and rest mentioned in the book gives a total of 410. The book of Acts gives a total of 450 years from the days of Joshua to Samuel (Acts 13:19). The difference in Acts may be accounted for by the addition of 40 years of Eli’s ministry (1 Sm 4:18). Allowing 410 years for the period of the judges, about 30 for the Conquest to the judges, and 40 for the wilderness wanderings, means 480 years from 1050 <span>BC<\/span>, the date for Saul’s kingship, and would give a date of about 1530 for the exodus. This is about 100 years more than even the early date for the exodus. The most probable explanation is that there is some overlap in oppressions and judgeships. For instance, the activities of Jephthah were centered on the eastern frontier, those of Samson in the Philistine plain to the southwest, and those of Deborah and Barak in the north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheUnitedMonarchy\">The United Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>Because of the weakness of Israel resulting from political disunity and the ineptness and corruption of both Eli’s and Samuel’s sons, the people of Israel called for a king to rule over them. This demand was in reality a rejection of the divine plan of theocracy—the rule of God. God granted the Hebrews’ wish but warned them of the disadvantages of monarchy (1 Sm 8:9-21). The concept of kingship was not new to Israel. It had been hinted at in Genesis 49:10 and Numbers 24:17, and Moses had made some very clear statements about it in Deuteronomy 17:14-20.<\/p>\n<p>The first stage of Hebrew monarchy is commonly called the united monarchy because all Israel was ruled by a single king. This period lasted for 120 years—encompassing the 40-year reigns of Saul (Acts 13:21), David (2 Sm 5:5), and Solomon (1 Kgs 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>The people asked for a king, and God granted them one, but not one like those of the surrounding nations. The Hebrew king was to be a man who followed God’s dictates in his public and private life, who did not intrude into the affairs of the priesthood, and who did not fall into idolatry, but exerted all his influence to keep the people faithful to God. If he failed in any of these respects, he ran the risk of being deposed by God, of having his line brought to an end, or even of having the people fall into captivity to a foreign power. All this must be kept in mind when evaluating the reigns of Saul, David, Solomon, and the kings of the divided monarchy.<\/p>\n<p>Saul began well. He won a great victory over the Ammonites at Jabesh-gilead and showed considerable wisdom in administrative matters. But after about two years he intruded into the priest’s office to offer sacrifice, bringing the divine prediction that his kingdom would be taken from him (1 Sm 13:8-14). He would go on to enjoy great military victory and ability as a ruler until about the middle of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul’s disobedience to God’s command to totally destroy the Amalekites, the Lord repudiated Saul and instructed Samuel to anoint David privately as future king of Israel. David’s rise to prominence was spurred by his victory over Goliath and the accompanying defeat of the Philistines. Saul later made David commander of the army, and the young man soon earned a reputation greater than that of the king himself. Saul, who had become increasingly mentally disturbed after his relationship with God was broken, began to make attempts on David’s life, and for the last years of Saul’s reign David lived as a fugitive. Meanwhile, the Philistines got completely out of control and finally killed Saul and most of his sons in the great battle of Mt Gilboa, which gave the Philistines control over much of Palestine west of the Jordan (1 Sm 31:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Soon David became king in Judah with his capital in Hebron. A son of Saul, Ishbosheth, established himself at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan. For seven years the two tiny kingdoms existed side by side (2 Sm 2:2-11). But after the Israelite king and his army commander were assassinated, David became ruler of a united Hebrew kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Not long after the beginning of his reign (1010–970 <span>BC<\/span>) David completely defeated and subjugated the Philistines. Soon thereafter he captured Jerusalem, making it the capital of the united kingdom. During succeeding years, David built up an empire (2 Sm 8:10; 1 Chr 18–19), conquering Moab, Edom, Damascus, Zobah, and Ammon, so he controlled territory from the Gulf of Aqaba (a branch of the Red Sea) and the Sinai in the south almost to the Euphrates in the north. Moreover, he established good relations, if not an alliance, with Tyre. The establishment of David’s empire was possible because of a power vacuum in the Middle East. The Egyptians, Mycenaeans, Hittites, and Assyrians were either decadent or removed from the stage of history. The Phoenicians, a peaceful commercial people, were also free to expand their trade, and they were happy to sell cedar to David for his palace and the temple.<\/p>\n<p>Without doubt, David was Israel’s greatest king. Jerusalem came to be known as the city of David. When the king wanted to build the temple as God’s house, God replied that his son should do it instead. But God would in a very real sense build David’s house; he made a covenant with David, promising him that his house (dynasty, kingdom, throne) would be established forever (2 Sm 7). Christ, the infinite One who came from the line of David, alone was capable of fulfilling this divine promise (see Lk 1:31-33; Acts 2:29-36; 13:32-39; 15:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Like other Oriental monarchs, David fell into the practice of keeping a harem. Scripture names 8 wives and 21 children and refers to other wives and concubines. Such a situation opened the door to family rivalries and questions about succession to the throne. Two sons, Absalom and Adonijah, made a try for the throne, but both efforts were squelched. Solomon, son of David’s favorite wife, Bathsheba, became the next king.<\/p>\n<p>Solomon (970–930 <span>BC<\/span>) was a man of peace and a builder of palaces, cities, fortifications, and the temple. He fortified cities all over his realm and outfitted cities for his chariot corps and cavalry units. With the help of the Phoenicians, he built a seaport and kept a fleet at Ezion-geber, near modern Eilat on the Gulf of Aqaba. He greatly enlarged Jerusalem by enclosing the temple area to the north of David’s city and the southwestern hill now known as Zion. His best-known project was the temple, which took seven years to build. Twice the size of the tabernacle, it was built on the same basic plan; it measured 90 feet (27.4 meters) long and 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide and had magnificent appointments. But he also constructed a palace complex that took 13 years to complete. This included an armory, a throne room, the king’s private residence, and a house for the daughter of pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Apparently much influenced by the spiritual testimony of David and desiring God’s blessing on his rule, Solomon made a great sacrifice to God at Gibeon near the beginning of his reign. God met him there and offered to grant whatever he might request. Solomon asked for understanding and wisdom to govern God’s people (1 Kgs 3:9). His God-given wisdom is apparent in many administrative decisions and official policies and building plans.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, Solomon did not show such wisdom in maintaining a harem of 700 wives and 300 concubines or in excessive expenditures that left the state in serious financial straits. He even erected places of worship for his foreign wives, thus subsidizing their idolatries and incurring the wrath of God. In fact, foreign wives and their idolatry proved to be his downfall; before Solomon died, God informed him that for this reason he would divide the kingdom at his death and give most of it to someone other than Solomon’s son. But for David’s sake, God would keep Judah and Jerusalem in the hands of the Davidic line (1 Kgs 11:9-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheDividedKingdom\">The Divided Kingdom<\/p>\n<p>After the death of Solomon, the Near East was destined to become a very different place. Israel was no longer in a power vacuum. The Assyrian Empire rose in Mesopotamia, to be followed by the Neo-Babylonian and the Medo-Persian Empires in turn. Egypt was temporarily powerful in the south, but it would later come under control of Assyria and Medo-Persia. These empires exerted great pressure on Israel and dominated one or both of the two Hebrew kingdoms.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Solomon died, his son Rehoboam took the throne and was forced to deal with a rising tide of resentment over the high taxes and economic stagnation of Solomon’s last years. When Rehoboam refused to give relief, all the northern tribes broke away and formed the northern kingdom, Israel, under the leadership of Jeroboam. The southern kingdom, Judah, was left with only the territory of Judah and Benjamin. A total of 20 kings ruled in each of the separate kingdoms. While the north had several dynasties and the reigns of kings were generally short, in the south the dynasty of David continued to rule and the reigns were longer.<\/p>\n<h5>The Northern Kingdom<\/h5>\n<p>The northern kingdom lasted from the division in 930 <span>BC<\/span> until its conquest by Assyria in 722. Jeroboam, fearing that he would lose the loyalty of the people if they continued to go to Jerusalem to worship, set up a new religion of his own. Instituting calf worship, he built shrines at Dan in the north and Bethel in the south. This idolatry drew the condemnation of God and fulfilled the prediction that Jeroboam’s line would be wiped out. All his successors are said to have followed in his idolatrous steps. Israel found itself at war during much of its history—with Judah, Syria, or Assyria. Jeroboam established his capital first at Shechem and later at Tirzah.<\/p>\n<p>Four other kings of the north require special comment: Omri, Ahab, Jehu, and Jeroboam II. Omri (885–874 <span>BC<\/span>) must have been an impressive ruler. Generations later, Assyrians still spoke of Israel as the land of Omri. After he had established himself on the throne, he located the permanent capital of the kingdom at Samaria and began the palace complex there. Early in his reign he was successful in conquering Moab, and later he reestablished the good relations with Tyre that existed in the days of David and Solomon. Apparently he established a full alliance and cemented it with the marriage of his son Ahab to Jezebel, a princess of Tyre.<\/p>\n<p>Ahab (874–853 <span>BC<\/span>) was one of the most significant of Israel’s kings. He and his wife, Jezebel, promoted the vile idolatry of Baal worship with its religious prostitution, arousing the powerful opposition of the prophet Elijah. Ahab was a formidable military man, defeating the Syrians in major campaigns and participating in a coalition that fought the Assyrians to a virtual standstill. He also built extensively at Samaria, Hazor, Megiddo, and other towns, as excavations show.<\/p>\n<p>Jehu (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>) was God’s agent for punishing the house of Omri and destroying Baal worship in Israel. He did eradicate Baal worship and liquidated literally scores of relatives and court officials of Ahab. But he was so ruthless that he killed off the people who knew how to run the government; subsequently, it did not work well. Jehu also was forced to become a vassal to Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>Jeroboam II ruled during most of the first half of the eighth century (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) and brought the kingdom to its greatest extent and prosperity. He, with his contemporary Uzziah in the south, ruled most of the land David had once controlled. This was possible because the Assyrians were in a period of decline during most of the first half of the century.<\/p>\n<p>Prophets who were active during the history of the northern kingdom include the nonwriting prophets Elijah and Elisha and the writing prophets Jonah, Amos, and Hosea.<\/p>\n<h5>The Southern Kingdom<\/h5>\n<p>The history of the southern kingdom of Judah was quite different from that of the northern kingdom. The temple was there and so were large numbers of Levites, many of whom came south after the division of the kingdom to protest the idolatry of the north. In addition to this spiritual strength, there was greater political stability and unity, promoted by the fact that only two tribes—Judah and Benjamin—shared power, and all the kings were of the Davidic dynasty. Moreover, eight of the kings were good monarchs. There were also periodic religious revivals. God granted the southern kingdom about 100 more years of existence than the north. But Judah, too, fell into idolatry and went into captivity for her sins.<\/p>\n<p>Rehoboam, the first king in the south, is especially remembered because he refused to listen to wise counsel about fiscal matters and perpetrated the division of the kingdom. He is also remembered for his religious policies. After a good beginning, he allowed apostasy to get out of control and brought the judgment of God in the form of an invasion in his fifth year (926 <span>BC<\/span>) by Shishak I of Egypt, resulting in extensive plunder and payment of tribute. Thereafter, he launched an extensive program to fortify the realm. Shishak’s invasion did have the effect of producing a partial and temporary spiritual reform, but the general trend of Rehoboam’s reign was downward.<\/p>\n<p>Conditions during the reign of his son, Abijam, were worse, but Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) initiated a religious reform that was effective for most of his reign. When threatened by the northern kingdom during his latter years, however, Asa turned to Syria for help instead of to God, and he seems to have defied the prophets of God to his dying day.<\/p>\n<p>Asa’s son Jehoshaphat (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) was apparently influenced by his father’s early religious devotion, and his reign was characterized by faithfulness, winning the favor of God. However, he seems to have made a full alliance with Ahab of Israel, which resulted in the marriage of his son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah. This alliance involved Jehoshaphat in almost ruinous joint ventures with Ahab, and later with two of his sons when they became kings of Israel. It also opened the door for the introduction of Baal worship into Judah when Jehoram came to the throne in the southern kingdom. For his sin Jehoram (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) suffered internal revolt, invasion, and death from a horrible disease.<\/p>\n<p>After his death, his last remaining son, Ahaziah, ruled less than a year, following the wicked ways of his father. When Ahaziah died in battle, the queen mother, Athaliah, decided to seize the throne for herself and to secure her power by killing off all those in line to the throne. But she missed Ahaziah’s infant son Joash, who was kept hidden in the temple for six years.<\/p>\n<p>When Joash was seven, Jehoiada the high priest arranged his coronation and also the execution of the murderous and idolatrous Athaliah. During his early years when Joash was influenced by good counsel, he did well. But after the middle of his reign (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>), he began to listen to the princes who wanted to restore idolatry, and conditions deteriorated. Military reversals brought on economic decline and ultimately the king’s assassination.<\/p>\n<p>His son Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>) started well with victory over Edom and faithfulness to God. But he, too, fell into idolatry and was totally defeated by the northern kingdom, being held prisoner there. At that point his son Uzziah took over (c. 792 <span>BC<\/span>) and began a long and generally successful reign. During the several decades that followed, Assyria was in decline, and Uzziah and his contemporary in the north, Jeroboam II, were able to expand Hebrew holdings so that between them they controlled most of the territory Solomon had ruled.<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to restore the power of Judah rather quickly after his father’s defeat by Israel. Then he subjugated the Philistines in the southwest and the Ammonites across the Jordan; he strengthened his hold on the Edomites. All during his reign economic conditions improved. But at the height of his power Uzziah foolishly violated the high priest’s prerogatives and offered sacrifice in the temple. For this he was smitten with leprosy; his son Jotham was co-regent during the years 750–740 <span>BC<\/span>, going on to rule alone for about five more years. Meanwhile, Assyrian power became resurgent.<\/p>\n<p>By and large, Jotham merely carried on the policies of Uzziah. But the administration of his son Ahaz (735–715 <span>BC<\/span>) was very much affected by the Assyrian threat. Israel and Syria wanted him to join in war against Assyria, but he refused, being pro-Assyrian in sympathy. When Israel and Syria invaded Judah, King Ahaz sent tribute to Assyria and became her vassal in return for protection. This rash course of action was vainly opposed by Isaiah, who was prophet at court (c. 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>). Contemporaneously, the prophet Micah ministered to the common people of Judah. The pro-Assyrian policy of Ahaz was accompanied by a renewed sympathy for idolatry, and this brought the judgment of God in the form of invasion by Edomites and Philistines and trouble with Assyria. In fact, during this period, Assyria had annexed the northern kingdom (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and removed many of her people into captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The next king of Judah, Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), was greatly sobered by the fall of Israel because of her sins, and he determined to launch a reform in his realm. He was anti-Assyrian too, but he did not dare to discontinue tribute payments and strike for independence until after Sennacherib came to the throne in Nineveh in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. At first Sennacherib was too preoccupied to attend to Judah, but finally in 701 he invaded. Despite tremendous initial success, he was stopped by a divinely sent plague (Is 36–39). Isaiah stood by the king to reassure and sustain him during this emergency.<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah’s son Manasseh (697–642 <span>BC<\/span>) ruled longer than any other king of Israel or Judah. Unfortunately, he turned his back on his father’s example and caused the people to fall into gross idolatry (2 Kgs 21:9). Carried away captive by the Assyrians late in his reign, he repented of his evil and God restored him to his throne; thereafter, he led some reforms. But the land was too steeped in iniquity to be rescued. His son Amon (642–640 <span>BC<\/span>) reverted to the idolatry he knew in his youth.<\/p>\n<p>The situation was different with Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), however. Throughout his reign he dedicated himself to reform. He sought to root out idolatry and to restore the temple and its worship. In 622 <span>BC<\/span> the Book of the Law was found during repair of the temple, and its demands—which had been forgotten—made a great impression on king and people alike. It is certain that Jeremiah and Zephaniah ministered during Josiah’s reign, as did Nahum and Habakkuk (in all probability).<\/p>\n<p>International conditions were now changing rapidly. Assyria was declining, and Nineveh fell to Babylon and the Medes in 612 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years later Pharaoh Neco of Egypt marched north to aid his Assyrian ally. When Josiah tried to stop him, he was killed in battle.<\/p>\n<p>From this point everything was downhill for Judah. None of the rest of the kings was devout, and political power and economic health rapidly declined. The people put one of Josiah’s sons, Jehoahaz, on the throne. He lasted three months. Pharaoh Neco replaced him with Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>), another son of Josiah. In 605 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon defeated Neco, invaded Judah, and took tribute and hostages from Jehoiakim, including Daniel and his friends (Dn 1:1). Jehoiakim revolted in 600 <span>BC<\/span>, but Nebuchadnezzar did not come to deal with him personally until 597 <span>BC<\/span>. He died before the Babylonians arrived, and his son Jehoiachin came to the throne in 598 <span>BC<\/span> to rule for only three months before the Babylonians carried him away into exile. Ezekiel was among the many captives taken on that occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The Babylonians then put Zedekiah, youngest son of Josiah, on the throne in 597 <span>BC<\/span>. When he rebelled, Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Jerusalem and took the city (587 <span>BC<\/span>), destroying it and the temple and carrying off large numbers of people. The judgment of God had finally fallen on the Jews for their idolatrous ways.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRestoration\">The Restoration<\/p>\n<p>In judgment God remembered mercy. This is evident in individual lives, when faithful ones like Daniel, Esther, or Nehemiah rose to a position of importance in political life, or as numerous other persons became prosperous in the foreign environment. It is evident on the community level as God moved to protect Hebrew enclaves scattered abroad and to restore an organized society in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Among the exiles, Judaism as a way of life separated from its own political system or cultic center and began to emerge. Jews finally turned their backs on idolatry. And without a temple, priesthood, king, or land, they turned to the divine Scriptures as their rallying point and the foundation of their community. During this period they developed the synagogue as a place for fellowship, prayer, and study.<\/p>\n<p>God’s restoration of an organized community to Palestine involved particularly the fortunes of his “anointed” Cyrus (Is 44:28; 45:1). Cyrus was a Persian prince who in 559 <span>BC<\/span> revolted against the dominant dynasty controlling the Median Empire. After consolidating his hold on the throne, he proceeded to conquer Asia Minor and the Chaldean or Neo-Babylonian Empire. As a humane man and a wise administrator, he permitted the captive peoples to return to their homes and rebuild their communities. Cyrus’s decree to the Jews appears in Ezra 1 and dates probably to 538 <span>BC<\/span>. A total of almost 50,000 went back to Judah as a result of this edict (Ezr 2:64-65).<\/p>\n<p>Under the stresses and strains of reestablishment, the people built their houses but got no further than laying the foundation of a new temple. Finally, the prophets Haggai and Zechariah stirred the people to build the house of God (Ezr 5:1). They began in the second year of Darius I, the Great (520 <span>BC<\/span>; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), and completed the work in his sixth year (515 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 6:15).<\/p>\n<p>During the reign of Darius’s son Xerxes (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>), a plot was hatched to exterminate all the Jews in the Persian Empire, which at that time controlled the lands where Jews lived. Fortunately, Xerxes (Ahasuerus in the book of Esther), in his third year (483 <span>BC<\/span>; Est 1:3), went searching for a new queen and chose Esther, who managed to preserve her people.<\/p>\n<p>Xerxes’ son Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>) also figured significantly in Jewish history. In his seventh year (458 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 7:7), under the leadership of Ezra, a second contingent of Jews returned to Jerusalem. And in Artaxerxes’ 20th year (445 <span>BC<\/span>; Neh 2:1), Nehemiah went to Jerusalem to supervise the rebuilding of the walls of the city. Malachi probably wrote his prophecy to the Jews in Jerusalem during the latter part of Artaxerxes’ reign.<\/p>\n<p>After the fall of Samaria and the captivity of Judah, the Hebrews remaining in the land intermarried with various pagan groups in the area. Their offspring became the Samaritans, a religious and racial admixture. These people had moved into the vacuum left by the destruction of Judah, and naturally they looked with disfavor on an intrusion of Babylonian Jews into an area they had come to call their own. They did all they could to frustrate the efforts of Nehemiah to rebuild the walls. It took all the courage, tact, energy, and persuasiveness Ezra and Nehemiah could muster to prevent the returning Jews from intermarrying with racially mixed people of the land. Such intermarriage would have meant the ultimate absorption and destruction of the Jewish people.<\/p>\n<p>A Samaritan temple was later built on Mt Gerizim (probably during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>), and it became the center of the Samaritan worship. The hostility between Samaritans and Jews continued on into the NT period (Jn 4) and exists to the present.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheIntertestamentalPeriod\">The Intertestamental Period<\/p>\n<p>Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire with lightning speed. When the people of Jerusalem threw open their gates in 332 <span>BC<\/span> and capitulated without a fight, Alexander treated them well. After his death in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, Palestine passed back and forth among his successors until Ptolemy I of Egypt managed to establish control in 301 <span>BC<\/span>. Thereafter the area remained in Egyptian hands until 198 <span>BC<\/span>. The Ptolemies were tolerant and granted the Jews considerable autonomy, allowing them to develop their unique culture undisturbed as long as they paid their taxes and remained submissive. Many Jews settled in Alexandria and gradually forgot their Hebrew in the Hellenistic environment. As a result, a translation of the OT into Greek (the Septuagint) was produced there. While the Ptolemies did not force Hellenism on the Jews of either Alexandria or Palestine, many were influenced by Hellenistic ideas.<\/p>\n<p>When Ptolemy V came to the throne as a minor in 203 <span>BC<\/span>, Antiochus III of Syria took advantage of the weakened Egypt and conquered Palestine (198 <span>BC<\/span>). Apparently the Jews hoped to gain something from the change and welcomed the Syrians. But their hope was ill-founded. Antiochus III suffered disastrous defeat at the hands of Rome at Magnesia in 190 <span>BC<\/span>. Syria not only lost much territory but also was forced to pay a huge indemnity. Thereafter, the Jews suffered under great financial burdens, along with other peoples of the empire. The next Syrian king, Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>), decided to launch an effort to achieve greater internal strength and unity within the empire by forcing, among other things, a greater acceptance of Greek culture and the cult of the divine ruler. Naturally this idolatrous requirement weighed heavily on the monotheistic Jews and incited revolution.<\/p>\n<p>But this does not completely explain the Maccabean revolt against Syria. In 168 <span>BC<\/span> armed conflict broke out between Jewish factions in Jerusalem. Antiochus IV chose to interpret this as open rebellion and sent an army against the city. His forces demolished part of the city wall and many houses. After this Antiochus decided to suppress Judaism completely, and he dedicated the temple to Zeus and sacrificed swine on the altar. Circumcision, Sabbath observance, and other religious festivals were no longer permitted, and public worship of heathen gods became compulsory.<\/p>\n<p>Some Jews capitulated to Antiochus’s orders or only resisted passively, but a few decided to resist openly. Chief among them were Mattathias and his five sons. After the early death of Mattathias, his son Judas Maccabeus led his forces to victory over the Syrians, regaining the right to restore Jewish worship. The rededication of the temple on December 25, 164 <span>BC<\/span>, inaugurated the Festival of Hanukkah (1 Macc 4:36-59). Subsequently, Jonathan and Simon (other sons of Mattathias) continued the struggle until independence was gained in 142 <span>BC<\/span>; this was possible in large part because they saw how to take advantage of the increasing weakness of Syrian rulers and the competition for the royal office.<\/p>\n<p>Simon ruled the Jewish state until his assassination in 134 <span>BC<\/span>, when his son John Hyrcanus (134–104 <span>BC<\/span>) took over. John Hyrcanus fought successfully in the east, north, and south, gaining land in Transjordan, capturing Shechem and the Samaritan temple on Mt Gerizim, and subjugating the Idumeans in the south, forcing them to adopt Judaism. His son Aristobulus ruled for only about a year (104–103 <span>BC<\/span>), but he added a portion of Galilee to the kingdom. When he died, his widow married his brother Alexander Janneus (103–76 <span>BC<\/span>). Janneus carried on almost incessant military action during his reign, and by the time of his death had almost recovered the kingdom of Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>When Janneus died, Alexandra, widow of two kings, took the throne (76–67 <span>BC<\/span>) and her eldest son, Hyrcanus II, became high priest. Her reign was peaceful and prosperous, but when she died, her sons fell to squabbling. Their appeals to Pompey, who was campaigning in the eastern Mediterranean area, were responsible for Roman interference in the region and conquest of Palestine in 63 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRomanPeriod\">The Roman Period<\/p>\n<p>After the Romans took over Palestine, Hyrcanus II was confirmed as high priest and was also appointed as ethnarch or political ruler (63–40 <span>BC<\/span>). But Antipater, father of Herod the Great, was the real power behind the throne, and during many of those years Hyrcanus was virtually unable to function because of the confusion of the Roman civil wars. Antipater was loyal to Rome and saw that Roman policies were carried out; he won Julius Caesar’s favor toward Jews of both Palestine and in the Dispersion.<\/p>\n<p>With the support of Mark Antony, Herod managed to get himself appointed king of Judea by the Roman senate in 40 <span>BC<\/span>. But a Parthian invasion of Syria and Jewish hatred for the Romans made it possible for Antigonus II, last king of the Maccabean family, to rule for three years (40–37 <span>BC<\/span>). Finally, Herod ascended his throne in 37 and ruled until 4 <span>BC<\/span>. As an allied king, Herod proved to be an excellent ruler from the Roman point of view and earned the title of “Great.” He brought some order to regions east of the Jordan and made possible organization of the Roman province of Arabia. He also furthered the cultural plans of Augustus for development of a Greco-Roman civilization throughout the whole empire.<\/p>\n<p>Herod admired Greek culture and contributed to building projects in Rhodes, Antioch, Damascus, Athens, and elsewhere outside Palestine. Within Palestine he rebuilt Samaria and named it Sebaste in honor of Augustus (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Sebastos<\/span> is Greek for “Augustus”) and also constructed the great port of Caesarea. Probably about as large as Manhattan Island, it became the capital of Roman Palestine. Among his many other building projects, remodeling the temple in Jerusalem was the most famous. Begun in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, it was not completed until just a few years before its destruction in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>The material splendor of Herod’s reign did not win the affection or support of the Jews, however. Nor did he achieve peace and harmony in his family, among whom there were periodic eruptions of treason, unfaithfulness, and murder. He worried about any threat to his rule and cracked down hard to destroy such threats, as is evident from his slaughter of the infants in Bethlehem after the birth of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, Herod controlled Idumea, Judea, Samaria, Galilee, Perea, and the area northeast of the Sea of Galilee. By his last will, his son Archelaus was to rule Idumea, Judea, and Samaria; Antipas, Galilee and Perea; and Philip, the region northeast of the Sea of Galilee. Archelaus was deposed in <span>AD<\/span> 6, and his territory became a Roman province (<span>AD<\/span> 6–41) to be ruled by direct appointees of Rome. The best-known of these was Pontius Pilate (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36), who ordered the crucifixion of Jesus. Antipas was more successful and built a new capital at Tiberias, but he ran afoul of the emperor’s good pleasure in <span>AD<\/span> 39 and was deposed. Philip was the most effective of the three and ruled until his death in <span>AD<\/span> 34. Philip’s lands were later given to Herod Agrippa I in <span>AD<\/span> 37; the holdings of Antipas were then added in <span>AD<\/span> 39; and in 41 Agrippa also received Samaria, Judea, and Idumea.<\/p>\n<p>Herod Agrippa I (<span>AD<\/span> 37–44) was the heir of the Maccabees (through his grandmother Mariamne, first wife of Herod the Great), and for this reason had the support of patriotic Jews and of the Pharisees for his observance of divine ordinances. But when he built a new north wall for Jerusalem and dabbled in foreign affairs, he aroused the suspicions of the Romans; when he died in <span>AD<\/span> 44, they turned the kingdom into a Roman province.<\/p>\n<p>As is clear from the Gospels, several sects had arisen in Palestine by Roman times and were active during the first century. The Zealots opposed Roman rule and advocated armed rebellion. Herodians supported the Herodian family and Roman power. The Pharisees were fanatically devoted to the law and were supernaturalists in theological orientation. They were somewhat content to support Rome if given religious freedom, and they dominated the synagogues of the land. The Sadducees were antisupernaturalists, tended to collaborate with the ruling regime, and were dominant in the temple. Generally speaking, the literature of the intertestamental period and the popular mentality of the time tended to view the Messiah as a political deliverer who would free his people from foreign domination and set up a new independent kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Roman prefects ruled Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 44–66. They had a knack for offending the religious scruples of the Jews and alienating them in other ways. With Felix (<span>AD<\/span> 52–60) there began a constant tension between Jews and Romans that led to the first Jewish revolt (<span>AD<\/span> 66–70). While Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:23–24:27) about <span>AD<\/span> 58–60, riots broke out there between Jews and Gentiles. Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62; Acts 25) was an able administrator, but the situation was almost out of hand. After he died in office, there was virtual anarchy until his successor, Albinus, arrived (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). Totally incompetent and dishonest, Albinus was recalled in 64 and replaced by Florus (<span>AD<\/span> 64–66). Florus was even worse, resorting to open robbery and bribery until there was no safety or justice in the land. Finally, the Jews could take no more.<\/p>\n<p>The spark that ignited the fires of rebellion was an anti-Semitic act by the Hellenistic population of Caesarea in <span>AD<\/span> 66. Soon riots spread to numerous cities, and Roman garrisons were massacred in several places. But the Jews were not united, and in Jerusalem armed bands of Jews fought with each other for mastery. Vespasian was chosen to command the Roman army of some 60,000 to deal with the insurrection. He had subjugated most of Palestine by the time he was elevated to the imperial chair in <span>AD<\/span> 69 (after the death of Nero), and he left his son Titus in charge of completing the operations. In August of <span>AD<\/span> 70 the walls of Jerusalem were breached, many of the people butchered, and the city and the temple leveled. Masada held out until <span>AD<\/span> 73. Palestine had been flattened by Roman might. Loss of life and property had been incalculable and indescribable.<\/p>\n<p>On two more occasions the Jews were destined to fight disastrously against the Romans. Under Trajan’s rule a rebellion of Jews broke out in Cyrenaica in <span>AD<\/span> 115 and spread rapidly to Cyprus, Egypt, Palestine, and Mesopotamia. In the beginning it was an outgrowth of agitation between the Jews and their Hellenistic neighbors, but it developed into a challenge to Roman authority. This was particularly true after the successes of Parthia on Rome’s eastern frontier when there seemed to be some hope of success in throwing off the Roman yoke. Wherever Jews got the upper hand, they perpetrated massacres, and the non-Semitic population retaliated in kind. Trajan ruthlessly suppressed the rebels and restored order everywhere except Egypt; his successor, Hadrian, was left to accomplish that.<\/p>\n<p>But Hadrian faced a new rebellion of his own, brought on by his law forbidding circumcision (which he considered to be inhumane) and his decision in <span>AD<\/span> 130 to rebuild Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina and erect a temple to Jupiter on the site of the temple of Yahweh. The latter would not only profane the temple site but also would preclude any rebuilding of the Jewish temple.<\/p>\n<p>Leader of this second Jewish revolt was Simeon, prince of Israel, called Bar-Kochba (“Son of the Star”). Both sides fought with such great ferocity for over three years (<span>AD<\/span> 132–135) that the population of Judea was almost exterminated. Jerusalem was rebuilt as a Roman colony, and Jews were forbidden to enter on pain of death. Even as late as the fourth century they were permitted to enter only once a year, on the anniversary of the destruction of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar. After the Bar-Kochba revolt, Judaism retreated increasingly within the citadel of the written and oral law, thus separating itself from the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Conquest and Allotment of the Land; David; Diaspora of the Jews; Exodus, The; First Jewish Revolt; Jew; Judaism; Moses; Patriarchs, Period of the; Saul #2; Solomon; Postexilic Period; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISRAEL, History of<\/h3>\n<p>An account of God’s sovereign purpose in calling a people out of paganism and establishing them as witnesses for the true faith among the nations, of God’s sovereign power in protecting them from extinction, of his sovereign justice in dealing with their departure from his ways of holiness, of God’s sovereign grace in forgiving their sins and restoring them to fellowship with himself by providing through them a Savior for the entire world.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Patriarchal Age<\/p>\n<p>• Sojourn in Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Exodus<\/p>\n<p>• Wilderness Wanderings<\/p>\n<p>• The Conquest<\/p>\n<p>• The Judges<\/p>\n<p>• The United Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>• The Divided Kingdom<\/p>\n<p>• The Restoration<\/p>\n<p>• The Intertestamental Period<\/p>\n<p>• The Roman Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PatriarchalAge\">Patriarchal Age<\/p>\n<p>The story of Israel begins with Abraham, whom God called first at Ur, and perhaps later at Haran (Acts 7:2-4), to leave Mesopotamia and go into a land to which God would direct the way. In calling Abraham, God made with him a covenant (Gn 12:1-3) that promised him a land, special divine favor (“I will bless those who bless you, and the one who curses you I will curse,” <span>nasb<\/span>), and the privilege of being a channel of blessing to the entire world (“In you all the families of the earth shall be blessed,” <span>nasb<\/span>). In Genesis 12:4-8 God confirmed this unconditional covenant, promising Abraham this new land forever, along with innumerable descendants. Subsequently, in Genesis 15:1-21, God again confirmed the covenant but added the significant prediction that the guarantee of holding Canaan in perpetuity did not mean occupation of the land in every generation. God also spelled out the limits of the Promised Land (from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, some 500 to 600 miles or 804 to 965 kilometers in extent). A final confirmation of the covenant to Abraham appears in Genesis 17:6-8. It guaranteed the land of Canaan to Abraham’s posterity and added that kings (an anticipation of the Davidic dynasty) would arise in his line. The covenant was confirmed to Abraham’s son Isaac (Gn 26:3-5) and his grandson Jacob (ch 28).<\/p>\n<p>This period is known as the patriarchal age in Hebrew history. The patriarchs were Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. They were called patriarchs because they were fathers, not only to their immediate families, but also to the extended family of Hebrews, over which they exercised a fatherly control. They served as political, legal, and spiritual heads of their migratory community, looking after their interests and leading them in worship. Periodically they built altars on which they offered sacrifices. That the patriarchal community was very large can be seen from Genesis 14:14, which says that Abraham had 318 armed men in his camp. If one assumes that most of the men were married and had one or more children each, the total extended family may have numbered in excess of 1,000.<\/p>\n<p>Additional developments in the life of Abraham and Jacob were particularly important for world history. Abraham, frustrated at not having an heir, accepted Sarah’s suggestion to obtain an heir by the slave girl Hagar. (This was also the custom of the land.) The son born was named Ishmael, progenitor of the Arabs. Thus Abraham is revered by Arabs and Muslims as well as by Jews and Christians. He is the father of the Jews through his son Isaac, child of promise. He holds a special place in Christianity as an example of Christ, through whom all Christians obtain their salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob, a scheming scoundrel in his earlier years, wound up in exile in northern Mesopotamia for 20 years in the home of his uncle Laban. There he married Leah and Rachel and fathered the sons who became the progenitors of the 12 tribes of Israel. On his return to Palestine he met God along the banks of the Jabbok River (Gn 32), and God changed his name to Israel (“a prince of God,” <span>kjv<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<p>The patriarchal period in Canaan lasted for 215 years. One estimate places Abraham’s entry into Canaan at about 2085 <span>BC<\/span>, when he was 75 years of age. Jacob and his sons migrated to Egypt to escape a severe famine in Canaan in about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>. During much of the patriarchal period, Palestine experienced a decline in population and was occupied largely by nomadic or seminomadic tribes. It was relatively easy for the Hebrews to enter such a situation. After 1900 Palestine began to enjoy more settled conditions. Shortly thereafter, the Hebrews made the trek into Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SojourninEgypt\">Sojourn in Egypt<\/p>\n<p>If Jacob and his sons entered Egypt about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, it was the period of the Middle Kingdom. And by that time other migrants from Asia were coming in increasing numbers. The Hebrews settled in Goshen, in the eastern delta region, under the protecting care of Joseph, who held a position at the Egyptian court roughly equivalent to that of prime minister. As more and more Asiatic Hyksos came into Egypt, they began to take over the country—northern Egypt at least. During this same time the Hebrews became increasingly numerous. Some who hold to a different chronology believe the Hebrews were welcomed into Egypt during the days of Hyksos domination (after 1750 <span>BC<\/span>). At any rate, by about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> native Egyptian princes regained control of the country and expelled many of the Asiatics.<\/p>\n<p>In process of time there arose a king over Egypt who “knew not Joseph” (Ex 1:8, <span>kjv<\/span>). Very possibly this meant that a native Egyptian dynasty had arisen in Egypt and they were apprehensive over the fact that the growing numbers and wealth of the Hebrews might jeopardize their own supremacy. But Egyptian measures to subjugate the Hebrews and reduce their birthrate had a reverse effect (Ex 1:12). Finally, the Egyptians ordered the killing of all male Hebrew infants at birth. Among those who disobeyed were the parents of Moses, who set him afloat in a waterproof basket made of reeds. Found by a daughter of Pharaoh, he was brought up in the Egyptian court, was given a first-class education, and became a high official of the realm.<\/p>\n<p>At the age of 40, Moses identified himself with his own people. He killed an Egyptian in defense of a fellow Hebrew, and immediately fled to the land of Midian in the northeastern part of the Sinai Peninsula. He married and lived there for 40 years, becoming thoroughly familiar with the geography and the ways of the wilderness through which he would later lead the Hebrews. The Egyptians continued to oppress the Hebrew people severely until they cried urgently to God for deliverance. In response, God confronted Moses in the famous burning bush experience and called on him to return to Egypt and lead the people back into the land of Canaan (Ex 3–4). He was to have the help of his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheExodus\">The Exodus<\/p>\n<p>Understandably the pharaoh of Egypt was reluctant to permit the Hebrews to leave permanently. The value of this great labor force was incalculable. But finally, after suffering a series of ten plagues, lasting perhaps a year, the Egyptians were persuaded to let the Hebrews go (Ex 7–12).<\/p>\n<p>The plagues had a theological as well as a practical purpose. They discredited the gods of Egypt and exalted the most high God of heaven (Ex 12:12). The plagues clearly discredited specific gods of Egypt (e.g., the Nile was worshiped as Hapi, plague one; the frog, worshiped as Heqt, plague two; the bull, worshiped as Ptah, plague five; the sun, worshiped as Amon-Re\/Aton, plague nine). Taken together, they struck a direct blow at the Egyptian pantheon.<\/p>\n<p>Just before the last plague, which was the night in which the death angel invaded the homes of the Egyptians, the Israelites made the Passover sacrifice according to divine instructions. This involved killing a lamb for each household (unless the household was too small; in that event, households could combine). Anyone who was careless about applying the blood to the doorpost or who rejected this divine provision came under the judgment of God. After the death of the firstborn throughout the land, the Egyptians begged the Hebrews to leave. Their company numbered 600,000 men over 20 years of age, plus women and children, for a total of over 2,500,000. In addition they took their flocks and herds and personal belongings.<\/p>\n<p>The date they left Egypt is a matter of continuing debate. Traditionally a date of about 1446 <span>BC<\/span> is given for the exodus (cf. 1 Kgs 6:1, which places the exodus 480 years before construction of the temple started in 966 <span>BC<\/span>) and 1406 <span>BC<\/span> for the Conquest under Joshua, and there do not seem to be any compelling arguments for rejecting that position. But a great many scholars prefer 1275 <span>BC<\/span> for a variety of reasons.<\/p>\n<p>The early date of the exodus would place the later years of the wilderness wanderings and the subsequent conquest of Palestine during the reigns of Amenhotep III and IV (1412–1366), a time when the pharaohs allowed Egyptian control of Palestine to disintegrate. When the Egyptians did reassert their power, about 1300, they restricted their movements largely to the coastal area, and thus did not come in contact with the Hebrews who were living in the hill country of Judea, Samaria, and Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildernessWanderings\">Wilderness Wanderings<\/p>\n<p>The wilderness wanderings were an important interlude in the history of Israel. During those years, significant and basic institutions came into existence at God’s command. At Sinai, Moses delivered to Israel the law, the pattern of the tabernacle (which later became the model for the temple) and orders for its operation, as well as detailed instructions for the priesthood and sacrificial system of worship.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the wanderings was truly a remarkable time. The presence of God was evidenced by a pillar of cloud that hovered over the people by day and a pillar of fire by night. God provided food in the form of manna, periodically provided water by miraculous means, and made sure that clothes did not wear out. In spite of all that, the people murmured and complained continually.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God gave the law (Ex 19:2–24:18), and the people promptly made a commitment to keep it (24:3). Then God gave the pattern for the tabernacle and its furniture (chs 25–27, 30–31, 35–40) and established the priesthood (chs 28–29). While Moses was on the mountain receiving God’s revelation, the people grew restless and clamored for gods they could see. Even Aaron was carried away with the idolatrous wave and supervised the casting of a golden calf and building of an altar before it. The fact that they turned to Egyptian cattle worship so readily indicates that paganism must have made deep inroads among them while in captivity (chs 32–34). Moses’ intercessory response to God’s announcement that he would destroy Israel because of her idolatry led to a divine determination to execute judgment on only the worst offenders (32:9-14).<\/p>\n<p>Subsequently, God revealed the legal and priestly order (Lv 1:1–27:34). Among the divinely appointed institutions described or alluded to in Leviticus are several special days or feasts, including the Sabbath, Passover, Feast of Unleavened Bread, Firstfruits, Pentecost or Feast of Weeks, Feast of Trumpets, Day of Atonement, Feast of Tabernacles, the Year of Sabbath, and the Year of Jubilee.<\/p>\n<p>After camping at Sinai for about a year, the Israelites got their orders to go forward (Nm 10:11-12). Miriam (Moses’ sister) and Aaron criticized Moses’ leadership and suffered divine punishment as a consequence (ch 12). When the people arrived at Kadesh-barnea, the gate to southern Palestine, they were frightened by the report of most of the spies who had been reconnoitering in Canaan and decided that they should not advance into Canaan. They called for a new leader to bring them back to Egypt. God declared that the entire generation would wander in the wilderness until the adults had died. Only Joshua and Caleb (the two spies in favor of invading immediately) would enter the Promised Land (14:26-30). Near the end of the period of wandering, Moses also lost the privilege of entering the land by an act of disobedience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheConquest\">The Conquest<\/p>\n<p>The latter part of the book of Numbers describes how Moses led the Israelites to victory over the peoples living east of the Jordan River. Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh requested permission to settle there and reluctantly were allowed to do so on the condition that they would join the rest of the Israelites in conquering Canaan before settling down. Prior to victories in Transjordan, a new census of adult males was taken in order to determine the military capabilities of Israel and to provide a basis for equitable division of the land they were about to enter. The number of males above 20 years of age was 601,730 (Nm 26:51). The book of Deuteronomy consists primarily of a series of speeches delivered by Moses in a covenant renewal ceremony on the plains of Moab just before his death and the appointment of Joshua as leader.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua lost no time in moving forward. Spies sent across the Jordan to Jericho to reconnoiter reported a situation quite different from what the Hebrews had experienced at Kadesh-barnea a generation earlier. Now the people of Canaan were terrified because they had heard of the numerical strength and victories of the Hebrews. Apparently the day after the spies returned, Joshua moved the people to the edge of the Jordan and prepared to cross over. The waters parted for them here as the Red Sea had parted earlier.<\/p>\n<p>The narrative of conquest that appears in the book of Joshua is not a detailed battle account. It describes a thrust into the middle of Palestine around Jericho and Ai, a southerly drive to defeat the Amorite league, and a northern campaign against Hazor and other towns. The history of Joshua is extremely telescoped, for Joshua’s major military action must have required about six years. Joshua’s friend Caleb was 79 when the Conquest began and 85 after the last great battle with Jabin, king of Hazor (Jos 14:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>When the war was over, major strongholds (e.g., Jerusalem) still remained in enemy hands, but the land west of the Jordan was allocated to the nine and a half Hebrew tribes. The task of reducing enemy towns was left to the individual tribes in whose land they were located. The Joshua account was not so much a narrative of Israelite battle prowess as of God’s faithfulness and intervention on behalf of his people. For example, at Jericho they did not attack but merely followed divine orders and watched the defenses collapse; at Gibeon hailstones killed more Amorites than Israelite soldiers did (Jos 10:7-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheJudges\">The Judges<\/p>\n<p>Joshua died some 30 years after he had led the Hebrews into Canaan, and he was followed by a series of divinely appointed leaders who ruled sometimes over the whole of Israel as a loose confederacy and sometimes over one or more tribes. They were judges, civil functionaries, and military leaders all at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Judges pictures a series of recurring cycles: apostasy from God, punishment in the form of oppression by neighboring tribes, cries to God for relief, release from bondage under the leadership of a judge, and a period of rest from oppression.<\/p>\n<p>Establishment of the chronology of the judges is one of the thorniest problems of Scripture. Adding up all years of oppression and rest mentioned in the book gives a total of 410. The book of Acts gives a total of 450 years from the days of Joshua to Samuel (Acts 13:19). The difference in Acts may be accounted for by the addition of 40 years of Eli’s ministry (1 Sm 4:18). Allowing 410 years for the period of the judges, about 30 for the Conquest to the judges, and 40 for the wilderness wanderings, means 480 years from 1050 <span>BC<\/span>, the date for Saul’s kingship, and would give a date of about 1530 for the exodus. This is about 100 years more than even the early date for the exodus. The most probable explanation is that there is some overlap in oppressions and judgeships. For instance, the activities of Jephthah were centered on the eastern frontier, those of Samson in the Philistine plain to the southwest, and those of Deborah and Barak in the north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheUnitedMonarchy\">The United Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>Because of the weakness of Israel resulting from political disunity and the ineptness and corruption of both Eli’s and Samuel’s sons, the people of Israel called for a king to rule over them. This demand was in reality a rejection of the divine plan of theocracy—the rule of God. God granted the Hebrews’ wish but warned them of the disadvantages of monarchy (1 Sm 8:9-21). The concept of kingship was not new to Israel. It had been hinted at in Genesis 49:10 and Numbers 24:17, and Moses had made some very clear statements about it in Deuteronomy 17:14-20.<\/p>\n<p>The first stage of Hebrew monarchy is commonly called the united monarchy because all Israel was ruled by a single king. This period lasted for 120 years—encompassing the 40-year reigns of Saul (Acts 13:21), David (2 Sm 5:5), and Solomon (1 Kgs 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>The people asked for a king, and God granted them one, but not one like those of the surrounding nations. The Hebrew king was to be a man who followed God’s dictates in his public and private life, who did not intrude into the affairs of the priesthood, and who did not fall into idolatry, but exerted all his influence to keep the people faithful to God. If he failed in any of these respects, he ran the risk of being deposed by God, of having his line brought to an end, or even of having the people fall into captivity to a foreign power. All this must be kept in mind when evaluating the reigns of Saul, David, Solomon, and the kings of the divided monarchy.<\/p>\n<p>Saul began well. He won a great victory over the Ammonites at Jabesh-gilead and showed considerable wisdom in administrative matters. But after about two years he intruded into the priest’s office to offer sacrifice, bringing the divine prediction that his kingdom would be taken from him (1 Sm 13:8-14). He would go on to enjoy great military victory and ability as a ruler until about the middle of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul’s disobedience to God’s command to totally destroy the Amalekites, the Lord repudiated Saul and instructed Samuel to anoint David privately as future king of Israel. David’s rise to prominence was spurred by his victory over Goliath and the accompanying defeat of the Philistines. Saul later made David commander of the army, and the young man soon earned a reputation greater than that of the king himself. Saul, who had become increasingly mentally disturbed after his relationship with God was broken, began to make attempts on David’s life, and for the last years of Saul’s reign David lived as a fugitive. Meanwhile, the Philistines got completely out of control and finally killed Saul and most of his sons in the great battle of Mt Gilboa, which gave the Philistines control over much of Palestine west of the Jordan (1 Sm 31:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Soon David became king in Judah with his capital in Hebron. A son of Saul, Ishbosheth, established himself at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan. For seven years the two tiny kingdoms existed side by side (2 Sm 2:2-11). But after the Israelite king and his army commander were assassinated, David became ruler of a united Hebrew kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Not long after the beginning of his reign (1010–970 <span>BC<\/span>) David completely defeated and subjugated the Philistines. Soon thereafter he captured Jerusalem, making it the capital of the united kingdom. During succeeding years, David built up an empire (2 Sm 8:10; 1 Chr 18–19), conquering Moab, Edom, Damascus, Zobah, and Ammon, so he controlled territory from the Gulf of Aqaba (a branch of the Red Sea) and the Sinai in the south almost to the Euphrates in the north. Moreover, he established good relations, if not an alliance, with Tyre. The establishment of David’s empire was possible because of a power vacuum in the Middle East. The Egyptians, Mycenaeans, Hittites, and Assyrians were either decadent or removed from the stage of history. The Phoenicians, a peaceful commercial people, were also free to expand their trade, and they were happy to sell cedar to David for his palace and the temple.<\/p>\n<p>Without doubt, David was Israel’s greatest king. Jerusalem came to be known as the city of David. When the king wanted to build the temple as God’s house, God replied that his son should do it instead. But God would in a very real sense build David’s house; he made a covenant with David, promising him that his house (dynasty, kingdom, throne) would be established forever (2 Sm 7). Christ, the infinite One who came from the line of David, alone was capable of fulfilling this divine promise (see Lk 1:31-33; Acts 2:29-36; 13:32-39; 15:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Like other Oriental monarchs, David fell into the practice of keeping a harem. Scripture names 8 wives and 21 children and refers to other wives and concubines. Such a situation opened the door to family rivalries and questions about succession to the throne. Two sons, Absalom and Adonijah, made a try for the throne, but both efforts were squelched. Solomon, son of David’s favorite wife, Bathsheba, became the next king.<\/p>\n<p>Solomon (970–930 <span>BC<\/span>) was a man of peace and a builder of palaces, cities, fortifications, and the temple. He fortified cities all over his realm and outfitted cities for his chariot corps and cavalry units. With the help of the Phoenicians, he built a seaport and kept a fleet at Ezion-geber, near modern Eilat on the Gulf of Aqaba. He greatly enlarged Jerusalem by enclosing the temple area to the north of David’s city and the southwestern hill now known as Zion. His best-known project was the temple, which took seven years to build. Twice the size of the tabernacle, it was built on the same basic plan; it measured 90 feet (27.4 meters) long and 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide and had magnificent appointments. But he also constructed a palace complex that took 13 years to complete. This included an armory, a throne room, the king’s private residence, and a house for the daughter of pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Apparently much influenced by the spiritual testimony of David and desiring God’s blessing on his rule, Solomon made a great sacrifice to God at Gibeon near the beginning of his reign. God met him there and offered to grant whatever he might request. Solomon asked for understanding and wisdom to govern God’s people (1 Kgs 3:9). His God-given wisdom is apparent in many administrative decisions and official policies and building plans.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, Solomon did not show such wisdom in maintaining a harem of 700 wives and 300 concubines or in excessive expenditures that left the state in serious financial straits. He even erected places of worship for his foreign wives, thus subsidizing their idolatries and incurring the wrath of God. In fact, foreign wives and their idolatry proved to be his downfall; before Solomon died, God informed him that for this reason he would divide the kingdom at his death and give most of it to someone other than Solomon’s son. But for David’s sake, God would keep Judah and Jerusalem in the hands of the Davidic line (1 Kgs 11:9-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheDividedKingdom\">The Divided Kingdom<\/p>\n<p>After the death of Solomon, the Near East was destined to become a very different place. Israel was no longer in a power vacuum. The Assyrian Empire rose in Mesopotamia, to be followed by the Neo-Babylonian and the Medo-Persian Empires in turn. Egypt was temporarily powerful in the south, but it would later come under control of Assyria and Medo-Persia. These empires exerted great pressure on Israel and dominated one or both of the two Hebrew kingdoms.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Solomon died, his son Rehoboam took the throne and was forced to deal with a rising tide of resentment over the high taxes and economic stagnation of Solomon’s last years. When Rehoboam refused to give relief, all the northern tribes broke away and formed the northern kingdom, Israel, under the leadership of Jeroboam. The southern kingdom, Judah, was left with only the territory of Judah and Benjamin. A total of 20 kings ruled in each of the separate kingdoms. While the north had several dynasties and the reigns of kings were generally short, in the south the dynasty of David continued to rule and the reigns were longer.<\/p>\n<h5>The Northern Kingdom<\/h5>\n<p>The northern kingdom lasted from the division in 930 <span>BC<\/span> until its conquest by Assyria in 722. Jeroboam, fearing that he would lose the loyalty of the people if they continued to go to Jerusalem to worship, set up a new religion of his own. Instituting calf worship, he built shrines at Dan in the north and Bethel in the south. This idolatry drew the condemnation of God and fulfilled the prediction that Jeroboam’s line would be wiped out. All his successors are said to have followed in his idolatrous steps. Israel found itself at war during much of its history—with Judah, Syria, or Assyria. Jeroboam established his capital first at Shechem and later at Tirzah.<\/p>\n<p>Four other kings of the north require special comment: Omri, Ahab, Jehu, and Jeroboam II. Omri (885–874 <span>BC<\/span>) must have been an impressive ruler. Generations later, Assyrians still spoke of Israel as the land of Omri. After he had established himself on the throne, he located the permanent capital of the kingdom at Samaria and began the palace complex there. Early in his reign he was successful in conquering Moab, and later he reestablished the good relations with Tyre that existed in the days of David and Solomon. Apparently he established a full alliance and cemented it with the marriage of his son Ahab to Jezebel, a princess of Tyre.<\/p>\n<p>Ahab (874–853 <span>BC<\/span>) was one of the most significant of Israel’s kings. He and his wife, Jezebel, promoted the vile idolatry of Baal worship with its religious prostitution, arousing the powerful opposition of the prophet Elijah. Ahab was a formidable military man, defeating the Syrians in major campaigns and participating in a coalition that fought the Assyrians to a virtual standstill. He also built extensively at Samaria, Hazor, Megiddo, and other towns, as excavations show.<\/p>\n<p>Jehu (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>) was God’s agent for punishing the house of Omri and destroying Baal worship in Israel. He did eradicate Baal worship and liquidated literally scores of relatives and court officials of Ahab. But he was so ruthless that he killed off the people who knew how to run the government; subsequently, it did not work well. Jehu also was forced to become a vassal to Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>Jeroboam II ruled during most of the first half of the eighth century (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) and brought the kingdom to its greatest extent and prosperity. He, with his contemporary Uzziah in the south, ruled most of the land David had once controlled. This was possible because the Assyrians were in a period of decline during most of the first half of the century.<\/p>\n<p>Prophets who were active during the history of the northern kingdom include the nonwriting prophets Elijah and Elisha and the writing prophets Jonah, Amos, and Hosea.<\/p>\n<h5>The Southern Kingdom<\/h5>\n<p>The history of the southern kingdom of Judah was quite different from that of the northern kingdom. The temple was there and so were large numbers of Levites, many of whom came south after the division of the kingdom to protest the idolatry of the north. In addition to this spiritual strength, there was greater political stability and unity, promoted by the fact that only two tribes—Judah and Benjamin—shared power, and all the kings were of the Davidic dynasty. Moreover, eight of the kings were good monarchs. There were also periodic religious revivals. God granted the southern kingdom about 100 more years of existence than the north. But Judah, too, fell into idolatry and went into captivity for her sins.<\/p>\n<p>Rehoboam, the first king in the south, is especially remembered because he refused to listen to wise counsel about fiscal matters and perpetrated the division of the kingdom. He is also remembered for his religious policies. After a good beginning, he allowed apostasy to get out of control and brought the judgment of God in the form of an invasion in his fifth year (926 <span>BC<\/span>) by Shishak I of Egypt, resulting in extensive plunder and payment of tribute. Thereafter, he launched an extensive program to fortify the realm. Shishak’s invasion did have the effect of producing a partial and temporary spiritual reform, but the general trend of Rehoboam’s reign was downward.<\/p>\n<p>Conditions during the reign of his son, Abijam, were worse, but Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) initiated a religious reform that was effective for most of his reign. When threatened by the northern kingdom during his latter years, however, Asa turned to Syria for help instead of to God, and he seems to have defied the prophets of God to his dying day.<\/p>\n<p>Asa’s son Jehoshaphat (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) was apparently influenced by his father’s early religious devotion, and his reign was characterized by faithfulness, winning the favor of God. However, he seems to have made a full alliance with Ahab of Israel, which resulted in the marriage of his son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah. This alliance involved Jehoshaphat in almost ruinous joint ventures with Ahab, and later with two of his sons when they became kings of Israel. It also opened the door for the introduction of Baal worship into Judah when Jehoram came to the throne in the southern kingdom. For his sin Jehoram (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) suffered internal revolt, invasion, and death from a horrible disease.<\/p>\n<p>After his death, his last remaining son, Ahaziah, ruled less than a year, following the wicked ways of his father. When Ahaziah died in battle, the queen mother, Athaliah, decided to seize the throne for herself and to secure her power by killing off all those in line to the throne. But she missed Ahaziah’s infant son Joash, who was kept hidden in the temple for six years.<\/p>\n<p>When Joash was seven, Jehoiada the high priest arranged his coronation and also the execution of the murderous and idolatrous Athaliah. During his early years when Joash was influenced by good counsel, he did well. But after the middle of his reign (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>), he began to listen to the princes who wanted to restore idolatry, and conditions deteriorated. Military reversals brought on economic decline and ultimately the king’s assassination.<\/p>\n<p>His son Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>) started well with victory over Edom and faithfulness to God. But he, too, fell into idolatry and was totally defeated by the northern kingdom, being held prisoner there. At that point his son Uzziah took over (c. 792 <span>BC<\/span>) and began a long and generally successful reign. During the several decades that followed, Assyria was in decline, and Uzziah and his contemporary in the north, Jeroboam II, were able to expand Hebrew holdings so that between them they controlled most of the territory Solomon had ruled.<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to restore the power of Judah rather quickly after his father’s defeat by Israel. Then he subjugated the Philistines in the southwest and the Ammonites across the Jordan; he strengthened his hold on the Edomites. All during his reign economic conditions improved. But at the height of his power Uzziah foolishly violated the high priest’s prerogatives and offered sacrifice in the temple. For this he was smitten with leprosy; his son Jotham was co-regent during the years 750–740 <span>BC<\/span>, going on to rule alone for about five more years. Meanwhile, Assyrian power became resurgent.<\/p>\n<p>By and large, Jotham merely carried on the policies of Uzziah. But the administration of his son Ahaz (735–715 <span>BC<\/span>) was very much affected by the Assyrian threat. Israel and Syria wanted him to join in war against Assyria, but he refused, being pro-Assyrian in sympathy. When Israel and Syria invaded Judah, King Ahaz sent tribute to Assyria and became her vassal in return for protection. This rash course of action was vainly opposed by Isaiah, who was prophet at court (c. 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>). Contemporaneously, the prophet Micah ministered to the common people of Judah. The pro-Assyrian policy of Ahaz was accompanied by a renewed sympathy for idolatry, and this brought the judgment of God in the form of invasion by Edomites and Philistines and trouble with Assyria. In fact, during this period, Assyria had annexed the northern kingdom (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and removed many of her people into captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The next king of Judah, Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), was greatly sobered by the fall of Israel because of her sins, and he determined to launch a reform in his realm. He was anti-Assyrian too, but he did not dare to discontinue tribute payments and strike for independence until after Sennacherib came to the throne in Nineveh in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. At first Sennacherib was too preoccupied to attend to Judah, but finally in 701 he invaded. Despite tremendous initial success, he was stopped by a divinely sent plague (Is 36–39). Isaiah stood by the king to reassure and sustain him during this emergency.<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah’s son Manasseh (697–642 <span>BC<\/span>) ruled longer than any other king of Israel or Judah. Unfortunately, he turned his back on his father’s example and caused the people to fall into gross idolatry (2 Kgs 21:9). Carried away captive by the Assyrians late in his reign, he repented of his evil and God restored him to his throne; thereafter, he led some reforms. But the land was too steeped in iniquity to be rescued. His son Amon (642–640 <span>BC<\/span>) reverted to the idolatry he knew in his youth.<\/p>\n<p>The situation was different with Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), however. Throughout his reign he dedicated himself to reform. He sought to root out idolatry and to restore the temple and its worship. In 622 <span>BC<\/span> the Book of the Law was found during repair of the temple, and its demands—which had been forgotten—made a great impression on king and people alike. It is certain that Jeremiah and Zephaniah ministered during Josiah’s reign, as did Nahum and Habakkuk (in all probability).<\/p>\n<p>International conditions were now changing rapidly. Assyria was declining, and Nineveh fell to Babylon and the Medes in 612 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years later Pharaoh Neco of Egypt marched north to aid his Assyrian ally. When Josiah tried to stop him, he was killed in battle.<\/p>\n<p>From this point everything was downhill for Judah. None of the rest of the kings was devout, and political power and economic health rapidly declined. The people put one of Josiah’s sons, Jehoahaz, on the throne. He lasted three months. Pharaoh Neco replaced him with Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>), another son of Josiah. In 605 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon defeated Neco, invaded Judah, and took tribute and hostages from Jehoiakim, including Daniel and his friends (Dn 1:1). Jehoiakim revolted in 600 <span>BC<\/span>, but Nebuchadnezzar did not come to deal with him personally until 597 <span>BC<\/span>. He died before the Babylonians arrived, and his son Jehoiachin came to the throne in 598 <span>BC<\/span> to rule for only three months before the Babylonians carried him away into exile. Ezekiel was among the many captives taken on that occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The Babylonians then put Zedekiah, youngest son of Josiah, on the throne in 597 <span>BC<\/span>. When he rebelled, Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Jerusalem and took the city (587 <span>BC<\/span>), destroying it and the temple and carrying off large numbers of people. The judgment of God had finally fallen on the Jews for their idolatrous ways.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRestoration\">The Restoration<\/p>\n<p>In judgment God remembered mercy. This is evident in individual lives, when faithful ones like Daniel, Esther, or Nehemiah rose to a position of importance in political life, or as numerous other persons became prosperous in the foreign environment. It is evident on the community level as God moved to protect Hebrew enclaves scattered abroad and to restore an organized society in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Among the exiles, Judaism as a way of life separated from its own political system or cultic center and began to emerge. Jews finally turned their backs on idolatry. And without a temple, priesthood, king, or land, they turned to the divine Scriptures as their rallying point and the foundation of their community. During this period they developed the synagogue as a place for fellowship, prayer, and study.<\/p>\n<p>God’s restoration of an organized community to Palestine involved particularly the fortunes of his “anointed” Cyrus (Is 44:28; 45:1). Cyrus was a Persian prince who in 559 <span>BC<\/span> revolted against the dominant dynasty controlling the Median Empire. After consolidating his hold on the throne, he proceeded to conquer Asia Minor and the Chaldean or Neo-Babylonian Empire. As a humane man and a wise administrator, he permitted the captive peoples to return to their homes and rebuild their communities. Cyrus’s decree to the Jews appears in Ezra 1 and dates probably to 538 <span>BC<\/span>. A total of almost 50,000 went back to Judah as a result of this edict (Ezr 2:64-65).<\/p>\n<p>Under the stresses and strains of reestablishment, the people built their houses but got no further than laying the foundation of a new temple. Finally, the prophets Haggai and Zechariah stirred the people to build the house of God (Ezr 5:1). They began in the second year of Darius I, the Great (520 <span>BC<\/span>; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), and completed the work in his sixth year (515 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 6:15).<\/p>\n<p>During the reign of Darius’s son Xerxes (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>), a plot was hatched to exterminate all the Jews in the Persian Empire, which at that time controlled the lands where Jews lived. Fortunately, Xerxes (Ahasuerus in the book of Esther), in his third year (483 <span>BC<\/span>; Est 1:3), went searching for a new queen and chose Esther, who managed to preserve her people.<\/p>\n<p>Xerxes’ son Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>) also figured significantly in Jewish history. In his seventh year (458 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 7:7), under the leadership of Ezra, a second contingent of Jews returned to Jerusalem. And in Artaxerxes’ 20th year (445 <span>BC<\/span>; Neh 2:1), Nehemiah went to Jerusalem to supervise the rebuilding of the walls of the city. Malachi probably wrote his prophecy to the Jews in Jerusalem during the latter part of Artaxerxes’ reign.<\/p>\n<p>After the fall of Samaria and the captivity of Judah, the Hebrews remaining in the land intermarried with various pagan groups in the area. Their offspring became the Samaritans, a religious and racial admixture. These people had moved into the vacuum left by the destruction of Judah, and naturally they looked with disfavor on an intrusion of Babylonian Jews into an area they had come to call their own. They did all they could to frustrate the efforts of Nehemiah to rebuild the walls. It took all the courage, tact, energy, and persuasiveness Ezra and Nehemiah could muster to prevent the returning Jews from intermarrying with racially mixed people of the land. Such intermarriage would have meant the ultimate absorption and destruction of the Jewish people.<\/p>\n<p>A Samaritan temple was later built on Mt Gerizim (probably during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>), and it became the center of the Samaritan worship. The hostility between Samaritans and Jews continued on into the NT period (Jn 4) and exists to the present.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheIntertestamentalPeriod\">The Intertestamental Period<\/p>\n<p>Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire with lightning speed. When the people of Jerusalem threw open their gates in 332 <span>BC<\/span> and capitulated without a fight, Alexander treated them well. After his death in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, Palestine passed back and forth among his successors until Ptolemy I of Egypt managed to establish control in 301 <span>BC<\/span>. Thereafter the area remained in Egyptian hands until 198 <span>BC<\/span>. The Ptolemies were tolerant and granted the Jews considerable autonomy, allowing them to develop their unique culture undisturbed as long as they paid their taxes and remained submissive. Many Jews settled in Alexandria and gradually forgot their Hebrew in the Hellenistic environment. As a result, a translation of the OT into Greek (the Septuagint) was produced there. While the Ptolemies did not force Hellenism on the Jews of either Alexandria or Palestine, many were influenced by Hellenistic ideas.<\/p>\n<p>When Ptolemy V came to the throne as a minor in 203 <span>BC<\/span>, Antiochus III of Syria took advantage of the weakened Egypt and conquered Palestine (198 <span>BC<\/span>). Apparently the Jews hoped to gain something from the change and welcomed the Syrians. But their hope was ill-founded. Antiochus III suffered disastrous defeat at the hands of Rome at Magnesia in 190 <span>BC<\/span>. Syria not only lost much territory but also was forced to pay a huge indemnity. Thereafter, the Jews suffered under great financial burdens, along with other peoples of the empire. The next Syrian king, Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>), decided to launch an effort to achieve greater internal strength and unity within the empire by forcing, among other things, a greater acceptance of Greek culture and the cult of the divine ruler. Naturally this idolatrous requirement weighed heavily on the monotheistic Jews and incited revolution.<\/p>\n<p>But this does not completely explain the Maccabean revolt against Syria. In 168 <span>BC<\/span> armed conflict broke out between Jewish factions in Jerusalem. Antiochus IV chose to interpret this as open rebellion and sent an army against the city. His forces demolished part of the city wall and many houses. After this Antiochus decided to suppress Judaism completely, and he dedicated the temple to Zeus and sacrificed swine on the altar. Circumcision, Sabbath observance, and other religious festivals were no longer permitted, and public worship of heathen gods became compulsory.<\/p>\n<p>Some Jews capitulated to Antiochus’s orders or only resisted passively, but a few decided to resist openly. Chief among them were Mattathias and his five sons. After the early death of Mattathias, his son Judas Maccabeus led his forces to victory over the Syrians, regaining the right to restore Jewish worship. The rededication of the temple on December 25, 164 <span>BC<\/span>, inaugurated the Festival of Hanukkah (1 Macc 4:36-59). Subsequently, Jonathan and Simon (other sons of Mattathias) continued the struggle until independence was gained in 142 <span>BC<\/span>; this was possible in large part because they saw how to take advantage of the increasing weakness of Syrian rulers and the competition for the royal office.<\/p>\n<p>Simon ruled the Jewish state until his assassination in 134 <span>BC<\/span>, when his son John Hyrcanus (134–104 <span>BC<\/span>) took over. John Hyrcanus fought successfully in the east, north, and south, gaining land in Transjordan, capturing Shechem and the Samaritan temple on Mt Gerizim, and subjugating the Idumeans in the south, forcing them to adopt Judaism. His son Aristobulus ruled for only about a year (104–103 <span>BC<\/span>), but he added a portion of Galilee to the kingdom. When he died, his widow married his brother Alexander Janneus (103–76 <span>BC<\/span>). Janneus carried on almost incessant military action during his reign, and by the time of his death had almost recovered the kingdom of Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>When Janneus died, Alexandra, widow of two kings, took the throne (76–67 <span>BC<\/span>) and her eldest son, Hyrcanus II, became high priest. Her reign was peaceful and prosperous, but when she died, her sons fell to squabbling. Their appeals to Pompey, who was campaigning in the eastern Mediterranean area, were responsible for Roman interference in the region and conquest of Palestine in 63 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRomanPeriod\">The Roman Period<\/p>\n<p>After the Romans took over Palestine, Hyrcanus II was confirmed as high priest and was also appointed as ethnarch or political ruler (63–40 <span>BC<\/span>). But Antipater, father of Herod the Great, was the real power behind the throne, and during many of those years Hyrcanus was virtually unable to function because of the confusion of the Roman civil wars. Antipater was loyal to Rome and saw that Roman policies were carried out; he won Julius Caesar’s favor toward Jews of both Palestine and in the Dispersion.<\/p>\n<p>With the support of Mark Antony, Herod managed to get himself appointed king of Judea by the Roman senate in 40 <span>BC<\/span>. But a Parthian invasion of Syria and Jewish hatred for the Romans made it possible for Antigonus II, last king of the Maccabean family, to rule for three years (40–37 <span>BC<\/span>). Finally, Herod ascended his throne in 37 and ruled until 4 <span>BC<\/span>. As an allied king, Herod proved to be an excellent ruler from the Roman point of view and earned the title of “Great.” He brought some order to regions east of the Jordan and made possible organization of the Roman province of Arabia. He also furthered the cultural plans of Augustus for development of a Greco-Roman civilization throughout the whole empire.<\/p>\n<p>Herod admired Greek culture and contributed to building projects in Rhodes, Antioch, Damascus, Athens, and elsewhere outside Palestine. Within Palestine he rebuilt Samaria and named it Sebaste in honor of Augustus (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Sebastos<\/span> is Greek for “Augustus”) and also constructed the great port of Caesarea. Probably about as large as Manhattan Island, it became the capital of Roman Palestine. Among his many other building projects, remodeling the temple in Jerusalem was the most famous. Begun in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, it was not completed until just a few years before its destruction in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>The material splendor of Herod’s reign did not win the affection or support of the Jews, however. Nor did he achieve peace and harmony in his family, among whom there were periodic eruptions of treason, unfaithfulness, and murder. He worried about any threat to his rule and cracked down hard to destroy such threats, as is evident from his slaughter of the infants in Bethlehem after the birth of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, Herod controlled Idumea, Judea, Samaria, Galilee, Perea, and the area northeast of the Sea of Galilee. By his last will, his son Archelaus was to rule Idumea, Judea, and Samaria; Antipas, Galilee and Perea; and Philip, the region northeast of the Sea of Galilee. Archelaus was deposed in <span>AD<\/span> 6, and his territory became a Roman province (<span>AD<\/span> 6–41) to be ruled by direct appointees of Rome. The best-known of these was Pontius Pilate (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36), who ordered the crucifixion of Jesus. Antipas was more successful and built a new capital at Tiberias, but he ran afoul of the emperor’s good pleasure in <span>AD<\/span> 39 and was deposed. Philip was the most effective of the three and ruled until his death in <span>AD<\/span> 34. Philip’s lands were later given to Herod Agrippa I in <span>AD<\/span> 37; the holdings of Antipas were then added in <span>AD<\/span> 39; and in 41 Agrippa also received Samaria, Judea, and Idumea.<\/p>\n<p>Herod Agrippa I (<span>AD<\/span> 37–44) was the heir of the Maccabees (through his grandmother Mariamne, first wife of Herod the Great), and for this reason had the support of patriotic Jews and of the Pharisees for his observance of divine ordinances. But when he built a new north wall for Jerusalem and dabbled in foreign affairs, he aroused the suspicions of the Romans; when he died in <span>AD<\/span> 44, they turned the kingdom into a Roman province.<\/p>\n<p>As is clear from the Gospels, several sects had arisen in Palestine by Roman times and were active during the first century. The Zealots opposed Roman rule and advocated armed rebellion. Herodians supported the Herodian family and Roman power. The Pharisees were fanatically devoted to the law and were supernaturalists in theological orientation. They were somewhat content to support Rome if given religious freedom, and they dominated the synagogues of the land. The Sadducees were antisupernaturalists, tended to collaborate with the ruling regime, and were dominant in the temple. Generally speaking, the literature of the intertestamental period and the popular mentality of the time tended to view the Messiah as a political deliverer who would free his people from foreign domination and set up a new independent kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Roman prefects ruled Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 44–66. They had a knack for offending the religious scruples of the Jews and alienating them in other ways. With Felix (<span>AD<\/span> 52–60) there began a constant tension between Jews and Romans that led to the first Jewish revolt (<span>AD<\/span> 66–70). While Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:23–24:27) about <span>AD<\/span> 58–60, riots broke out there between Jews and Gentiles. Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62; Acts 25) was an able administrator, but the situation was almost out of hand. After he died in office, there was virtual anarchy until his successor, Albinus, arrived (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). Totally incompetent and dishonest, Albinus was recalled in 64 and replaced by Florus (<span>AD<\/span> 64–66). Florus was even worse, resorting to open robbery and bribery until there was no safety or justice in the land. Finally, the Jews could take no more.<\/p>\n<p>The spark that ignited the fires of rebellion was an anti-Semitic act by the Hellenistic population of Caesarea in <span>AD<\/span> 66. Soon riots spread to numerous cities, and Roman garrisons were massacred in several places. But the Jews were not united, and in Jerusalem armed bands of Jews fought with each other for mastery. Vespasian was chosen to command the Roman army of some 60,000 to deal with the insurrection. He had subjugated most of Palestine by the time he was elevated to the imperial chair in <span>AD<\/span> 69 (after the death of Nero), and he left his son Titus in charge of completing the operations. In August of <span>AD<\/span> 70 the walls of Jerusalem were breached, many of the people butchered, and the city and the temple leveled. Masada held out until <span>AD<\/span> 73. Palestine had been flattened by Roman might. Loss of life and property had been incalculable and indescribable.<\/p>\n<p>On two more occasions the Jews were destined to fight disastrously against the Romans. Under Trajan’s rule a rebellion of Jews broke out in Cyrenaica in <span>AD<\/span> 115 and spread rapidly to Cyprus, Egypt, Palestine, and Mesopotamia. In the beginning it was an outgrowth of agitation between the Jews and their Hellenistic neighbors, but it developed into a challenge to Roman authority. This was particularly true after the successes of Parthia on Rome’s eastern frontier when there seemed to be some hope of success in throwing off the Roman yoke. Wherever Jews got the upper hand, they perpetrated massacres, and the non-Semitic population retaliated in kind. Trajan ruthlessly suppressed the rebels and restored order everywhere except Egypt; his successor, Hadrian, was left to accomplish that.<\/p>\n<p>But Hadrian faced a new rebellion of his own, brought on by his law forbidding circumcision (which he considered to be inhumane) and his decision in <span>AD<\/span> 130 to rebuild Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina and erect a temple to Jupiter on the site of the temple of Yahweh. The latter would not only profane the temple site but also would preclude any rebuilding of the Jewish temple.<\/p>\n<p>Leader of this second Jewish revolt was Simeon, prince of Israel, called Bar-Kochba (“Son of the Star”). Both sides fought with such great ferocity for over three years (<span>AD<\/span> 132–135) that the population of Judea was almost exterminated. Jerusalem was rebuilt as a Roman colony, and Jews were forbidden to enter on pain of death. Even as late as the fourth century they were permitted to enter only once a year, on the anniversary of the destruction of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar. After the Bar-Kochba revolt, Judaism retreated increasingly within the citadel of the written and oral law, thus separating itself from the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Conquest and Allotment of the Land; David; Diaspora of the Jews; Exodus, The; First Jewish Revolt; Jew; Judaism; Moses; Patriarchs, Period of the; Saul #2; Solomon; Postexilic Period; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISRAEL, History of An account of God’s sovereign purpose in calling a people out of paganism and establishing them as witnesses for the true faith among the nations, of God’s sovereign power in protecting them from extinction, of his sovereign justice in dealing with their departure from his ways of holiness, of God’s sovereign grace in forgiving their sins and restoring them to fellowship with himself by providing through them a Savior for the entire world. Preview • Patriarchal Age • Sojour...","summary_en":"ISRAEL, History of An account of God’s sovereign purpose in calling a people out of paganism and establishing them as witnesses for the true faith among the nations, of God’s sovereign power in protecting them from extinction, of his sovereign justice in dealing with their departure from his ways of holiness, of God’s sovereign grace in forgiving their sins and restoring them to fellowship with himself by providing through them a Savior for the entire world. Preview • Patriarchal Age • Sojour...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21736,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"King","title_en":"King","content_ro":"<h3>KING<\/h3>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, or Persia). Other words may also refer to royalty. The Philistines introduced the title <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seren<\/span> (lord) into Hebrew vocabulary. The five Philistine cities were ruled by five lords. Another word for an Israelite king is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> (ruler). Both Saul and David were anointed as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> over Israel (1 Sm 10:1; 16:13). In the NT and the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> has a meaning similar to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span><em>.<\/em> The NT <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> refers to secular rulers living in the first century, kings of Israel, rulers of the past, and the divine King, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “King of kings,” attributed to Jesus (1 Tm 6:15), is a Hebrew expression meaning supreme or greatest king. For example, in Ezekiel’s prediction of the fall of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar is named the “king of kings” (Ez 26:7). The great rulers of Assyria and Babylon introduced this title. Before their time, rulers were called either “king” or “great king,” as in 2 Kings 18:28: “Hear the word of the great king, the king of Assyria” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Later rulers had their titles adjusted to keep up with the expanse of their empires.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KingshipinIsrael\">Kingship in Israel<\/p>\n<p>God chose Abraham as the father of nations; through him and his descendants the messianic rule would be established on earth. In his promises to Abraham, God repeatedly assured him that he would become the father of a mighty nation, to whom God would give the land of Canaan, and that kings would arise from his descendants (Gn 17:6). Abraham showed his acceptance of the rule of God over his family by obeying God’s command to be circumcised, which set the clan of Abraham apart for the service of God (vv 10-14). The ultimate purpose of God’s relation with Abraham and his descendants was that God would be King over Israel and that his people would show their acceptance of his rule by their faithful obedience to him (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of the covenant was God’s expectation of loyalty to his rule. Abraham and his descendants were to exercise their God-given “rule” over the nations by living in fellowship with the great King. Thus the Lord reestablished his dominion over mankind. Through Abraham and his descendants, he would raise up a “royal nation” to whom the full privileges of rule over his creation would be restored.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also made a covenant with Israel. This covenant was a sovereign administration of grace and promise by which the Lord consecrated the people unto himself by the sanctions of divine law and by his very presence. The nation, witnessing God’s care for them, had to learn that by their obedience to God’s expectations the theocratic kingdom might become a reality on earth. In the Sinaitic covenant the theocracy (the rule of God) was established. Israel was entrusted with the commandments, so that they might show themselves to be a theocratic nation, as God revealed to Moses: “Now if you will obey me and keep my covenant, you will be my own special treasure from among all the nations of the earth; for all the earth belongs to me. And you will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>). They were God’s elect for the sake of the nations; through Israel’s priestly obedience and intercession, the whole earth might know the Creator-Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p>The qualities of God’s kingship were power, glory, fidelity, wisdom, concern, service, delegation of power to man, blessing and protection, just rule, judgment, vindication, and deliverance. Israel’s kingship was to be no different from God’s. Their varied and sometimes complex laws taught Israel to distinguish between what was holy and common, clean and unclean, the ways of God and the ways of the nations. The ways of God enhanced love, fidelity, justice, peace, harmony, service, concern for others, wise living, defense of the needy, and judgment of the guilty. The ways of the kingdoms of the world all too often promoted selfishness, anarchy, despotism, and disregard for justice.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also instituted an organizational structure designed to promote his theocratic purposes. In the wilderness Moses and the chosen leaders of Israel (Ex 18:19-26; Nm 11:24-25; cf. Dt 1:15-18) were God’s instruments for upholding his kingship in Israel. Upon Moses’ death, Joshua took over the theocratic rule. The Lord was with him as he had been with Moses, and all Israel recognized the continuity of God’s rule in Joshua’s leadership (Dt 34:9; Jos 3:7; 4:14). Like Moses had before his death, Joshua charged the leadership and Israel to persevere in the gracious covenant relationship (Jos 23–24). However, Israel perished because of its greed, immorality, strife, and idolatry. During the period of the judges, each one did what was right in his own eyes (Jgs 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). There was no king in the land in those days. The judges were military leaders whom the Lord raised up to deliver his people from their foreign oppressors. But God remained King, regardless of the fact that Israel lived as if he were not. The period of the judges demonstrated that apostate Israel, disobedient to their King, was unsuccessful in dealing with the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<p>The theocratic leadership was restored to Israel by the ministry of Samuel. He was born into a Levitical family and served the Lord at the Shiloh tabernacle. He was called to be a prophet—an office which had not been filled since Moses’ death (1 Sm 3:20-21). He was recognized as a judge in Israel (7:15). In Samuel the offices of priest, prophet, and king were combined. He is never called king, as his lifestyle was that of a prophet rather than that of a ruler. The carefully calculated request of the people for a king was a rejection of Samuel’s ministry. The people were not satisfied with the spiritual, charismatic leadership of Samuel. In their search for a more dynamic leader they found in the kings of the surrounding nations attractive elements: power, manifestation of glory, and stability. Thus far the tribes had experienced several civil wars that endangered the unity of Israel. It was thought that a king would remedy all of the social and political problems. Though God had foreseen the days of the monarchy in the law (Dt 17:14-20), the people were motivated to introduce the kingship for secular rather than religious reasons: “Give us a king like all the other nations have” (1 Sm 8:5); “We want to be like the nations around us. Our king will govern us and lead us into battle” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Samuel never accepted the idea of kingship; it was foreign to the theocratic ideal.<\/p>\n<p>The crucial difference between kingship in Israel and kingship in neighboring lands lay in the fact that God endowed the king of Israel with his Spirit to establish his rule on earth. God ruled for his people, and his people benefited was from his rule; he was their provider, protector, and divine warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was instrumental in anointing Saul (a sad example of kingship) and David (a good example of kingly rule under God). Saul’s kingship revealed a despotic, uncaring attitude and self-aggrandizement. He was intent on establishing his dynasty, while not caring sufficiently for the people of God. Therefore, the Lord rejected his kingship (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingship, in contrast to Saul’s, was in line with God’s because it reflected the glory of Yahweh’s kingship. David’s life and rule are taken up in the two books of Samuel as a commentary on the pros and cons of kingship. Positively, David was a man after God’s heart, who sought the will of God, repented of his sin, and sought the glory of God. Negatively, David failed in his personal and family life to uphold the high standards of God’s law. Yet God was pleased to choose David’s dynasty as the lineage through which Jesus Christ would come. The prophet Nathan assured David that his dynasty would last: “Your dynasty and your kingdom will continue for all time before me, and your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sm 7:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). But God did not promise that it would be immune from prosecution or banishment.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding qualities of the kingship of David and his son Solomon reflect the true theocratic intention: concern for the Lord, for a heart of wisdom and integrity, and for the well-being of God’s people. Concern for the Lord found expression in the preparation for and actual building of the temple (cf. Ps 132). Concern for integrity and wisdom is clearly evident, especially in David’s response to Nathan’s rebuke (2 Sm 12) and in Solomon’s request to have a heart of wisdom (1 Kgs 3). Concern for the people comes to expression in their securing the borders against enemies, achieving national unification, and bringing opportunity for economic growth. The era of David and Solomon represented a true reflection of God’s kingship on earth.<\/p>\n<p>The accounts in Kings and Chronicles unfold the subsequent history of kingship in Israel and Judah. The good kings followed the examples provided by David and Solomon in securing Jerusalem against foreign invaders, in supplying for the needs of the temple, in having God’s people instructed in the word of God, and in modeling their rule after the law of Moses. A good Davidic king loved the Lord, the temple, the law, and God’s people. He served them as a good shepherd. Evil kings were those who rejected this model of kingship in favor of the pagan models. So Omri and Ahab introduced the Phoenician culture with its Baalism, utterly disregarding the heritage of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The Davidic king was treated as a member of God’s household, being a “son” of the great King (cf. 2 Sm 7:14-16; Ps 2:6-7). The Davidic king was to be loyal to the great King, Yahweh. He, like Moses and Joshua, received his orders directly from the Lord; but unlike with Moses, the word of the Lord was mediated through the prophets. He, like Moses and Joshua, was expected to serve his God and his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessiah-King\">The Messiah-King<\/p>\n<p>The descendants of David failed to maintain and expand the theocracy. By the eighth and seventh centuries <span>BC<\/span>, it was apparent that even the greatest kings were dwarfed by the stature of David and Solomon. The prophets (Is 9:2-7; 11:1-9; Jer 33:14-16; Ez 34:22-31; Mi 5:2-5) spoke of another king, the Messiah, a descendant of David who would rule permanently and by whose rule the reign of God would extend to the ends of the earth. He would put down all opposition to God’s rule, remove all enemies, and bring in an era of universal peace and righteousness. The Messiah-King would reveal the perfections of divine rule, as the Spirit of God would be upon him. His kingship would be marked by service to the people of God, so that they would be a well-cared-for flock; he would serve them as their shepherd.<\/p>\n<p>In the coming of Jesus the messianic kingdom is more clearly revealed. He is the King of whom the angels said, “The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born tonight in Bethlehem, the city of David!” (Lk 2:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). These magnificent words show continuity with the prophetic word. Jesus is the Savior, whose role includes deliverance from sin but also deliverance from all causes of adversity, evil, and the effects of the curse. His mission pertains to both forgiveness and to the establishment of peace on earth (1:77-79). In this light we must look at Jesus’ ministry of healing, feeding, opposing the forces of evil, suffering, and teaching as the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth. He is the King who serves, fights against the demonic powers, and overcomes. The resurrection marks his victory, and he is crowned with glory by being seated at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33-36; cf. 1 Cor 15:25). In being the Savior he is none other than Christ the Lord. The early apostolic preaching proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah of God and the Lord. The lordship of Jesus is corollary to his being the Messiah. To those who call on him, he is the Savior-Messiah-Lord (Rom 10:9-15), but to those who reject him, he is the divine warrior, before whom all knees will bow and who will bring in the era of the Father’s judgment (cf. Rv 1:12-16; 19:11-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught his disciples that at his coming in glory he would be seated on his throne and all mankind would pay him obeisance. The enemies of God will be cast out from his presence, and the people of God will fully inherit the kingdom (Mt 25:31-46). In accordance with Jesus’ teaching, the members of his body, the church, are expected to work out the theocratic ideal in their lives, that by their works and faith they may glorify the Father and show that they are his (Jn 17:20-26; cf. Mt 25:33-40). This is the biblical manner of witness that Israel failed to give and that the church is privileged to give; as Paul wrote to Timothy:<\/p>\n<p>I command you before God, who gives life to all, and before Christ Jesus, . . . that you obey his commands with all purity. Then no one can find fault with you from now until our Lord Jesus Christ returns. For at the right time Christ will be revealed from heaven by the blessed and only almighty God, the King of kings and Lord of lords. He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No one has ever seen him, nor ever will. To him be honor and power forever. Amen. (1 Tm 6:13-16, <span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul gives several instructions as to how the people of God must demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus. Throughout the book of Revelation, Jesus is viewed as King over the church (Rv 4:2, 9-11; 5:1, 9-13). At his return his kingship will be established. At this time, the enemies of the cross will see the one whom they have rejected and will bow before the messianic King (1 Cor 15:25-28). “After that the end will come, when he [Jesus] will turn the Kingdom over to God the Father, having put down all enemies of every kind” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KING<\/h3>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, or Persia). Other words may also refer to royalty. The Philistines introduced the title <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seren<\/span> (lord) into Hebrew vocabulary. The five Philistine cities were ruled by five lords. Another word for an Israelite king is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> (ruler). Both Saul and David were anointed as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> over Israel (1 Sm 10:1; 16:13). In the NT and the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> has a meaning similar to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span><em>.<\/em> The NT <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> refers to secular rulers living in the first century, kings of Israel, rulers of the past, and the divine King, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “King of kings,” attributed to Jesus (1 Tm 6:15), is a Hebrew expression meaning supreme or greatest king. For example, in Ezekiel’s prediction of the fall of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar is named the “king of kings” (Ez 26:7). The great rulers of Assyria and Babylon introduced this title. Before their time, rulers were called either “king” or “great king,” as in 2 Kings 18:28: “Hear the word of the great king, the king of Assyria” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Later rulers had their titles adjusted to keep up with the expanse of their empires.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KingshipinIsrael\">Kingship in Israel<\/p>\n<p>God chose Abraham as the father of nations; through him and his descendants the messianic rule would be established on earth. In his promises to Abraham, God repeatedly assured him that he would become the father of a mighty nation, to whom God would give the land of Canaan, and that kings would arise from his descendants (Gn 17:6). Abraham showed his acceptance of the rule of God over his family by obeying God’s command to be circumcised, which set the clan of Abraham apart for the service of God (vv 10-14). The ultimate purpose of God’s relation with Abraham and his descendants was that God would be King over Israel and that his people would show their acceptance of his rule by their faithful obedience to him (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of the covenant was God’s expectation of loyalty to his rule. Abraham and his descendants were to exercise their God-given “rule” over the nations by living in fellowship with the great King. Thus the Lord reestablished his dominion over mankind. Through Abraham and his descendants, he would raise up a “royal nation” to whom the full privileges of rule over his creation would be restored.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also made a covenant with Israel. This covenant was a sovereign administration of grace and promise by which the Lord consecrated the people unto himself by the sanctions of divine law and by his very presence. The nation, witnessing God’s care for them, had to learn that by their obedience to God’s expectations the theocratic kingdom might become a reality on earth. In the Sinaitic covenant the theocracy (the rule of God) was established. Israel was entrusted with the commandments, so that they might show themselves to be a theocratic nation, as God revealed to Moses: “Now if you will obey me and keep my covenant, you will be my own special treasure from among all the nations of the earth; for all the earth belongs to me. And you will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>). They were God’s elect for the sake of the nations; through Israel’s priestly obedience and intercession, the whole earth might know the Creator-Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p>The qualities of God’s kingship were power, glory, fidelity, wisdom, concern, service, delegation of power to man, blessing and protection, just rule, judgment, vindication, and deliverance. Israel’s kingship was to be no different from God’s. Their varied and sometimes complex laws taught Israel to distinguish between what was holy and common, clean and unclean, the ways of God and the ways of the nations. The ways of God enhanced love, fidelity, justice, peace, harmony, service, concern for others, wise living, defense of the needy, and judgment of the guilty. The ways of the kingdoms of the world all too often promoted selfishness, anarchy, despotism, and disregard for justice.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also instituted an organizational structure designed to promote his theocratic purposes. In the wilderness Moses and the chosen leaders of Israel (Ex 18:19-26; Nm 11:24-25; cf. Dt 1:15-18) were God’s instruments for upholding his kingship in Israel. Upon Moses’ death, Joshua took over the theocratic rule. The Lord was with him as he had been with Moses, and all Israel recognized the continuity of God’s rule in Joshua’s leadership (Dt 34:9; Jos 3:7; 4:14). Like Moses had before his death, Joshua charged the leadership and Israel to persevere in the gracious covenant relationship (Jos 23–24). However, Israel perished because of its greed, immorality, strife, and idolatry. During the period of the judges, each one did what was right in his own eyes (Jgs 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). There was no king in the land in those days. The judges were military leaders whom the Lord raised up to deliver his people from their foreign oppressors. But God remained King, regardless of the fact that Israel lived as if he were not. The period of the judges demonstrated that apostate Israel, disobedient to their King, was unsuccessful in dealing with the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<p>The theocratic leadership was restored to Israel by the ministry of Samuel. He was born into a Levitical family and served the Lord at the Shiloh tabernacle. He was called to be a prophet—an office which had not been filled since Moses’ death (1 Sm 3:20-21). He was recognized as a judge in Israel (7:15). In Samuel the offices of priest, prophet, and king were combined. He is never called king, as his lifestyle was that of a prophet rather than that of a ruler. The carefully calculated request of the people for a king was a rejection of Samuel’s ministry. The people were not satisfied with the spiritual, charismatic leadership of Samuel. In their search for a more dynamic leader they found in the kings of the surrounding nations attractive elements: power, manifestation of glory, and stability. Thus far the tribes had experienced several civil wars that endangered the unity of Israel. It was thought that a king would remedy all of the social and political problems. Though God had foreseen the days of the monarchy in the law (Dt 17:14-20), the people were motivated to introduce the kingship for secular rather than religious reasons: “Give us a king like all the other nations have” (1 Sm 8:5); “We want to be like the nations around us. Our king will govern us and lead us into battle” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Samuel never accepted the idea of kingship; it was foreign to the theocratic ideal.<\/p>\n<p>The crucial difference between kingship in Israel and kingship in neighboring lands lay in the fact that God endowed the king of Israel with his Spirit to establish his rule on earth. God ruled for his people, and his people benefited was from his rule; he was their provider, protector, and divine warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was instrumental in anointing Saul (a sad example of kingship) and David (a good example of kingly rule under God). Saul’s kingship revealed a despotic, uncaring attitude and self-aggrandizement. He was intent on establishing his dynasty, while not caring sufficiently for the people of God. Therefore, the Lord rejected his kingship (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingship, in contrast to Saul’s, was in line with God’s because it reflected the glory of Yahweh’s kingship. David’s life and rule are taken up in the two books of Samuel as a commentary on the pros and cons of kingship. Positively, David was a man after God’s heart, who sought the will of God, repented of his sin, and sought the glory of God. Negatively, David failed in his personal and family life to uphold the high standards of God’s law. Yet God was pleased to choose David’s dynasty as the lineage through which Jesus Christ would come. The prophet Nathan assured David that his dynasty would last: “Your dynasty and your kingdom will continue for all time before me, and your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sm 7:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). But God did not promise that it would be immune from prosecution or banishment.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding qualities of the kingship of David and his son Solomon reflect the true theocratic intention: concern for the Lord, for a heart of wisdom and integrity, and for the well-being of God’s people. Concern for the Lord found expression in the preparation for and actual building of the temple (cf. Ps 132). Concern for integrity and wisdom is clearly evident, especially in David’s response to Nathan’s rebuke (2 Sm 12) and in Solomon’s request to have a heart of wisdom (1 Kgs 3). Concern for the people comes to expression in their securing the borders against enemies, achieving national unification, and bringing opportunity for economic growth. The era of David and Solomon represented a true reflection of God’s kingship on earth.<\/p>\n<p>The accounts in Kings and Chronicles unfold the subsequent history of kingship in Israel and Judah. The good kings followed the examples provided by David and Solomon in securing Jerusalem against foreign invaders, in supplying for the needs of the temple, in having God’s people instructed in the word of God, and in modeling their rule after the law of Moses. A good Davidic king loved the Lord, the temple, the law, and God’s people. He served them as a good shepherd. Evil kings were those who rejected this model of kingship in favor of the pagan models. So Omri and Ahab introduced the Phoenician culture with its Baalism, utterly disregarding the heritage of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The Davidic king was treated as a member of God’s household, being a “son” of the great King (cf. 2 Sm 7:14-16; Ps 2:6-7). The Davidic king was to be loyal to the great King, Yahweh. He, like Moses and Joshua, received his orders directly from the Lord; but unlike with Moses, the word of the Lord was mediated through the prophets. He, like Moses and Joshua, was expected to serve his God and his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessiah-King\">The Messiah-King<\/p>\n<p>The descendants of David failed to maintain and expand the theocracy. By the eighth and seventh centuries <span>BC<\/span>, it was apparent that even the greatest kings were dwarfed by the stature of David and Solomon. The prophets (Is 9:2-7; 11:1-9; Jer 33:14-16; Ez 34:22-31; Mi 5:2-5) spoke of another king, the Messiah, a descendant of David who would rule permanently and by whose rule the reign of God would extend to the ends of the earth. He would put down all opposition to God’s rule, remove all enemies, and bring in an era of universal peace and righteousness. The Messiah-King would reveal the perfections of divine rule, as the Spirit of God would be upon him. His kingship would be marked by service to the people of God, so that they would be a well-cared-for flock; he would serve them as their shepherd.<\/p>\n<p>In the coming of Jesus the messianic kingdom is more clearly revealed. He is the King of whom the angels said, “The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born tonight in Bethlehem, the city of David!” (Lk 2:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). These magnificent words show continuity with the prophetic word. Jesus is the Savior, whose role includes deliverance from sin but also deliverance from all causes of adversity, evil, and the effects of the curse. His mission pertains to both forgiveness and to the establishment of peace on earth (1:77-79). In this light we must look at Jesus’ ministry of healing, feeding, opposing the forces of evil, suffering, and teaching as the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth. He is the King who serves, fights against the demonic powers, and overcomes. The resurrection marks his victory, and he is crowned with glory by being seated at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33-36; cf. 1 Cor 15:25). In being the Savior he is none other than Christ the Lord. The early apostolic preaching proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah of God and the Lord. The lordship of Jesus is corollary to his being the Messiah. To those who call on him, he is the Savior-Messiah-Lord (Rom 10:9-15), but to those who reject him, he is the divine warrior, before whom all knees will bow and who will bring in the era of the Father’s judgment (cf. Rv 1:12-16; 19:11-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught his disciples that at his coming in glory he would be seated on his throne and all mankind would pay him obeisance. The enemies of God will be cast out from his presence, and the people of God will fully inherit the kingdom (Mt 25:31-46). In accordance with Jesus’ teaching, the members of his body, the church, are expected to work out the theocratic ideal in their lives, that by their works and faith they may glorify the Father and show that they are his (Jn 17:20-26; cf. Mt 25:33-40). This is the biblical manner of witness that Israel failed to give and that the church is privileged to give; as Paul wrote to Timothy:<\/p>\n<p>I command you before God, who gives life to all, and before Christ Jesus, . . . that you obey his commands with all purity. Then no one can find fault with you from now until our Lord Jesus Christ returns. For at the right time Christ will be revealed from heaven by the blessed and only almighty God, the King of kings and Lord of lords. He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No one has ever seen him, nor ever will. To him be honor and power forever. Amen. (1 Tm 6:13-16, <span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul gives several instructions as to how the people of God must demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus. Throughout the book of Revelation, Jesus is viewed as King over the church (Rv 4:2, 9-11; 5:1, 9-13). At his return his kingship will be established. At this time, the enemies of the cross will see the one whom they have rejected and will bow before the messianic King (1 Cor 15:25-28). “After that the end will come, when he [Jesus] will turn the Kingdom over to God the Father, having put down all enemies of every kind” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KING The word melek (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Eg...","summary_en":"KING The word melek (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Eg...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43083,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:6","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:6<\/strong> <em>kings will be among them!<\/em> This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:6<\/strong> <em>kings will be among them!<\/em> This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:6 kings will be among them! This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).","summary_en":"17:6 kings will be among them! This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70709,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:6","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:6<\/strong> <em>kings will be among them!<\/em> This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:6<\/strong> <em>kings will be among them!<\/em> This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:6 kings will be among them! This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).","summary_en":"17:6 kings will be among them! This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98335,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:6","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:6<\/strong> <em>kings will be among them!<\/em> This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:6<\/strong> <em>kings will be among them!<\/em> This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:6 kings will be among them! This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).","summary_en":"17:6 kings will be among them! This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125961,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:6","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:6<\/strong> <em>kings will be among them!<\/em> This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:6<\/strong> <em>kings will be among them!<\/em> This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:6 kings will be among them! This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).","summary_en":"17:6 kings will be among them! This is the first indication that Israel would become a monarchy (see also 35:11; 36:31; Num 24:7; Deut 17:14-18; 28:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59841,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59885,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65098,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Messiah","title_en":"The Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","summary_en":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87467,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87511,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92724,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Messiah","title_en":"The Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","summary_en":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115093,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115137,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120350,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Messiah","title_en":"The Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","summary_en":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142719,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142763,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147976,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Messiah","title_en":"The Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","summary_en":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":7860,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Covenant","title_en":"Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the OT is developed from Noah to Abraham and reaches its first climax in the covenant formed between God and Israel at Mt Sinai. After King David’s time, the history of the covenant becomes a less prominent theme.<\/p>\n<p>At a low point in covenant history the Bible introduces the prophet Jeremiah’s prophecy of a “new covenant” in Israel’s future. Christians believe that Jeremiah’s prophecy eventually found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ. It is not accidental that the two volumes of the Christian Bible have been called the Old Covenant and New Covenant (the word commonly translated “testament” means “covenant”).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<p>• The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>• The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMeaningofCovenant\">The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The essence of covenant is to be found in a particular kind of relationship between persons. Mutual obligations characterize that kind of relationship. Thus a covenant relationship is not merely a mutual acquaintance but a commitment to responsibility and action. A key word in Scripture to describe that commitment is “faithfulness,” acted out in a context of abiding friendship.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the word “covenant” was used in an ordinary human sense as well as in a theological sense. An understanding of human covenants provides a starting point for understanding the covenant between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HumanCovenants\">Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>A variety of human relationships, from profoundly personal to distantly political, may be described as covenantal. The deep brotherly love that David and Jonathan shared led to a formal covenant between them (1 Sm 18:3). Their covenant of friendship was more than a token of esteem; it bound them to demonstrate mutual loyalty and loving-kindness in certain tangible ways. Jonathan’s covenant faithfulness was typified on an occasion when David was out of favor with the king; Jonathan braved his father’s wrath to speak favorably for his friend. Subsequently, he warned David secretly to flee into hiding (1 Sm 19–20).<\/p>\n<p>To appreciate the many OT laws on marriage and divorce, one must understand that marriage itself was a covenant relationship (Mal 2:14). The solemn promises exchanged by a man and woman became their covenant obligations. Faithfulness to those promises brought marital blessing (cf. Ps 128; Prv 18:22); violation brought a curse.<\/p>\n<p>An individual could, at least figuratively, make a covenant or vow with himself or herself (something like a New Year’s resolution). Job, arguing his integrity before God, referred to a covenant he had made with his eyes to keep him from looking at women licentiously (Jb 31:1).<\/p>\n<p>Covenants could also have a national or international character. The elders of Israel made a national covenant with King David in Hebron (2 Sm 5:3). Probably it contained explicit promises both from the elders on behalf of the people to submit themselves to the king’s authority and from David to rule the nation justly and according to the law of God (Dt 17:15-20). The covenant relationship described mutual obligations between a senior partner (the king) and junior partners (the Israelites). In international relationships OT covenants were similar to modern treaties or alliances. King Solomon entered into such a covenant with Hiram, king of Tyre; that covenant, like many modern international treaties, was a trade agreement between the two nations (1 Kgs 5:12).<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is thus an interpersonal framework of trust, responsibilities, and benefits, with broad application to almost every human relationship from personal friendship to international trade agreements. In Scripture covenant is also the most comprehensive concept covering an individual’s relationship to God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Divine-HumanCovenants\">Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>The same basic characteristics of a strictly human covenant are present in a divine covenant: (1) a relationship between two parties (God and a human being or nation), and (2) mutual obligations between the covenant partners. To the OT believer, religion meant covenant. OT religion was faithfulness to the covenant relationship between God and his chosen people; religious responsibilities for both the faith and practice of Israel were covenant responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a divine-human covenant in the OT was not static. Although the fundamental character of covenant remains the same throughout the Bible, the specific nature and form of the covenant changed and developed in the course of ancient Israel’s history. A brief survey of covenant history will further clarify its dimensions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BeginningsoftheCovenantTradition\">Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<h5>Adam<\/h5>\n<p>Adam and Eve were placed in the Garden. God was their Creator; they were his creatures. The meaning of their lives was to be found in relationship with each other and with God, the giver of the Garden. The fall, however, brought a disruption of the divine relationship, and they were expelled from the Garden.<\/p>\n<p>The fall substantially influenced the nature of subsequent religious covenants. The separation of humankind from God clarifies the nature of the human predicament. Created for a relationship with the Creator, sinning humans are excluded from that relationship and cannot, on their own accord, reestablish it. From that circumstance emerges a distinctive feature of divine-human covenants, namely, that God alone can initiate the relationship of covenant.<\/p>\n<h5>Noah<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit mention of covenant in Scripture refers to the initiative taken by God to bind himself again to human beings in a covenant, despite human faithlessness. When God warned Noah to build an ark in order to escape the impending Flood, he also promised to establish a covenant with him (Gn 6:18). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger, but his grace was shown in his dealings with Noah. The promised covenant provided that God would maintain a relationship with one family, even though other divine-human relationships were being formally severed. Significantly, God’s covenant promise to Noah came in a context of demand: God ordered Noah to build an ark (v 14). Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to a divine command.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant was elaborated only after the Flood, when Noah had made an offering to God (Gn 8:20-22). The covenant with Noah was in fact a universal covenant with humankind and all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world. The sign of that covenant was the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant with Noah affords some perspective for understanding the “covenant God.” Although human beings may deserve destruction because of their wickedness, God withholds that destruction. The covenant of Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being; nevertheless, it left open the possibility of a more intimate covenant. Human beings, in spite of their evil, are allowed for a time to live in God’s world; during those years, they may seek a deeper relationship with that world’s Creator.<\/p>\n<h5>Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit reference to God’s covenant with Abraham is in Genesis 15. When the Lord called the 75-year-old Abram (as he was first called) to leave his home city of Ur and set out on a journey, a relationship already existed between God and Abram. In that relationship, which enabled God to command Abram’s obedience, God made certain promises to him: “I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing” (Gn 12:2, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Formal establishment of the covenant with Abram is described in Genesis 15 as a profound religious experience. The initiative lay entirely with God, who approached Abram in a vision and spoke with him. Abram raised a fundamental objection: how could he experience the blessing of God if it was to come to him through a son he did not have? His wife Sarai was past the childbearing age, and he himself was “as good as dead” (Rom 4:19). God assured the old man that he would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abram’s belief at that point introduced the theme of righteousness central to the covenant concept: Abram “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>, and he reckoned it to him as righteousness” (Gn 15:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). At the end of that day, Abram knew that his own future and the future of his descendants were firmly in the hands of the covenant God. “On that day the <span>Lord<\/span> made a covenant with Abram, saying, ‘To your descendants I give this land’ ” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The covenant is more fully expressed in Genesis 17, which probably records a renewal of God’s covenant with Abram. The initiative once again lay with God (Gn 17:1). God addressed the 99-year-old Abram in words that made clear that the covenant was not a relationship between equal partners. God was the Almighty; Abram was a human being to whom an extraordinary privilege had been granted.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the details of the covenant in Genesis 17 show that both partners assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abram and his descendants while requiring certain commitments from Abram. The blessing Abram would receive as a covenant partner became clear from the new name God gave him. “I am changing your name. It will no longer be Abram; now you will be known as Abraham, for you will be the father of many nations” (Gn 17:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). God would give to Abraham, through his descendants, the land of Canaan as an everlasting gift and would be the personal God of Abraham and his family in perpetuity (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s giving required a response of obedience from Abraham: “Live a blameless life” (Gn 17:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Those simple words indicate the essence of covenant relationship: to relate to God is to live in his presence; since God is holy, one who knows him is expected to live a life of integrity and blamelessness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant also had a more formal aspect. Abraham and the male members of his household were to undergo the rite of circumcision as a symbol of covenant commitment. Abraham was an old man when he was circumcised (Gn 17:24), though male children born into the covenant family were to be circumcised when they were eight days old (v 12). Circumcision was not in itself a ritual peculiar to the Hebrews; it was practiced in most societies in the ancient Near East (the Philistines were one exception). The distinctiveness lay in what the act symbolized: among other things, a continuing and faithful relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham was characterized by both present and future realities. The covenant established a continuing relationship between Abraham and his Creator. Yet its thrust pointed to future blessing—in the children yet to be born, the “chosen people,” and in the land that eventually his descendants would call their own.<\/p>\n<p>Another dimension of the covenant lay still further in the future: “All the families of the earth will be blessed through you” (Gn 12:3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Early in the OT, the idea of election (God’s unconditional preference; cf. 2 Thes 2:13) is present. God chose to enter into a covenant relationship with a particular man and his particular descendants. Yet God always elects a person to serve: Adam, to cultivate the Garden; Noah, to build an ark; Abraham, to leave his home for another land and to live blamelessly before God (cf. Eph 2:8-10). Further, the “particularity” of Abraham’s election contained within it a universality: through his descendants the blessing of God would be offered to all.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the future aspects of Abraham’s covenant reflect two stages. From Abraham’s perspective, in the relatively near future his descendants would possess a land given them by God. But in the more distant future was the prospect of a universal blessing, the culmination of God’s work in the world. The initial fulfillment of that distant future is perceived in the NT, but the more immediate fulfillment of God’s promise was the Sinai covenant at the time of Moses.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSinaiCovenant\">The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The covenant established between God and Israel at Mt Sinai is the focal point of the covenant tradition in the OT. It was anticipated in the covenant of Abraham and lay behind the covenant of David and the proclamation of the prophets. It was central to OT religion, laying down the foundations of Judaism that continue into the modern world. The Sinai covenant was the formal institution of a relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In order to appreciate the impact of the Sinai covenant, one must understand its historical context. It was preceded by the exodus of the Hebrew people from Egypt under the leadership of Moses. The exodus was an extraordinary act of liberation in which God intervened in the normal course of history to free his people from slavery in Egypt. The exodus is interpreted in the OT as a divine act comparable to Creation, the act through which God “created” the nation of Israel. Examination of the two versions of the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11; Dt 5:12-15) shows that the exodus from Egypt directly parallels the creation of the world as a basis for Sabbath observance. Although Israel was created in the exodus, the nation had neither a constitution nor land. The covenant provided the nascent state of Israel with a constitution, making it a theocratic state (a state ruled by God).<\/p>\n<p>The basic account of the Sinai covenant is contained in Exodus 19 and 20. The initiative came from God, who gave instructions through Moses to prepare for the covenant; God spoke the words that contained the covenant offer. There was no doubt that the God of Israel was the senior partner in the relationship made formal at Sinai. The God who had revealed himself through his acts in the exodus then revealed himself in words. Those two aspects—the God who acts and speaks—are central to OT theology. And although the covenant contained law, it was preceded by the exodus, an act of divine grace.<\/p>\n<p>God’s offer of covenant carried with it a divine promise: “You will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). The promise was one of extraordinary privilege; an entire nation was called upon to represent all other nations before the God of the universe. But the priestly office, though it carried privilege, was also a demanding office. A priest had to be pure and had to know the God whose presence he was required to enter. Thus Israel, the priestly nation, received a law that would provide direction in living, in loving God, and in serving all people. The law given with the covenant expressed the requirements for God’s covenant people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Covenant Law<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant law had two principal parts. First, the Ten Commandments expressed God’s requirements of Israel in a concise form (Ex 20:2-17). The commandments specified the covenant people’s relationship both to God and to other human beings. Although the tendency in the present day is to view the Ten Commandments as a system of ethics or morality, they had a different role in ancient Israel. The covenant law was the foundation or constitution of a new nation, a special “nation of priests.” The head of the nation-state was God. Hence, in ancient Israel the status of the Ten Commandments was approximately that of the code of criminal law in a modern nation-state. To break one of those laws was to commit a crime against God, the head of the state. Yet the laws had a positive purpose. They set down a way of life that would result in a full and rich communion with God and community with others.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the covenant law was a detailed law code covering the activities of everyday life. Examples of such laws are found in Exodus 21–23. These laws were compiled and recorded in the “Book of the Covenant” (Ex 24:7). Although many laws were contained in this book, it was impossible to codify every aspect of human behavior. The diversity of the examples given indicates that for the covenant member no area of human life was beyond the influence of the covenant. Persons who entered into a relationship with God entered into a relationship that impinged on every possible aspect of their lives.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Renewal<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant at Sinai was made with a particular group of people under the leadership of Moses but was binding on future generations. Consequently, the covenant was renewed from time to time. Covenant renewals are recorded in the time of Joshua (Jos 8:30-35; 24:1-28) and, much later, during the reign of King Josiah (2 Kgs 23:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The most important passage in the Bible for understanding covenant renewal and the nature of covenant is the book of Deuteronomy. The entire book describes a particular covenant renewal ceremony that occurred at a critical juncture in Israel’s early history. The Sinai covenant was renewed just before Moses’ death, before the transition of leadership to Joshua, and before a major military campaign to possess the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant since the time of Abraham had contained a promise of land. Immediately before they entered that land (c. 1250 <span>BC<\/span>), the covenant vows were renewed with a new generation of Israelites, most of whom had not stood at the foot of Mt Sinai some 40 years earlier. Although covenant renewal is the central theme of Deuteronomy, the writer focused primarily on Moses’ sermon rather than on a detailed account of the renewal ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ceremony were simply a repetition of what happened at the original ratification of the covenant. The Ten Commandments were repeated (Dt 5:6-21), and the laws of the Book of the Covenant were expounded in greater detail (Dt 12–26). Two points emerging in Deuteronomy are particularly significant for an understanding of covenant: a clear statement of covenant love and a detailed statement of the blessings and curses that accompanied the making and renewing of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCovenantwithDavid\">The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>The covenant tradition underwent modification during the time of King David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>). The Sinai covenant had been established between God and Israel, with Moses acting as mediator. In David’s time an additional element was added: God entered into a covenant with David as king. That royal covenant was intimated to David through the prophet Nathan (2 Sm 7:8-16), indicating once again the divine initiative. It was to be an everlasting covenant with David’s royal lineage (23:5).<\/p>\n\n<p>Christians generally interpret the covenant with David as a messianic covenant. For several centuries the dynasty established by David ruled a united Israel, then ruled the remaining southern kingdom of Judah. But in 586 <span>BC<\/span> Judah was conquered by the Babylonians. At that point a descendant of David was no longer ruling an independent kingdom of God’s chosen people. The everlasting nature of the covenant with David was brought out, however, not in the pages of ancient history but in the expectation of a Messiah who would be born of David’s descendants. Matthew and Luke both pointed to Jesus’ Davidic descent (Mt 1:1; Lk 3:31). The NT thus extends the covenant acts of God into the new age in the person of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNewCovenantPredictedintheOldTestament\">The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although David’s covenant with God was eternal, in a sense the covenant established with Israel on Mt Sinai was temporal. The Sinai covenant included conditional clauses, stated in the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy. Israel’s disobedience of the covenant law would at worst bring exile from the Promised Land, a central covenant theme from Abraham to Moses and beyond.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew prophets often perceived the danger of an end to the covenant as a result of Israel’s sins. Some of the prophets, especially Hosea and Jeremiah, also perceived a deeper truth; namely, that the covenant was rooted in divine love and that therefore even the curse of God could not be final.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea dramatically expressed that truth through the “living parable” of his marriage (Hos 1–3). He married Gomer at God’s command, but later, as a result of her unfaithfulness, the marital covenant was dissolved by divorce. Although Gomer’s adulterous acts compelled Hosea to divorce her, he did not cease to love her. God later commanded Hosea to go back to Gomer (Hos 3:1). Despite her unfaithfulness, the prophet was to take her again into the covenant relationship of marriage. That acted-out parable depicted God’s actions with Israel. Israel’s sin would inevitably culminate in a divorce from God, but Hosea perceived a new marriage. In the new covenant between God and Israel, Israel would be graciously accepted back into a relationship with God (2:14-18).<\/p>\n<p>The new covenant is given powerful expression in the writings of the prophet Jeremiah, who lived through the end of the seventh and beginning of the sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In his lifetime Jeremiah saw the kingdom of Judah defeated in war. The nation lost its independence and became a vassal of the Babylonian Empire. In an external sense, that defeat in 586 <span>BC<\/span> marked the end of the Sinai covenant. Israel could no longer call the Promised Land its own. Yet Jeremiah perceived a truth beyond the contemporary political realities. God’s work in the world, like his love for the world, was not over.<\/p>\n<p>Thus Jeremiah spoke of a new covenant that God would bring into effect: “The days are coming, says the <span>Lord<\/span>, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah” (Jer 31:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The new covenant would be marked by an act of God within human hearts, a radical spiritual transformation (Jer 31:34). At the Last Supper Jesus declared to his disciples that “this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20, <span>rsv<\/span>). To the writer of Hebrews, the new covenant was central to a full understanding of the ministry of Jesus Christ (Heb 8:8-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is a concept central to the message and the history of the OT. The covenant theme continues into the NT as a way of interpreting the Christian gospel. Meaning in human life is to be found in a covenant relationship with the living God. Yet sinful human beings cannot work their way into such a relationship; God alone can initiate it. According to the NT, God’s act in giving his son, Jesus, to die opened up the covenant relationship to all human beings. The forgiveness made available by Jesus’ “blood of the new covenant” makes it possible for any individual to enter into a covenant relationship with God. Entry into such a relationship, today as in Abraham’s time, hinges upon faith (Gal 3:6-14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alliance; Covenant, The New; Law, Biblical Concept of; Oath; Vows.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the OT is developed from Noah to Abraham and reaches its first climax in the covenant formed between God and Israel at Mt Sinai. After King David’s time, the history of the covenant becomes a less prominent theme.<\/p>\n<p>At a low point in covenant history the Bible introduces the prophet Jeremiah’s prophecy of a “new covenant” in Israel’s future. Christians believe that Jeremiah’s prophecy eventually found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ. It is not accidental that the two volumes of the Christian Bible have been called the Old Covenant and New Covenant (the word commonly translated “testament” means “covenant”).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<p>• The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>• The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMeaningofCovenant\">The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The essence of covenant is to be found in a particular kind of relationship between persons. Mutual obligations characterize that kind of relationship. Thus a covenant relationship is not merely a mutual acquaintance but a commitment to responsibility and action. A key word in Scripture to describe that commitment is “faithfulness,” acted out in a context of abiding friendship.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the word “covenant” was used in an ordinary human sense as well as in a theological sense. An understanding of human covenants provides a starting point for understanding the covenant between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HumanCovenants\">Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>A variety of human relationships, from profoundly personal to distantly political, may be described as covenantal. The deep brotherly love that David and Jonathan shared led to a formal covenant between them (1 Sm 18:3). Their covenant of friendship was more than a token of esteem; it bound them to demonstrate mutual loyalty and loving-kindness in certain tangible ways. Jonathan’s covenant faithfulness was typified on an occasion when David was out of favor with the king; Jonathan braved his father’s wrath to speak favorably for his friend. Subsequently, he warned David secretly to flee into hiding (1 Sm 19–20).<\/p>\n<p>To appreciate the many OT laws on marriage and divorce, one must understand that marriage itself was a covenant relationship (Mal 2:14). The solemn promises exchanged by a man and woman became their covenant obligations. Faithfulness to those promises brought marital blessing (cf. Ps 128; Prv 18:22); violation brought a curse.<\/p>\n<p>An individual could, at least figuratively, make a covenant or vow with himself or herself (something like a New Year’s resolution). Job, arguing his integrity before God, referred to a covenant he had made with his eyes to keep him from looking at women licentiously (Jb 31:1).<\/p>\n<p>Covenants could also have a national or international character. The elders of Israel made a national covenant with King David in Hebron (2 Sm 5:3). Probably it contained explicit promises both from the elders on behalf of the people to submit themselves to the king’s authority and from David to rule the nation justly and according to the law of God (Dt 17:15-20). The covenant relationship described mutual obligations between a senior partner (the king) and junior partners (the Israelites). In international relationships OT covenants were similar to modern treaties or alliances. King Solomon entered into such a covenant with Hiram, king of Tyre; that covenant, like many modern international treaties, was a trade agreement between the two nations (1 Kgs 5:12).<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is thus an interpersonal framework of trust, responsibilities, and benefits, with broad application to almost every human relationship from personal friendship to international trade agreements. In Scripture covenant is also the most comprehensive concept covering an individual’s relationship to God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Divine-HumanCovenants\">Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>The same basic characteristics of a strictly human covenant are present in a divine covenant: (1) a relationship between two parties (God and a human being or nation), and (2) mutual obligations between the covenant partners. To the OT believer, religion meant covenant. OT religion was faithfulness to the covenant relationship between God and his chosen people; religious responsibilities for both the faith and practice of Israel were covenant responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a divine-human covenant in the OT was not static. Although the fundamental character of covenant remains the same throughout the Bible, the specific nature and form of the covenant changed and developed in the course of ancient Israel’s history. A brief survey of covenant history will further clarify its dimensions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BeginningsoftheCovenantTradition\">Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<h5>Adam<\/h5>\n<p>Adam and Eve were placed in the Garden. God was their Creator; they were his creatures. The meaning of their lives was to be found in relationship with each other and with God, the giver of the Garden. The fall, however, brought a disruption of the divine relationship, and they were expelled from the Garden.<\/p>\n<p>The fall substantially influenced the nature of subsequent religious covenants. The separation of humankind from God clarifies the nature of the human predicament. Created for a relationship with the Creator, sinning humans are excluded from that relationship and cannot, on their own accord, reestablish it. From that circumstance emerges a distinctive feature of divine-human covenants, namely, that God alone can initiate the relationship of covenant.<\/p>\n<h5>Noah<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit mention of covenant in Scripture refers to the initiative taken by God to bind himself again to human beings in a covenant, despite human faithlessness. When God warned Noah to build an ark in order to escape the impending Flood, he also promised to establish a covenant with him (Gn 6:18). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger, but his grace was shown in his dealings with Noah. The promised covenant provided that God would maintain a relationship with one family, even though other divine-human relationships were being formally severed. Significantly, God’s covenant promise to Noah came in a context of demand: God ordered Noah to build an ark (v 14). Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to a divine command.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant was elaborated only after the Flood, when Noah had made an offering to God (Gn 8:20-22). The covenant with Noah was in fact a universal covenant with humankind and all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world. The sign of that covenant was the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant with Noah affords some perspective for understanding the “covenant God.” Although human beings may deserve destruction because of their wickedness, God withholds that destruction. The covenant of Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being; nevertheless, it left open the possibility of a more intimate covenant. Human beings, in spite of their evil, are allowed for a time to live in God’s world; during those years, they may seek a deeper relationship with that world’s Creator.<\/p>\n<h5>Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit reference to God’s covenant with Abraham is in Genesis 15. When the Lord called the 75-year-old Abram (as he was first called) to leave his home city of Ur and set out on a journey, a relationship already existed between God and Abram. In that relationship, which enabled God to command Abram’s obedience, God made certain promises to him: “I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing” (Gn 12:2, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Formal establishment of the covenant with Abram is described in Genesis 15 as a profound religious experience. The initiative lay entirely with God, who approached Abram in a vision and spoke with him. Abram raised a fundamental objection: how could he experience the blessing of God if it was to come to him through a son he did not have? His wife Sarai was past the childbearing age, and he himself was “as good as dead” (Rom 4:19). God assured the old man that he would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abram’s belief at that point introduced the theme of righteousness central to the covenant concept: Abram “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>, and he reckoned it to him as righteousness” (Gn 15:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). At the end of that day, Abram knew that his own future and the future of his descendants were firmly in the hands of the covenant God. “On that day the <span>Lord<\/span> made a covenant with Abram, saying, ‘To your descendants I give this land’ ” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The covenant is more fully expressed in Genesis 17, which probably records a renewal of God’s covenant with Abram. The initiative once again lay with God (Gn 17:1). God addressed the 99-year-old Abram in words that made clear that the covenant was not a relationship between equal partners. God was the Almighty; Abram was a human being to whom an extraordinary privilege had been granted.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the details of the covenant in Genesis 17 show that both partners assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abram and his descendants while requiring certain commitments from Abram. The blessing Abram would receive as a covenant partner became clear from the new name God gave him. “I am changing your name. It will no longer be Abram; now you will be known as Abraham, for you will be the father of many nations” (Gn 17:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). God would give to Abraham, through his descendants, the land of Canaan as an everlasting gift and would be the personal God of Abraham and his family in perpetuity (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s giving required a response of obedience from Abraham: “Live a blameless life” (Gn 17:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Those simple words indicate the essence of covenant relationship: to relate to God is to live in his presence; since God is holy, one who knows him is expected to live a life of integrity and blamelessness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant also had a more formal aspect. Abraham and the male members of his household were to undergo the rite of circumcision as a symbol of covenant commitment. Abraham was an old man when he was circumcised (Gn 17:24), though male children born into the covenant family were to be circumcised when they were eight days old (v 12). Circumcision was not in itself a ritual peculiar to the Hebrews; it was practiced in most societies in the ancient Near East (the Philistines were one exception). The distinctiveness lay in what the act symbolized: among other things, a continuing and faithful relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham was characterized by both present and future realities. The covenant established a continuing relationship between Abraham and his Creator. Yet its thrust pointed to future blessing—in the children yet to be born, the “chosen people,” and in the land that eventually his descendants would call their own.<\/p>\n<p>Another dimension of the covenant lay still further in the future: “All the families of the earth will be blessed through you” (Gn 12:3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Early in the OT, the idea of election (God’s unconditional preference; cf. 2 Thes 2:13) is present. God chose to enter into a covenant relationship with a particular man and his particular descendants. Yet God always elects a person to serve: Adam, to cultivate the Garden; Noah, to build an ark; Abraham, to leave his home for another land and to live blamelessly before God (cf. Eph 2:8-10). Further, the “particularity” of Abraham’s election contained within it a universality: through his descendants the blessing of God would be offered to all.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the future aspects of Abraham’s covenant reflect two stages. From Abraham’s perspective, in the relatively near future his descendants would possess a land given them by God. But in the more distant future was the prospect of a universal blessing, the culmination of God’s work in the world. The initial fulfillment of that distant future is perceived in the NT, but the more immediate fulfillment of God’s promise was the Sinai covenant at the time of Moses.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSinaiCovenant\">The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The covenant established between God and Israel at Mt Sinai is the focal point of the covenant tradition in the OT. It was anticipated in the covenant of Abraham and lay behind the covenant of David and the proclamation of the prophets. It was central to OT religion, laying down the foundations of Judaism that continue into the modern world. The Sinai covenant was the formal institution of a relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In order to appreciate the impact of the Sinai covenant, one must understand its historical context. It was preceded by the exodus of the Hebrew people from Egypt under the leadership of Moses. The exodus was an extraordinary act of liberation in which God intervened in the normal course of history to free his people from slavery in Egypt. The exodus is interpreted in the OT as a divine act comparable to Creation, the act through which God “created” the nation of Israel. Examination of the two versions of the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11; Dt 5:12-15) shows that the exodus from Egypt directly parallels the creation of the world as a basis for Sabbath observance. Although Israel was created in the exodus, the nation had neither a constitution nor land. The covenant provided the nascent state of Israel with a constitution, making it a theocratic state (a state ruled by God).<\/p>\n<p>The basic account of the Sinai covenant is contained in Exodus 19 and 20. The initiative came from God, who gave instructions through Moses to prepare for the covenant; God spoke the words that contained the covenant offer. There was no doubt that the God of Israel was the senior partner in the relationship made formal at Sinai. The God who had revealed himself through his acts in the exodus then revealed himself in words. Those two aspects—the God who acts and speaks—are central to OT theology. And although the covenant contained law, it was preceded by the exodus, an act of divine grace.<\/p>\n<p>God’s offer of covenant carried with it a divine promise: “You will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). The promise was one of extraordinary privilege; an entire nation was called upon to represent all other nations before the God of the universe. But the priestly office, though it carried privilege, was also a demanding office. A priest had to be pure and had to know the God whose presence he was required to enter. Thus Israel, the priestly nation, received a law that would provide direction in living, in loving God, and in serving all people. The law given with the covenant expressed the requirements for God’s covenant people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Covenant Law<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant law had two principal parts. First, the Ten Commandments expressed God’s requirements of Israel in a concise form (Ex 20:2-17). The commandments specified the covenant people’s relationship both to God and to other human beings. Although the tendency in the present day is to view the Ten Commandments as a system of ethics or morality, they had a different role in ancient Israel. The covenant law was the foundation or constitution of a new nation, a special “nation of priests.” The head of the nation-state was God. Hence, in ancient Israel the status of the Ten Commandments was approximately that of the code of criminal law in a modern nation-state. To break one of those laws was to commit a crime against God, the head of the state. Yet the laws had a positive purpose. They set down a way of life that would result in a full and rich communion with God and community with others.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the covenant law was a detailed law code covering the activities of everyday life. Examples of such laws are found in Exodus 21–23. These laws were compiled and recorded in the “Book of the Covenant” (Ex 24:7). Although many laws were contained in this book, it was impossible to codify every aspect of human behavior. The diversity of the examples given indicates that for the covenant member no area of human life was beyond the influence of the covenant. Persons who entered into a relationship with God entered into a relationship that impinged on every possible aspect of their lives.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Renewal<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant at Sinai was made with a particular group of people under the leadership of Moses but was binding on future generations. Consequently, the covenant was renewed from time to time. Covenant renewals are recorded in the time of Joshua (Jos 8:30-35; 24:1-28) and, much later, during the reign of King Josiah (2 Kgs 23:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The most important passage in the Bible for understanding covenant renewal and the nature of covenant is the book of Deuteronomy. The entire book describes a particular covenant renewal ceremony that occurred at a critical juncture in Israel’s early history. The Sinai covenant was renewed just before Moses’ death, before the transition of leadership to Joshua, and before a major military campaign to possess the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant since the time of Abraham had contained a promise of land. Immediately before they entered that land (c. 1250 <span>BC<\/span>), the covenant vows were renewed with a new generation of Israelites, most of whom had not stood at the foot of Mt Sinai some 40 years earlier. Although covenant renewal is the central theme of Deuteronomy, the writer focused primarily on Moses’ sermon rather than on a detailed account of the renewal ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ceremony were simply a repetition of what happened at the original ratification of the covenant. The Ten Commandments were repeated (Dt 5:6-21), and the laws of the Book of the Covenant were expounded in greater detail (Dt 12–26). Two points emerging in Deuteronomy are particularly significant for an understanding of covenant: a clear statement of covenant love and a detailed statement of the blessings and curses that accompanied the making and renewing of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCovenantwithDavid\">The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>The covenant tradition underwent modification during the time of King David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>). The Sinai covenant had been established between God and Israel, with Moses acting as mediator. In David’s time an additional element was added: God entered into a covenant with David as king. That royal covenant was intimated to David through the prophet Nathan (2 Sm 7:8-16), indicating once again the divine initiative. It was to be an everlasting covenant with David’s royal lineage (23:5).<\/p>\n\n<p>Christians generally interpret the covenant with David as a messianic covenant. For several centuries the dynasty established by David ruled a united Israel, then ruled the remaining southern kingdom of Judah. But in 586 <span>BC<\/span> Judah was conquered by the Babylonians. At that point a descendant of David was no longer ruling an independent kingdom of God’s chosen people. The everlasting nature of the covenant with David was brought out, however, not in the pages of ancient history but in the expectation of a Messiah who would be born of David’s descendants. Matthew and Luke both pointed to Jesus’ Davidic descent (Mt 1:1; Lk 3:31). The NT thus extends the covenant acts of God into the new age in the person of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNewCovenantPredictedintheOldTestament\">The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although David’s covenant with God was eternal, in a sense the covenant established with Israel on Mt Sinai was temporal. The Sinai covenant included conditional clauses, stated in the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy. Israel’s disobedience of the covenant law would at worst bring exile from the Promised Land, a central covenant theme from Abraham to Moses and beyond.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew prophets often perceived the danger of an end to the covenant as a result of Israel’s sins. Some of the prophets, especially Hosea and Jeremiah, also perceived a deeper truth; namely, that the covenant was rooted in divine love and that therefore even the curse of God could not be final.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea dramatically expressed that truth through the “living parable” of his marriage (Hos 1–3). He married Gomer at God’s command, but later, as a result of her unfaithfulness, the marital covenant was dissolved by divorce. Although Gomer’s adulterous acts compelled Hosea to divorce her, he did not cease to love her. God later commanded Hosea to go back to Gomer (Hos 3:1). Despite her unfaithfulness, the prophet was to take her again into the covenant relationship of marriage. That acted-out parable depicted God’s actions with Israel. Israel’s sin would inevitably culminate in a divorce from God, but Hosea perceived a new marriage. In the new covenant between God and Israel, Israel would be graciously accepted back into a relationship with God (2:14-18).<\/p>\n<p>The new covenant is given powerful expression in the writings of the prophet Jeremiah, who lived through the end of the seventh and beginning of the sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In his lifetime Jeremiah saw the kingdom of Judah defeated in war. The nation lost its independence and became a vassal of the Babylonian Empire. In an external sense, that defeat in 586 <span>BC<\/span> marked the end of the Sinai covenant. Israel could no longer call the Promised Land its own. Yet Jeremiah perceived a truth beyond the contemporary political realities. God’s work in the world, like his love for the world, was not over.<\/p>\n<p>Thus Jeremiah spoke of a new covenant that God would bring into effect: “The days are coming, says the <span>Lord<\/span>, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah” (Jer 31:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The new covenant would be marked by an act of God within human hearts, a radical spiritual transformation (Jer 31:34). At the Last Supper Jesus declared to his disciples that “this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20, <span>rsv<\/span>). To the writer of Hebrews, the new covenant was central to a full understanding of the ministry of Jesus Christ (Heb 8:8-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is a concept central to the message and the history of the OT. The covenant theme continues into the NT as a way of interpreting the Christian gospel. Meaning in human life is to be found in a covenant relationship with the living God. Yet sinful human beings cannot work their way into such a relationship; God alone can initiate it. According to the NT, God’s act in giving his son, Jesus, to die opened up the covenant relationship to all human beings. The forgiveness made available by Jesus’ “blood of the new covenant” makes it possible for any individual to enter into a covenant relationship with God. Entry into such a relationship, today as in Abraham’s time, hinges upon faith (Gal 3:6-14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alliance; Covenant, The New; Law, Biblical Concept of; Oath; Vows.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COVENANT Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings. The covenant theme in the OT is developed from...","summary_en":"COVENANT Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings. The covenant theme in the OT is developed from...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22503,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Land","title_en":"Land","content_ro":"<h3>LAND<\/h3>\n<p>The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were driven from the Garden of Eden, and the earth became cursed. They were forced to toil and sweat in order to subdue the earth and provide for their own subsistence because the harvest was choked by thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p>After murdering his brother, Cain receives an individual intensification of the land curse as punishment. He is told that the earth will not yield its produce for him even with hard labor, forcing him to wander from one place to another. With no permanent homeland, Cain is denied the enjoyment of rest and prosperity. Because of sin, the important human aspiration for a sense of place is refused to Cain (Gn 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>After the Flood, which was God’s judgment on an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again provoked God’s wrath; the construction of the Tower of Babel exalts human might apart from God. God intervenes to confuse the people’s language and “scatter them abroad upon the face of the earth” (11:9). Genesis 1–11 is thus characterized by a sequence of narratives describing land loss with its attendant deprivations as a consequence of sin and rebellion against God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheAbrahamicCovenant\">Land and the Abrahamic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Abraham, God intervened in human affairs to provide a special homeland for a select group of people who are set apart unto himself. It is here that the Promised Land theme is introduced in Scripture. God said to Abraham, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you. I will cause you to become the father of a great nation” (Gn 12:1-2, <span>nlt<\/span>). This promise to Abraham is enlarged upon in Genesis 12:7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8. Abraham is told that the land of Canaan is to be the “everlasting possession” of his descendants (17:8).<\/p>\n<p>The OT narrative then traces Abraham’s line of descent through Isaac and Jacob, and tells of the migration of Jacob’s family to Egypt, where during approximately four centuries they became a great and numerous people. During this period, the promise of possession of the land of Canaan is reiterated (Gn 28:15; 35:11-12; 46:3-4; 50:24) and held before Abraham’s descendants as an integral feature of God’s covenantal promises.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheMosaicCovenant\">Land and the Mosaic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>When God called Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt, he associated Moses’ task with the fulfillment of the promises to the patriarchs: “I have remembered my covenant with them. . . . I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. . . . I will bring you into the land I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It will be your very own property” (Ex 6:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Israel is to be delivered from Egypt for two reasons: first, in order to be established as God’s covenant people at Mt Sinai, and second, in order to possess the land promised to their fathers. It is of utmost significance, however, that with the establishment of the Mosaic covenant the continued possession of the land is made dependent on obedience. Should Israel violate the covenantal obligations, it will bring upon itself the covenant curses, the most severe of which is banishment from the Promised Land (Lv 26:32-33). This does not mean that God will abandon his people and the land totally or forever, because God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lv 26:42, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>During the reign of King David, the promise of land received at least a provisional fulfillment. Although it is true that initial fulfillment occurred when Joshua entered the land, at that time the territory did not extend to the borders promised Abraham (Gn 15:18) and much of the land that was occupied still contained pockets of resistance by the former inhabitants (Jos 13:1-6; Jgs 1). It was not until the time of David that the land was fully possessed as originally promised (2 Sm 8; 1 Kgs 4:21, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The responsibility of the king to observe the law, and the connection between covenantal obedience and possession of the land is again made clear when Solomon dedicates the temple (1 Kgs 9:4-9). Disobedience will bring not only expulsion from the land but also the destruction of the temple.<\/p>\n<p>The subsequent history of the divided-kingdom era is for the most part a history of covenant abrogation, by the people as well as the kings. The Lord sent repeated warnings through the prophets that such disobedience could only lead to expulsion from the land. But their message fell on deaf ears (Is 6:11-12; Am 5:27; 7:17; Hos 9:17). The kings repeatedly proved themselves to be unworthy of the office.<\/p>\n<p>As the people persisted in their evil way, Jeremiah announced that Nebuchadnezzar was to be the Lord’s agent to drive them from the land (Jer 21:2; 22:25; 25:8-9; 27:6; 28:14; 29:21). However, Jeremiah and other prophets also looked beyond the exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:6-25). Historically, this was accomplished under the rule of Cyrus the Great of Persia (538 <span>BC<\/span>) and is described in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>A difficulty of interpretation arises in finding an adequate fulfillment of certain prophecies of the return (cf. Ez 37; Am 9:14-15), which envision great prosperity and permanent possession of the land under the rule of a Davidic king. The intertestamental period does not seem to be a suitable fulfillment for these predictions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheNewCovenant\">Land and the New Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the land theme is much less prominent and seems mostly to be given a spiritual symbolism. The writer of Hebrews suggests that Abraham understood the land promise as something that pointed beyond a merely geographical fulfillment to a higher and far more satisfying heavenly home. Realizing the imperfection and transitory nature of all that this world offers, Abraham looked beyond the temporal fulfillment of the land promise for a city whose builder and maker is God (Heb 11:10), and he sought a “better country, that is, a heavenly one” (v 16). In the NT it appears that Israel’s land promise and entrance into Canaan is to be understood as typifying something of the future heavenly rest awaiting God’s people (Heb 3–4). Perhaps this explains the OT stress on the connection between Israel’s living in obedience to God’s law and their possession of the land. When the Israelites do not typify a condition of holiness, they disqualify themselves from typifying a condition of blessedness, and thus are either denied access to or driven from the land. The NT indicates that it is God’s purpose to prepare an eternal homeland for his people where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rv 21).<\/p>\n<p>The OT land promises have been viewed by some as having only typical significance. In the light of Christ’s incarnation any statement of Scripture concerning a future for the land is to be interpreted as fulfilled in a spiritual sense in the church. The church is now the new Israel and heir of the OT promises. Because God’s kingdom is now a spiritual reality, it is considered a misunderstanding of the OT to expect yet future fulfillments of the OT prophecies of Israel’s return to the land and an establishment of a period of peace and prosperity under the rule of Christ, the Son of David (cf. Is 2:1-5; 11:6-11; Ez 37; Am 9:14-15). To abide in Christ is considered an adequate fulfillment of the physical and geographical promises of the OT economy.<\/p>\n<p>Others, while not denying typical significance for these OT realities, would suggest that the land promises are still operative in the physical and geographical categories in which they were given. It is pointed out that Paul argues in Romans 9–11 that there is yet a future for national Israel. In spite of Israel’s history of disobedience, climaxing in the rejection of the Messiah, the election and calling of God is irrevocable, and Israel is yet to be reingrafted in the olive tree from which it had previously been cut off. Luke says that Jerusalem will be trodden down by the Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled (Lk 21:24), indicating that there is to be a future time when Jerusalem will again be possessed by the Jewish nation. This does not necessarily mean that one must view the present state of Israel as the direct fulfillment of the OT promises of return to the land. The OT indicates that the return will be occasioned by belief (Dt 30:1-16). The present return is in unbelief. At the same time, the remarkable preservation of the Jewish people over the centuries and the recent reestablishment of the nation are perhaps to be understood as anticipations or signs of a future and more complete realization of the OT land promises.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAND<\/h3>\n<p>The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were driven from the Garden of Eden, and the earth became cursed. They were forced to toil and sweat in order to subdue the earth and provide for their own subsistence because the harvest was choked by thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p>After murdering his brother, Cain receives an individual intensification of the land curse as punishment. He is told that the earth will not yield its produce for him even with hard labor, forcing him to wander from one place to another. With no permanent homeland, Cain is denied the enjoyment of rest and prosperity. Because of sin, the important human aspiration for a sense of place is refused to Cain (Gn 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>After the Flood, which was God’s judgment on an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again provoked God’s wrath; the construction of the Tower of Babel exalts human might apart from God. God intervenes to confuse the people’s language and “scatter them abroad upon the face of the earth” (11:9). Genesis 1–11 is thus characterized by a sequence of narratives describing land loss with its attendant deprivations as a consequence of sin and rebellion against God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheAbrahamicCovenant\">Land and the Abrahamic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Abraham, God intervened in human affairs to provide a special homeland for a select group of people who are set apart unto himself. It is here that the Promised Land theme is introduced in Scripture. God said to Abraham, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you. I will cause you to become the father of a great nation” (Gn 12:1-2, <span>nlt<\/span>). This promise to Abraham is enlarged upon in Genesis 12:7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8. Abraham is told that the land of Canaan is to be the “everlasting possession” of his descendants (17:8).<\/p>\n<p>The OT narrative then traces Abraham’s line of descent through Isaac and Jacob, and tells of the migration of Jacob’s family to Egypt, where during approximately four centuries they became a great and numerous people. During this period, the promise of possession of the land of Canaan is reiterated (Gn 28:15; 35:11-12; 46:3-4; 50:24) and held before Abraham’s descendants as an integral feature of God’s covenantal promises.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheMosaicCovenant\">Land and the Mosaic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>When God called Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt, he associated Moses’ task with the fulfillment of the promises to the patriarchs: “I have remembered my covenant with them. . . . I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. . . . I will bring you into the land I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It will be your very own property” (Ex 6:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Israel is to be delivered from Egypt for two reasons: first, in order to be established as God’s covenant people at Mt Sinai, and second, in order to possess the land promised to their fathers. It is of utmost significance, however, that with the establishment of the Mosaic covenant the continued possession of the land is made dependent on obedience. Should Israel violate the covenantal obligations, it will bring upon itself the covenant curses, the most severe of which is banishment from the Promised Land (Lv 26:32-33). This does not mean that God will abandon his people and the land totally or forever, because God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lv 26:42, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>During the reign of King David, the promise of land received at least a provisional fulfillment. Although it is true that initial fulfillment occurred when Joshua entered the land, at that time the territory did not extend to the borders promised Abraham (Gn 15:18) and much of the land that was occupied still contained pockets of resistance by the former inhabitants (Jos 13:1-6; Jgs 1). It was not until the time of David that the land was fully possessed as originally promised (2 Sm 8; 1 Kgs 4:21, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The responsibility of the king to observe the law, and the connection between covenantal obedience and possession of the land is again made clear when Solomon dedicates the temple (1 Kgs 9:4-9). Disobedience will bring not only expulsion from the land but also the destruction of the temple.<\/p>\n<p>The subsequent history of the divided-kingdom era is for the most part a history of covenant abrogation, by the people as well as the kings. The Lord sent repeated warnings through the prophets that such disobedience could only lead to expulsion from the land. But their message fell on deaf ears (Is 6:11-12; Am 5:27; 7:17; Hos 9:17). The kings repeatedly proved themselves to be unworthy of the office.<\/p>\n<p>As the people persisted in their evil way, Jeremiah announced that Nebuchadnezzar was to be the Lord’s agent to drive them from the land (Jer 21:2; 22:25; 25:8-9; 27:6; 28:14; 29:21). However, Jeremiah and other prophets also looked beyond the exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:6-25). Historically, this was accomplished under the rule of Cyrus the Great of Persia (538 <span>BC<\/span>) and is described in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>A difficulty of interpretation arises in finding an adequate fulfillment of certain prophecies of the return (cf. Ez 37; Am 9:14-15), which envision great prosperity and permanent possession of the land under the rule of a Davidic king. The intertestamental period does not seem to be a suitable fulfillment for these predictions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheNewCovenant\">Land and the New Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the land theme is much less prominent and seems mostly to be given a spiritual symbolism. The writer of Hebrews suggests that Abraham understood the land promise as something that pointed beyond a merely geographical fulfillment to a higher and far more satisfying heavenly home. Realizing the imperfection and transitory nature of all that this world offers, Abraham looked beyond the temporal fulfillment of the land promise for a city whose builder and maker is God (Heb 11:10), and he sought a “better country, that is, a heavenly one” (v 16). In the NT it appears that Israel’s land promise and entrance into Canaan is to be understood as typifying something of the future heavenly rest awaiting God’s people (Heb 3–4). Perhaps this explains the OT stress on the connection between Israel’s living in obedience to God’s law and their possession of the land. When the Israelites do not typify a condition of holiness, they disqualify themselves from typifying a condition of blessedness, and thus are either denied access to or driven from the land. The NT indicates that it is God’s purpose to prepare an eternal homeland for his people where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rv 21).<\/p>\n<p>The OT land promises have been viewed by some as having only typical significance. In the light of Christ’s incarnation any statement of Scripture concerning a future for the land is to be interpreted as fulfilled in a spiritual sense in the church. The church is now the new Israel and heir of the OT promises. Because God’s kingdom is now a spiritual reality, it is considered a misunderstanding of the OT to expect yet future fulfillments of the OT prophecies of Israel’s return to the land and an establishment of a period of peace and prosperity under the rule of Christ, the Son of David (cf. Is 2:1-5; 11:6-11; Ez 37; Am 9:14-15). To abide in Christ is considered an adequate fulfillment of the physical and geographical promises of the OT economy.<\/p>\n<p>Others, while not denying typical significance for these OT realities, would suggest that the land promises are still operative in the physical and geographical categories in which they were given. It is pointed out that Paul argues in Romans 9–11 that there is yet a future for national Israel. In spite of Israel’s history of disobedience, climaxing in the rejection of the Messiah, the election and calling of God is irrevocable, and Israel is yet to be reingrafted in the olive tree from which it had previously been cut off. Luke says that Jerusalem will be trodden down by the Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled (Lk 21:24), indicating that there is to be a future time when Jerusalem will again be possessed by the Jewish nation. This does not necessarily mean that one must view the present state of Israel as the direct fulfillment of the OT promises of return to the land. The OT indicates that the return will be occasioned by belief (Dt 30:1-16). The present return is in unbelief. At the same time, the remarkable preservation of the Jewish people over the centuries and the recent reestablishment of the nation are perhaps to be understood as anticipations or signs of a future and more complete realization of the OT land promises.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAND The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were dr...","summary_en":"LAND The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were dr...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43084,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:7-8<\/strong> The land of Canaan was to be an <em>everlasting<\/em> possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their <em>God<\/em> forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:7-8<\/strong> The land of Canaan was to be an <em>everlasting<\/em> possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their <em>God<\/em> forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:7-8 The land of Canaan was to be an everlasting possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their God forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).","summary_en":"17:7-8 The land of Canaan was to be an everlasting possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their God forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70710,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:7-8<\/strong> The land of Canaan was to be an <em>everlasting<\/em> possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their <em>God<\/em> forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:7-8<\/strong> The land of Canaan was to be an <em>everlasting<\/em> possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their <em>God<\/em> forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:7-8 The land of Canaan was to be an everlasting possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their God forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).","summary_en":"17:7-8 The land of Canaan was to be an everlasting possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their God forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98336,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:7-8<\/strong> The land of Canaan was to be an <em>everlasting<\/em> possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their <em>God<\/em> forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:7-8<\/strong> The land of Canaan was to be an <em>everlasting<\/em> possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their <em>God<\/em> forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:7-8 The land of Canaan was to be an everlasting possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their God forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).","summary_en":"17:7-8 The land of Canaan was to be an everlasting possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their God forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125962,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:7-8<\/strong> The land of Canaan was to be an <em>everlasting<\/em> possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their <em>God<\/em> forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:7-8<\/strong> The land of Canaan was to be an <em>everlasting<\/em> possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their <em>God<\/em> forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:7-8 The land of Canaan was to be an everlasting possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their God forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).","summary_en":"17:7-8 The land of Canaan was to be an everlasting possession for the descendants of Abraham; the Lord would be their God forever (see Jer 31:31-40; Zech 8:8; Luke 1:68-79; Rev 21:1-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60104,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Promised Land","title_en":"Promised Land","content_ro":"<h3>Promised Land<\/h3>\n<p>Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29).<\/p>\n<p>Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’s people (12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8). Later, after Israel was delivered from Egypt and was established as God’s people at Mount Sinai, they were given possession of the land promised to their fathers.<\/p>\n<p>Continued possession of the land depended on obedience. If Israel violated the covenant, they would experience the covenant’s curses, the most severe of which is exile from the Promised Land (Lev 26:32-33). Eventually, that is what happened: Israel’s persistent rebellion against the Lord resulted in their exile to Assyria and Babylon, the loss of the land, and the destruction of the Temple (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21). But God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lev 26:42). During the Exile, Jeremiah and other prophets looked beyond the Exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:36-44), which occurred during the reign of Cyrus the Great of Persia (see Ezra; Nehemiah).<\/p>\n<p>The promises for the land await ultimate fulfillment. God’s purpose is to prepare an eternal homeland for his people, where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28-30; 3:15-19; 4:3-16; 12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:1-21; 17:7-8; Exod 6:1-13; Lev 26:1-46; 1 Kgs 8:22-53; 9:1-9; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21; Jer 32:36-44; Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21:1-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Promised Land<\/h3>\n<p>Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29).<\/p>\n<p>Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’s people (12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8). Later, after Israel was delivered from Egypt and was established as God’s people at Mount Sinai, they were given possession of the land promised to their fathers.<\/p>\n<p>Continued possession of the land depended on obedience. If Israel violated the covenant, they would experience the covenant’s curses, the most severe of which is exile from the Promised Land (Lev 26:32-33). Eventually, that is what happened: Israel’s persistent rebellion against the Lord resulted in their exile to Assyria and Babylon, the loss of the land, and the destruction of the Temple (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21). But God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lev 26:42). During the Exile, Jeremiah and other prophets looked beyond the Exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:36-44), which occurred during the reign of Cyrus the Great of Persia (see Ezra; Nehemiah).<\/p>\n<p>The promises for the land await ultimate fulfillment. God’s purpose is to prepare an eternal homeland for his people, where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28-30; 3:15-19; 4:3-16; 12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:1-21; 17:7-8; Exod 6:1-13; Lev 26:1-46; 1 Kgs 8:22-53; 9:1-9; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21; Jer 32:36-44; Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21:1-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Promised Land Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29). Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’...","summary_en":"Promised Land Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29). Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60970,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Inheriting the Land","title_en":"Inheriting the Land","content_ro":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","summary_en":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87730,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Promised Land","title_en":"Promised Land","content_ro":"<h3>Promised Land<\/h3>\n<p>Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29).<\/p>\n<p>Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’s people (12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8). Later, after Israel was delivered from Egypt and was established as God’s people at Mount Sinai, they were given possession of the land promised to their fathers.<\/p>\n<p>Continued possession of the land depended on obedience. If Israel violated the covenant, they would experience the covenant’s curses, the most severe of which is exile from the Promised Land (Lev 26:32-33). Eventually, that is what happened: Israel’s persistent rebellion against the Lord resulted in their exile to Assyria and Babylon, the loss of the land, and the destruction of the Temple (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21). But God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lev 26:42). During the Exile, Jeremiah and other prophets looked beyond the Exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:36-44), which occurred during the reign of Cyrus the Great of Persia (see Ezra; Nehemiah).<\/p>\n<p>The promises for the land await ultimate fulfillment. God’s purpose is to prepare an eternal homeland for his people, where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28-30; 3:15-19; 4:3-16; 12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:1-21; 17:7-8; Exod 6:1-13; Lev 26:1-46; 1 Kgs 8:22-53; 9:1-9; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21; Jer 32:36-44; Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21:1-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Promised Land<\/h3>\n<p>Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29).<\/p>\n<p>Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’s people (12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8). Later, after Israel was delivered from Egypt and was established as God’s people at Mount Sinai, they were given possession of the land promised to their fathers.<\/p>\n<p>Continued possession of the land depended on obedience. If Israel violated the covenant, they would experience the covenant’s curses, the most severe of which is exile from the Promised Land (Lev 26:32-33). Eventually, that is what happened: Israel’s persistent rebellion against the Lord resulted in their exile to Assyria and Babylon, the loss of the land, and the destruction of the Temple (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21). But God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lev 26:42). During the Exile, Jeremiah and other prophets looked beyond the Exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:36-44), which occurred during the reign of Cyrus the Great of Persia (see Ezra; Nehemiah).<\/p>\n<p>The promises for the land await ultimate fulfillment. God’s purpose is to prepare an eternal homeland for his people, where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28-30; 3:15-19; 4:3-16; 12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:1-21; 17:7-8; Exod 6:1-13; Lev 26:1-46; 1 Kgs 8:22-53; 9:1-9; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21; Jer 32:36-44; Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21:1-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Promised Land Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29). Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’...","summary_en":"Promised Land Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29). Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88596,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Inheriting the Land","title_en":"Inheriting the Land","content_ro":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","summary_en":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115356,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Promised Land","title_en":"Promised Land","content_ro":"<h3>Promised Land<\/h3>\n<p>Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29).<\/p>\n<p>Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’s people (12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8). Later, after Israel was delivered from Egypt and was established as God’s people at Mount Sinai, they were given possession of the land promised to their fathers.<\/p>\n<p>Continued possession of the land depended on obedience. If Israel violated the covenant, they would experience the covenant’s curses, the most severe of which is exile from the Promised Land (Lev 26:32-33). Eventually, that is what happened: Israel’s persistent rebellion against the Lord resulted in their exile to Assyria and Babylon, the loss of the land, and the destruction of the Temple (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21). But God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lev 26:42). During the Exile, Jeremiah and other prophets looked beyond the Exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:36-44), which occurred during the reign of Cyrus the Great of Persia (see Ezra; Nehemiah).<\/p>\n<p>The promises for the land await ultimate fulfillment. God’s purpose is to prepare an eternal homeland for his people, where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28-30; 3:15-19; 4:3-16; 12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:1-21; 17:7-8; Exod 6:1-13; Lev 26:1-46; 1 Kgs 8:22-53; 9:1-9; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21; Jer 32:36-44; Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21:1-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Promised Land<\/h3>\n<p>Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29).<\/p>\n<p>Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’s people (12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8). Later, after Israel was delivered from Egypt and was established as God’s people at Mount Sinai, they were given possession of the land promised to their fathers.<\/p>\n<p>Continued possession of the land depended on obedience. If Israel violated the covenant, they would experience the covenant’s curses, the most severe of which is exile from the Promised Land (Lev 26:32-33). Eventually, that is what happened: Israel’s persistent rebellion against the Lord resulted in their exile to Assyria and Babylon, the loss of the land, and the destruction of the Temple (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21). But God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lev 26:42). During the Exile, Jeremiah and other prophets looked beyond the Exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:36-44), which occurred during the reign of Cyrus the Great of Persia (see Ezra; Nehemiah).<\/p>\n<p>The promises for the land await ultimate fulfillment. God’s purpose is to prepare an eternal homeland for his people, where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28-30; 3:15-19; 4:3-16; 12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:1-21; 17:7-8; Exod 6:1-13; Lev 26:1-46; 1 Kgs 8:22-53; 9:1-9; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21; Jer 32:36-44; Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21:1-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Promised Land Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29). Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’...","summary_en":"Promised Land Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29). Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116222,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Inheriting the Land","title_en":"Inheriting the Land","content_ro":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","summary_en":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142982,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Promised Land","title_en":"Promised Land","content_ro":"<h3>Promised Land<\/h3>\n<p>Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29).<\/p>\n<p>Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’s people (12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8). Later, after Israel was delivered from Egypt and was established as God’s people at Mount Sinai, they were given possession of the land promised to their fathers.<\/p>\n<p>Continued possession of the land depended on obedience. If Israel violated the covenant, they would experience the covenant’s curses, the most severe of which is exile from the Promised Land (Lev 26:32-33). Eventually, that is what happened: Israel’s persistent rebellion against the Lord resulted in their exile to Assyria and Babylon, the loss of the land, and the destruction of the Temple (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21). But God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lev 26:42). During the Exile, Jeremiah and other prophets looked beyond the Exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:36-44), which occurred during the reign of Cyrus the Great of Persia (see Ezra; Nehemiah).<\/p>\n<p>The promises for the land await ultimate fulfillment. God’s purpose is to prepare an eternal homeland for his people, where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28-30; 3:15-19; 4:3-16; 12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:1-21; 17:7-8; Exod 6:1-13; Lev 26:1-46; 1 Kgs 8:22-53; 9:1-9; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21; Jer 32:36-44; Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21:1-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Promised Land<\/h3>\n<p>Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29).<\/p>\n<p>Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’s people (12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8). Later, after Israel was delivered from Egypt and was established as God’s people at Mount Sinai, they were given possession of the land promised to their fathers.<\/p>\n<p>Continued possession of the land depended on obedience. If Israel violated the covenant, they would experience the covenant’s curses, the most severe of which is exile from the Promised Land (Lev 26:32-33). Eventually, that is what happened: Israel’s persistent rebellion against the Lord resulted in their exile to Assyria and Babylon, the loss of the land, and the destruction of the Temple (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21). But God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lev 26:42). During the Exile, Jeremiah and other prophets looked beyond the Exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:36-44), which occurred during the reign of Cyrus the Great of Persia (see Ezra; Nehemiah).<\/p>\n<p>The promises for the land await ultimate fulfillment. God’s purpose is to prepare an eternal homeland for his people, where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28-30; 3:15-19; 4:3-16; 12:1-3, 7; 13:14-18; 15:1-21; 17:7-8; Exod 6:1-13; Lev 26:1-46; 1 Kgs 8:22-53; 9:1-9; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 25:1-21; Jer 32:36-44; Heb 11:13-16; Rev 21:1-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Promised Land Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29). Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’...","summary_en":"Promised Land Men and women were given the task of governing the earth and ruling over the creation, both to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator (Gen 1:28-30). But when humanity fell into sin, they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived (3:17-19; see 4:3-16; cp. 5:29). Then God called Abram to follow him by faith and to receive Canaan as a special homeland, a promised land for his descendants as God’...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143848,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Inheriting the Land","title_en":"Inheriting the Land","content_ro":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Inheriting the Land<\/h3>\n<p>Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh?<\/p>\n<p>The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). As a result of our sin, this material world needs redeeming, and by God’s grace, it will have a share in God’s redemption at the end of time (see Rom 8:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>One of the ways Scripture affirms the goodness and relevance of this world is by a prominent theology of land. All land belongs to God. God evicted the Canaanite peoples from the Promised Land because of their wickedness. He brought Israel into that land because of his promises to the patriarchs and because he wants the earth to be under human stewards who are attuned to its Maker.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, this stewardship was facilitated through the allotment of a livable portion of land to each household. Strictly speaking, the allotment of the land, rather than the land itself, was the stewardship trust. The allotment passed down from fathers to sons as the main part of most family inheritances. Following these principles and God’s specific instruction, Joshua divided the land among the tribes, and the tribes divided it among their clans, families, and individual households. God’s gift of stewardship over a specific portion of land was essentially the gift of life to each household.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:31; 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:12-21; 17:7-8; 35:11-13; 50:24; Josh 13:1–21:45; Ps 37:9-34; Luke 12:22-34; 16:9-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","summary_en":"Inheriting the Land Is the material world evil? Are spirit, soul, and energy the pure good toward which we are striving on our earthly journey? Will we only be truly spiritual and truly happy when we are finally free from the prison of this earth-bound flesh? The Bible answers these and similar questions with an emphatic “No!” The universe, including this earth and all its bodily creatures, came from the skilled and expert hand of the loving Creator and was considered “very good” (Gen 1:31). ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":6674,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7448,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Conquest and Allotment of the Land","title_en":"Conquest and Allotment of the Land","content_ro":"<h3>CONQUEST AND ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND<\/h3>\n<p>Terms referring to Israel’s winning of the Promised Land and the distinctive way in which it was divided among the Israelite tribes.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conquest\">Conquest<\/p>\n<p>The conquest of Canaan by the Israelites is one of the most remarkable events of OT history: a loosely organized nomadic people successfully invaded a long-established culture secure in its protected urban centers. That achievement, according to the Scriptures, was the result of a promise God had made to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob that their descendants would possess the land (Gn 17:8; 26:4; 28:13; Ex 3:15-17). Dispossession of the pagan inhabitants was a divine judgment on false religion and its associated immorality (Dt 7:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who attempt to reconstruct the history of the Conquest face certain problems. Critical scholarship has run into conflict with statements in the Bible at three key points: chronology, rate of occupation, and the issue of Israel’s military annihilation of portions of the population of the Canaanite city-states.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Reference works and scholarly treatments of OT history often suggest a date for the exodus from Egypt in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> (1280 <span>BC<\/span> or later). Several biblical references to that event would seem to call for an earlier date. According to 1 Kings 6:1, construction of Solomon’s temple was begun in the fourth year of his reign, 480 years after the exodus. Since Solomon’s fourth year was about 960 <span>BC<\/span>, that would place the exodus at 1440 <span>BC<\/span>. In Judges 11:26-28, when Jephthah, eighth of the named judges, argued with the king of Ammon about Israelite possession of land east of the Jordan River, he indicated that Israel had occupied this territory 300 years. Saul’s accession to kingship about 1020 <span>BC<\/span> was still some decades off, so the later date proposed for the exodus does not allow sufficient time for the period of the judges. Further, the apostle Paul referred to a period of about 450 years from the exodus to Samuel’s day (Acts 13:20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JoshuasCampaigns\">Joshua’s Campaigns<\/p>\n<p>A picture of a concentrated period for the Israelite conquest of Canaan is given in the book of Joshua. Yet many scholars insist that an earlier gradual penetration occurred (by Hebrews who supposedly did not accompany Jacob into Egypt), plus an extended mopping-up procedure that continued down to the time of the monarchy. Although the biblical record allows for later acquisitions in some areas (e.g., Megiddo and Beth-shan), there is no valid reason for rejecting the description of the major Conquest given in Joshua 1–12.<\/p>\n<p>The Conquest began on the east side of the Jordan River under Moses. After Moses’ death, Joshua led Israel across the river, capturing first the fortified cities of Jericho and Ai. Those strategic victories provided access to the hill country and drove a wedge into the middle of Canaan. Two major campaigns followed—a southern and then a northern—which won for Israel in six years’ time the key cities of Canaan, defeating 31 kings and concluding the initial and principal stage of the Conquest.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 32 records the earlier assignment of territory east of the Jordan (Gilead and Bashan, acquired by the defeat of two kings, Sihon of the Amorites and Og of Bashan) to the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh. Though their land had already been acquired, the men of those tribes were obligated to cross the Jordan with the rest to participate in the military conquest of Canaan itself.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua 2–8 records the unusual events of the destruction of Jericho and Ai in the initial thrust westward. Those victories tended to demoralize the remaining cities of the land. Chapters 9 and 10 describe the southern campaign, including the Gibeonites’ procurement of a treaty by deception. Joshua 10, with its account of the remarkable rout of the enemy forces (vv 9-12) and miraculous prolonging of daylight, is the central passage about the southern campaign. In the subsequent battle, an alliance of five Amorite kings was crushed, the kings were killed, and the city-states of the area were destroyed, except for Jerusalem (later captured by David).<\/p>\n<p>In his northern campaign, Joshua confronted a more formidable alliance. Yet even Jabin, the powerful king of Hazor, largest of the Canaanite cities, supported by his local vassals, was no match for Israel’s armies. Joshua 11 describes that phase, then sums up the entire Conquest in verses 16-23 and on through chapter 12.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Allotment of the Land.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CONQUEST AND ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND<\/h3>\n<p>Terms referring to Israel’s winning of the Promised Land and the distinctive way in which it was divided among the Israelite tribes.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conquest\">Conquest<\/p>\n<p>The conquest of Canaan by the Israelites is one of the most remarkable events of OT history: a loosely organized nomadic people successfully invaded a long-established culture secure in its protected urban centers. That achievement, according to the Scriptures, was the result of a promise God had made to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob that their descendants would possess the land (Gn 17:8; 26:4; 28:13; Ex 3:15-17). Dispossession of the pagan inhabitants was a divine judgment on false religion and its associated immorality (Dt 7:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who attempt to reconstruct the history of the Conquest face certain problems. Critical scholarship has run into conflict with statements in the Bible at three key points: chronology, rate of occupation, and the issue of Israel’s military annihilation of portions of the population of the Canaanite city-states.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Reference works and scholarly treatments of OT history often suggest a date for the exodus from Egypt in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> (1280 <span>BC<\/span> or later). Several biblical references to that event would seem to call for an earlier date. According to 1 Kings 6:1, construction of Solomon’s temple was begun in the fourth year of his reign, 480 years after the exodus. Since Solomon’s fourth year was about 960 <span>BC<\/span>, that would place the exodus at 1440 <span>BC<\/span>. In Judges 11:26-28, when Jephthah, eighth of the named judges, argued with the king of Ammon about Israelite possession of land east of the Jordan River, he indicated that Israel had occupied this territory 300 years. Saul’s accession to kingship about 1020 <span>BC<\/span> was still some decades off, so the later date proposed for the exodus does not allow sufficient time for the period of the judges. Further, the apostle Paul referred to a period of about 450 years from the exodus to Samuel’s day (Acts 13:20).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JoshuasCampaigns\">Joshua’s Campaigns<\/p>\n<p>A picture of a concentrated period for the Israelite conquest of Canaan is given in the book of Joshua. Yet many scholars insist that an earlier gradual penetration occurred (by Hebrews who supposedly did not accompany Jacob into Egypt), plus an extended mopping-up procedure that continued down to the time of the monarchy. Although the biblical record allows for later acquisitions in some areas (e.g., Megiddo and Beth-shan), there is no valid reason for rejecting the description of the major Conquest given in Joshua 1–12.<\/p>\n<p>The Conquest began on the east side of the Jordan River under Moses. After Moses’ death, Joshua led Israel across the river, capturing first the fortified cities of Jericho and Ai. Those strategic victories provided access to the hill country and drove a wedge into the middle of Canaan. Two major campaigns followed—a southern and then a northern—which won for Israel in six years’ time the key cities of Canaan, defeating 31 kings and concluding the initial and principal stage of the Conquest.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 32 records the earlier assignment of territory east of the Jordan (Gilead and Bashan, acquired by the defeat of two kings, Sihon of the Amorites and Og of Bashan) to the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh. Though their land had already been acquired, the men of those tribes were obligated to cross the Jordan with the rest to participate in the military conquest of Canaan itself.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua 2–8 records the unusual events of the destruction of Jericho and Ai in the initial thrust westward. Those victories tended to demoralize the remaining cities of the land. Chapters 9 and 10 describe the southern campaign, including the Gibeonites’ procurement of a treaty by deception. Joshua 10, with its account of the remarkable rout of the enemy forces (vv 9-12) and miraculous prolonging of daylight, is the central passage about the southern campaign. In the subsequent battle, an alliance of five Amorite kings was crushed, the kings were killed, and the city-states of the area were destroyed, except for Jerusalem (later captured by David).<\/p>\n<p>In his northern campaign, Joshua confronted a more formidable alliance. Yet even Jabin, the powerful king of Hazor, largest of the Canaanite cities, supported by his local vassals, was no match for Israel’s armies. Joshua 11 describes that phase, then sums up the entire Conquest in verses 16-23 and on through chapter 12.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Allotment of the Land.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CONQUEST AND ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND Terms referring to Israel’s winning of the Promised Land and the distinctive way in which it was divided among the Israelite tribes. Conquest The conquest of Canaan by the Israelites is one of the most remarkable events of OT history: a loosely organized nomadic people successfully invaded a long-established culture secure in its protected urban centers. That achievement, according to the Scriptures, was the result of a promise God had made to Abraham, Isaac...","summary_en":"CONQUEST AND ALLOTMENT OF THE LAND Terms referring to Israel’s winning of the Promised Land and the distinctive way in which it was divided among the Israelite tribes. Conquest The conquest of Canaan by the Israelites is one of the most remarkable events of OT history: a loosely organized nomadic people successfully invaded a long-established culture secure in its protected urban centers. That achievement, according to the Scriptures, was the result of a promise God had made to Abraham, Isaac...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18045,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Israelite","title_en":"Israelite","content_ro":"<h3>ISRAELITE<\/h3>\n<p>Descendant of the 12 sons of Israel (the name God gave to Jacob, Gn 32:28). As the sons of Abraham, they are distinguished from the Ishmaelites (descended from Abraham by Hagar his concubine), and as sons of Isaac, from the Edomites (descendants of Esau), by having Jacob as their ancestor. They lived in Egypt from the time of Joseph until the exodus, when God led them into Canaan to fulfill his promise to Abraham (17:8).<\/p>\n<p>God led the Israelites out of Egypt, through the wilderness, and into the land of Canaan that he had promised them. They were ruled by judges, kings, and conquerors from other countries. In 722 <span>BC<\/span> the northern kingdom was conquered by Assyria and became incorporated into that empire. After this time, “Israel” refers to members of the southern tribes, Judah and Benjamin. An “Israelite” was one who, religiously as well as politically, belonged to the remnant of the covenant nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Jew; Judaism.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISRAELITE<\/h3>\n<p>Descendant of the 12 sons of Israel (the name God gave to Jacob, Gn 32:28). As the sons of Abraham, they are distinguished from the Ishmaelites (descended from Abraham by Hagar his concubine), and as sons of Isaac, from the Edomites (descendants of Esau), by having Jacob as their ancestor. They lived in Egypt from the time of Joseph until the exodus, when God led them into Canaan to fulfill his promise to Abraham (17:8).<\/p>\n<p>God led the Israelites out of Egypt, through the wilderness, and into the land of Canaan that he had promised them. They were ruled by judges, kings, and conquerors from other countries. In 722 <span>BC<\/span> the northern kingdom was conquered by Assyria and became incorporated into that empire. After this time, “Israel” refers to members of the southern tribes, Judah and Benjamin. An “Israelite” was one who, religiously as well as politically, belonged to the remnant of the covenant nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Jew; Judaism.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISRAELITE Descendant of the 12 sons of Israel (the name God gave to Jacob, Gn 32:28). As the sons of Abraham, they are distinguished from the Ishmaelites (descended from Abraham by Hagar his concubine), and as sons of Isaac, from the Edomites (descendants of Esau), by having Jacob as their ancestor. They lived in Egypt from the time of Joseph until the exodus, when God led them into Canaan to fulfill his promise to Abraham (17:8). God led the Israelites out of Egypt, through the wilderness, a...","summary_en":"ISRAELITE Descendant of the 12 sons of Israel (the name God gave to Jacob, Gn 32:28). As the sons of Abraham, they are distinguished from the Ishmaelites (descended from Abraham by Hagar his concubine), and as sons of Isaac, from the Edomites (descendants of Esau), by having Jacob as their ancestor. They lived in Egypt from the time of Joseph until the exodus, when God led them into Canaan to fulfill his promise to Abraham (17:8). God led the Israelites out of Egypt, through the wilderness, a...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22504,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Land","title_en":"Land","content_ro":"<h3>LAND<\/h3>\n<p>The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were driven from the Garden of Eden, and the earth became cursed. They were forced to toil and sweat in order to subdue the earth and provide for their own subsistence because the harvest was choked by thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p>After murdering his brother, Cain receives an individual intensification of the land curse as punishment. He is told that the earth will not yield its produce for him even with hard labor, forcing him to wander from one place to another. With no permanent homeland, Cain is denied the enjoyment of rest and prosperity. Because of sin, the important human aspiration for a sense of place is refused to Cain (Gn 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>After the Flood, which was God’s judgment on an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again provoked God’s wrath; the construction of the Tower of Babel exalts human might apart from God. God intervenes to confuse the people’s language and “scatter them abroad upon the face of the earth” (11:9). Genesis 1–11 is thus characterized by a sequence of narratives describing land loss with its attendant deprivations as a consequence of sin and rebellion against God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheAbrahamicCovenant\">Land and the Abrahamic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Abraham, God intervened in human affairs to provide a special homeland for a select group of people who are set apart unto himself. It is here that the Promised Land theme is introduced in Scripture. God said to Abraham, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you. I will cause you to become the father of a great nation” (Gn 12:1-2, <span>nlt<\/span>). This promise to Abraham is enlarged upon in Genesis 12:7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8. Abraham is told that the land of Canaan is to be the “everlasting possession” of his descendants (17:8).<\/p>\n<p>The OT narrative then traces Abraham’s line of descent through Isaac and Jacob, and tells of the migration of Jacob’s family to Egypt, where during approximately four centuries they became a great and numerous people. During this period, the promise of possession of the land of Canaan is reiterated (Gn 28:15; 35:11-12; 46:3-4; 50:24) and held before Abraham’s descendants as an integral feature of God’s covenantal promises.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheMosaicCovenant\">Land and the Mosaic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>When God called Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt, he associated Moses’ task with the fulfillment of the promises to the patriarchs: “I have remembered my covenant with them. . . . I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. . . . I will bring you into the land I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It will be your very own property” (Ex 6:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Israel is to be delivered from Egypt for two reasons: first, in order to be established as God’s covenant people at Mt Sinai, and second, in order to possess the land promised to their fathers. It is of utmost significance, however, that with the establishment of the Mosaic covenant the continued possession of the land is made dependent on obedience. Should Israel violate the covenantal obligations, it will bring upon itself the covenant curses, the most severe of which is banishment from the Promised Land (Lv 26:32-33). This does not mean that God will abandon his people and the land totally or forever, because God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lv 26:42, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>During the reign of King David, the promise of land received at least a provisional fulfillment. Although it is true that initial fulfillment occurred when Joshua entered the land, at that time the territory did not extend to the borders promised Abraham (Gn 15:18) and much of the land that was occupied still contained pockets of resistance by the former inhabitants (Jos 13:1-6; Jgs 1). It was not until the time of David that the land was fully possessed as originally promised (2 Sm 8; 1 Kgs 4:21, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The responsibility of the king to observe the law, and the connection between covenantal obedience and possession of the land is again made clear when Solomon dedicates the temple (1 Kgs 9:4-9). Disobedience will bring not only expulsion from the land but also the destruction of the temple.<\/p>\n<p>The subsequent history of the divided-kingdom era is for the most part a history of covenant abrogation, by the people as well as the kings. The Lord sent repeated warnings through the prophets that such disobedience could only lead to expulsion from the land. But their message fell on deaf ears (Is 6:11-12; Am 5:27; 7:17; Hos 9:17). The kings repeatedly proved themselves to be unworthy of the office.<\/p>\n<p>As the people persisted in their evil way, Jeremiah announced that Nebuchadnezzar was to be the Lord’s agent to drive them from the land (Jer 21:2; 22:25; 25:8-9; 27:6; 28:14; 29:21). However, Jeremiah and other prophets also looked beyond the exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:6-25). Historically, this was accomplished under the rule of Cyrus the Great of Persia (538 <span>BC<\/span>) and is described in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>A difficulty of interpretation arises in finding an adequate fulfillment of certain prophecies of the return (cf. Ez 37; Am 9:14-15), which envision great prosperity and permanent possession of the land under the rule of a Davidic king. The intertestamental period does not seem to be a suitable fulfillment for these predictions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheNewCovenant\">Land and the New Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the land theme is much less prominent and seems mostly to be given a spiritual symbolism. The writer of Hebrews suggests that Abraham understood the land promise as something that pointed beyond a merely geographical fulfillment to a higher and far more satisfying heavenly home. Realizing the imperfection and transitory nature of all that this world offers, Abraham looked beyond the temporal fulfillment of the land promise for a city whose builder and maker is God (Heb 11:10), and he sought a “better country, that is, a heavenly one” (v 16). In the NT it appears that Israel’s land promise and entrance into Canaan is to be understood as typifying something of the future heavenly rest awaiting God’s people (Heb 3–4). Perhaps this explains the OT stress on the connection between Israel’s living in obedience to God’s law and their possession of the land. When the Israelites do not typify a condition of holiness, they disqualify themselves from typifying a condition of blessedness, and thus are either denied access to or driven from the land. The NT indicates that it is God’s purpose to prepare an eternal homeland for his people where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rv 21).<\/p>\n<p>The OT land promises have been viewed by some as having only typical significance. In the light of Christ’s incarnation any statement of Scripture concerning a future for the land is to be interpreted as fulfilled in a spiritual sense in the church. The church is now the new Israel and heir of the OT promises. Because God’s kingdom is now a spiritual reality, it is considered a misunderstanding of the OT to expect yet future fulfillments of the OT prophecies of Israel’s return to the land and an establishment of a period of peace and prosperity under the rule of Christ, the Son of David (cf. Is 2:1-5; 11:6-11; Ez 37; Am 9:14-15). To abide in Christ is considered an adequate fulfillment of the physical and geographical promises of the OT economy.<\/p>\n<p>Others, while not denying typical significance for these OT realities, would suggest that the land promises are still operative in the physical and geographical categories in which they were given. It is pointed out that Paul argues in Romans 9–11 that there is yet a future for national Israel. In spite of Israel’s history of disobedience, climaxing in the rejection of the Messiah, the election and calling of God is irrevocable, and Israel is yet to be reingrafted in the olive tree from which it had previously been cut off. Luke says that Jerusalem will be trodden down by the Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled (Lk 21:24), indicating that there is to be a future time when Jerusalem will again be possessed by the Jewish nation. This does not necessarily mean that one must view the present state of Israel as the direct fulfillment of the OT promises of return to the land. The OT indicates that the return will be occasioned by belief (Dt 30:1-16). The present return is in unbelief. At the same time, the remarkable preservation of the Jewish people over the centuries and the recent reestablishment of the nation are perhaps to be understood as anticipations or signs of a future and more complete realization of the OT land promises.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAND<\/h3>\n<p>The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were driven from the Garden of Eden, and the earth became cursed. They were forced to toil and sweat in order to subdue the earth and provide for their own subsistence because the harvest was choked by thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p>After murdering his brother, Cain receives an individual intensification of the land curse as punishment. He is told that the earth will not yield its produce for him even with hard labor, forcing him to wander from one place to another. With no permanent homeland, Cain is denied the enjoyment of rest and prosperity. Because of sin, the important human aspiration for a sense of place is refused to Cain (Gn 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>After the Flood, which was God’s judgment on an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again provoked God’s wrath; the construction of the Tower of Babel exalts human might apart from God. God intervenes to confuse the people’s language and “scatter them abroad upon the face of the earth” (11:9). Genesis 1–11 is thus characterized by a sequence of narratives describing land loss with its attendant deprivations as a consequence of sin and rebellion against God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheAbrahamicCovenant\">Land and the Abrahamic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Abraham, God intervened in human affairs to provide a special homeland for a select group of people who are set apart unto himself. It is here that the Promised Land theme is introduced in Scripture. God said to Abraham, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you. I will cause you to become the father of a great nation” (Gn 12:1-2, <span>nlt<\/span>). This promise to Abraham is enlarged upon in Genesis 12:7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8. Abraham is told that the land of Canaan is to be the “everlasting possession” of his descendants (17:8).<\/p>\n<p>The OT narrative then traces Abraham’s line of descent through Isaac and Jacob, and tells of the migration of Jacob’s family to Egypt, where during approximately four centuries they became a great and numerous people. During this period, the promise of possession of the land of Canaan is reiterated (Gn 28:15; 35:11-12; 46:3-4; 50:24) and held before Abraham’s descendants as an integral feature of God’s covenantal promises.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheMosaicCovenant\">Land and the Mosaic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>When God called Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt, he associated Moses’ task with the fulfillment of the promises to the patriarchs: “I have remembered my covenant with them. . . . I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. . . . I will bring you into the land I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It will be your very own property” (Ex 6:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Israel is to be delivered from Egypt for two reasons: first, in order to be established as God’s covenant people at Mt Sinai, and second, in order to possess the land promised to their fathers. It is of utmost significance, however, that with the establishment of the Mosaic covenant the continued possession of the land is made dependent on obedience. Should Israel violate the covenantal obligations, it will bring upon itself the covenant curses, the most severe of which is banishment from the Promised Land (Lv 26:32-33). This does not mean that God will abandon his people and the land totally or forever, because God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lv 26:42, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>During the reign of King David, the promise of land received at least a provisional fulfillment. Although it is true that initial fulfillment occurred when Joshua entered the land, at that time the territory did not extend to the borders promised Abraham (Gn 15:18) and much of the land that was occupied still contained pockets of resistance by the former inhabitants (Jos 13:1-6; Jgs 1). It was not until the time of David that the land was fully possessed as originally promised (2 Sm 8; 1 Kgs 4:21, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The responsibility of the king to observe the law, and the connection between covenantal obedience and possession of the land is again made clear when Solomon dedicates the temple (1 Kgs 9:4-9). Disobedience will bring not only expulsion from the land but also the destruction of the temple.<\/p>\n<p>The subsequent history of the divided-kingdom era is for the most part a history of covenant abrogation, by the people as well as the kings. The Lord sent repeated warnings through the prophets that such disobedience could only lead to expulsion from the land. But their message fell on deaf ears (Is 6:11-12; Am 5:27; 7:17; Hos 9:17). The kings repeatedly proved themselves to be unworthy of the office.<\/p>\n<p>As the people persisted in their evil way, Jeremiah announced that Nebuchadnezzar was to be the Lord’s agent to drive them from the land (Jer 21:2; 22:25; 25:8-9; 27:6; 28:14; 29:21). However, Jeremiah and other prophets also looked beyond the exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:6-25). Historically, this was accomplished under the rule of Cyrus the Great of Persia (538 <span>BC<\/span>) and is described in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>A difficulty of interpretation arises in finding an adequate fulfillment of certain prophecies of the return (cf. Ez 37; Am 9:14-15), which envision great prosperity and permanent possession of the land under the rule of a Davidic king. The intertestamental period does not seem to be a suitable fulfillment for these predictions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheNewCovenant\">Land and the New Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the land theme is much less prominent and seems mostly to be given a spiritual symbolism. The writer of Hebrews suggests that Abraham understood the land promise as something that pointed beyond a merely geographical fulfillment to a higher and far more satisfying heavenly home. Realizing the imperfection and transitory nature of all that this world offers, Abraham looked beyond the temporal fulfillment of the land promise for a city whose builder and maker is God (Heb 11:10), and he sought a “better country, that is, a heavenly one” (v 16). In the NT it appears that Israel’s land promise and entrance into Canaan is to be understood as typifying something of the future heavenly rest awaiting God’s people (Heb 3–4). Perhaps this explains the OT stress on the connection between Israel’s living in obedience to God’s law and their possession of the land. When the Israelites do not typify a condition of holiness, they disqualify themselves from typifying a condition of blessedness, and thus are either denied access to or driven from the land. The NT indicates that it is God’s purpose to prepare an eternal homeland for his people where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rv 21).<\/p>\n<p>The OT land promises have been viewed by some as having only typical significance. In the light of Christ’s incarnation any statement of Scripture concerning a future for the land is to be interpreted as fulfilled in a spiritual sense in the church. The church is now the new Israel and heir of the OT promises. Because God’s kingdom is now a spiritual reality, it is considered a misunderstanding of the OT to expect yet future fulfillments of the OT prophecies of Israel’s return to the land and an establishment of a period of peace and prosperity under the rule of Christ, the Son of David (cf. Is 2:1-5; 11:6-11; Ez 37; Am 9:14-15). To abide in Christ is considered an adequate fulfillment of the physical and geographical promises of the OT economy.<\/p>\n<p>Others, while not denying typical significance for these OT realities, would suggest that the land promises are still operative in the physical and geographical categories in which they were given. It is pointed out that Paul argues in Romans 9–11 that there is yet a future for national Israel. In spite of Israel’s history of disobedience, climaxing in the rejection of the Messiah, the election and calling of God is irrevocable, and Israel is yet to be reingrafted in the olive tree from which it had previously been cut off. Luke says that Jerusalem will be trodden down by the Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled (Lk 21:24), indicating that there is to be a future time when Jerusalem will again be possessed by the Jewish nation. This does not necessarily mean that one must view the present state of Israel as the direct fulfillment of the OT promises of return to the land. The OT indicates that the return will be occasioned by belief (Dt 30:1-16). The present return is in unbelief. At the same time, the remarkable preservation of the Jewish people over the centuries and the recent reestablishment of the nation are perhaps to be understood as anticipations or signs of a future and more complete realization of the OT land promises.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAND The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were dr...","summary_en":"LAND The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were dr...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28761,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Palestine*","title_en":"Palestine*","content_ro":"<h3>PALESTINE*<\/h3>\n<p>Country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, also known as Canaan and Israel. Palestine was situated at the west end of the Fertile Crescent—that arching stretch of highly productive land that ran from the Persian Gulf through Mesopotamia and Syria to Egypt. Palestine lay in a unique position, for it constituted a land bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt, the two primary cultural centers of the ancient Near East. It also served as a connection between the continents of Asia and Africa and as a continental link between Africa and Europe. Trade moved by well-defined routes as goods were brought into the Fertile Crescent from as far as northern Europe, India, and south of Egypt. The same roads were followed by prospective conquerors as they moved their armies from area to area in quest of power and wealth.<\/p>\n<p>It was the land promised by God to Abraham and his descendants, the homeland of God’s chosen people, and the geographical scene for much of biblical history. It has become a land sacred to three great world religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Physically, Palestine is a kind of microcosm. In a stretch of 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) one can find almost every kind of climate and terrain known on the earth. It has fertile plains, sandy deserts, rocky wastes, forests, mountains, lakes, and rivers. With such a variety in so small an area, the land provides sharp contrasts. In the north, Mt Hermon stands perpetually snowcapped at an altitude of about 9,100 feet (2,773.7 meters), while a scant 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) distant in the subtropical depression of the Jordan Valley is the Dead Sea, representing the deepest spot on the earth.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Territory<\/p>\n<p>• Climate<\/p>\n<p>• Geography<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>This land has been known by many names over its long history. The country seems to have been named after the maritime region, perhaps because this was the area that most foreigners contacted. So the land was called Canaan and later named after Philistia. In the table of nations, Canaan is said to have extended from Sidon in the north toward Gerar as far as Gaza and east toward the Cities of the Plain (Gn 10:19). The name Canaan appears in the Bible; the first occurrence of the name as that of a country or region is in Genesis 11:31.<\/p>\n<p>After the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the country was known as the land of Israel (1 Sm 13:19; 1 Chr 22:2). With the division of the kingdom in the reign of Rehoboam (930 <span>BC<\/span>), the name Israel went with the northern kingdom, and the southern kingdom was known as Judah (later, Judea).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Territory\">Territory<\/p>\n<p>The earliest reference to the extent of Palestine appears in the promise of the land to Abraham and to his descendants (Gn 15:18-21). Here the borders are given as the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) in the southwest to the Euphrates River in the northeast. It is further defined in terms of the peoples who occupied it at that time, 10 in all, including the Kenites, the Kenizzites, the Kadmonites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Rephaim, the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Girgashites, and the Jebusites. In Genesis 17:8 the land is called simply “all the land of Canaan.”<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave more detailed directions to Moses concerning the borders of the land that Israel was to occupy (Nm 34:1-12). The southern boundary was to be from the River of Egypt to the south of Kadesh-barnea and along the wilderness of Zin to the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. The western boundary was the Mediterranean, the northern border was set at the entrance to Hamath, and the eastern limit was the Jordan River and the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p>The greatest extent of the Promised Land is seen in the Lord’s declaration to Moses that he would set the bounds of Israel from the Red Sea to the Sea of the Philistines (Mediterranean) and from the wilderness to the Euphrates River (Ex 23:31). Historically, during the period of the judges and the reign of Saul, Israel did not conquer the land that had been given to the tribes in the division under Joshua. The military strength of David and the diplomacy of Solomon enabled them to achieve a marked expansion of Israelite rule. David defeated Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and thus pushed his northern frontier to the Euphrates River; he defeated Syria, Ammon, Moab, Edom, and Amalek, enlarging the kingdom also to the east and south (2 Sm 8:1-14; 1 Chr 18:1-13). Solomon had a fleet of merchant ships stationed at Ezion-geber on the Gulf of Aqaba. He also engaged in copper mining in that area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Climate\">Climate<\/p>\n<p>It has been said that the climate of Palestine is more varied than that of any other area of comparable size in the world. Generally, the climate may be described as temperate; at Jerusalem, for example, the temperature extremes range from 26°F (-3.3°C) to 107°F (41.6°C), and the average annual rainfall is about 20 inches (50.8 centimeters). The coastal plain is warmer and has been compared to the east coast of Florida. The average annual temperature at Jaffa (Joppa) is 67° F (19.4°C). The Jordan Valley in the area of the Dead Sea is subtropical; in summer its temperatures may reach 120°F (48.8°C).<\/p>\n<p>Rainfall is seasonal, with rain coming in the cooler months of the year as the prevailing west wind brings moisture over the comparatively colder land area, much like the “lake effect” snows of the Great Lakes region of the United States. The rainy season extends from October to April. Within this time the Israelites singled out two periods (Jer 5:24; Jl 2:23), the former rain and the latter rain, with the former rain occurring in the months of October and November and the latter rain falling in March and April. The coastal area receives about 28 inches (71.1 centimeters) of rain annually, while the average for the country in general is 22 to 24 inches (55.9–70 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>For purposes of description, the land of Palestine may be conveniently divided into five longitudinal sections:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Maritime or Coastal Plain<\/p>\n<li>2. The Shephelah<\/li>\n<li>3. The Western Plateau or Hill Country<\/li>\n<li>4. The Arabah or Jordan Valley<\/li>\n<li>5. The Eastern Plateau or Transjordan<\/li>\n<p>These divisions are based essentially on differences in elevation, but other geographic elements also serve to mark their limits or otherwise distinguish them.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Maritime or Coastal Plain<\/h5>\n<p>The Maritime or Coastal Plain may be divided into three separate plains from south to north: the plain of Philistia, the plain of Sharon, and the plain of Acre.<\/p>\n<p>1. The plain of Philistia begins with the Wadi el-Arish, or River of Egypt, and extends north to the Nahr el-Auja, about five miles (8 kilometers) north of Joppa. This plain is about 70 miles (112.6 kilometers) long and reaches its greatest width in the latitude of Gaza, where it measures about 30 miles (48.3 kilometers). Along the Mediterranean there were dunes of sand, but for the most part, this area was very fertile and admirably suited for the production of grain.<\/p>\n<li>2. The plain of Sharon is not sharply demarcated from the Philistine plain and was probably under Philistine control, but the OT recognizes it as a separate entity (cf. Sg 2:1; Is 65:10). The plain extends north to Mt Carmel. On the coast are the town of Dor, which is mentioned in “The Tale of Wenamon,” and the city of Caesarea, where Herod the Great did much building.<\/li>\n<li>3. Beyond the promontory of Carmel lies a bay on which was situated the city named Ptolemais (Acts 21:7), also known as Acre or Acco (Jgs 1:31). Here a narrow plain stretches some 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) to the Ladder of Tyre (Ras en-Nakurah). The Kishon River (Jgs 4:7, 13; 1 Kgs 18:40) flows through this plain to the sea.<\/li>\n<h5>The Shephelah<\/h5>\n<p>The Shephelah constitutes a kind of “midlands,” intermediate between the lowlands of the coastal plain and the highlands of the Western Plateau, with an elevation of about 500 to 1,000 feet (152.4– 304.8 meters) and a width of only a few miles. It extends from the valley of Aijalon to Beersheba.<\/p>\n<p>The valleys of the Shephelah produced grain crops, while the hills were well suited for grapes and olives. The region was very important strategically, because it afforded approaches to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>The Western Plateau or Hill Country<\/h5>\n<p>The Western Plateau or Hill Country ranges from 1,000 to 4,000 feet (304.8–609.6 meters) in elevation and covers some 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) from Lebanon to Beersheba. It may also be divided into three areas: Galilee, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>1. Galilee may be regarded as two parts, Upper Galilee (2,000–4,000 feet, or 609.6–1,219.2 meters) and Lower Galilee (below 2,000 feet, or 609.6 meters). The area was agricultural and pastoral, like much of Palestine, and was open to invasion. The highways that traversed Galilee made it a cosmopolitan district, so that Isaiah 9:1 calls it “Galilee of the nations.”<\/p>\n<li>2. Samaria was also suitable for crops and pasture. The brothers of Joseph were grazing their flocks in the plain of Dothan when Joseph visited them and became the victim of their conspiracy (Gn 37:17).<\/li>\n<li>3. Judea has an elevation of about 2,000 to 3,500 feet (609.6–1,066.8 meters) and reaches some 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) from Bethel to Beersheba. The city of Jerusalem stands at an elevation of 2,654 feet (808.9 meters), surrounded by mountains and valleys that served as part of its defense system (Ps 125:2). This was the heart of the nation, for from the time of David onward, the capital was here, and more important, the ark of the covenant had been brought here during David’s reign. As the Lord had long foretold, Jerusalem had become the center of his worship; here Solomon built the temple, one of the greatest structures ever made.<\/li>\n<h5>The Arabah or Jordan Valley<\/h5>\n<p>The Arabah or Jordan Valley presents the extremes of height and depth. Mt Hermon rises to 9,166 feet (2,793.8 meters), while the surface of the Dead Sea lies 1,275 feet (395 meters) below sea level, and at its deepest part the sea plunges another 1,300 feet (396.2 meters).<\/p>\n<p>1. The North Arabah or Upper Jordan Valley. The Jordan River has four sources, all near Mt Hermon. The Jordan flows through what was Lake Huleh, now partly drained and designated as a wildlife refuge. Two miles (3.2 kilometers) below the Huleh basin is the Bridge of Jacob’s Daughters, by which the old road to Damascus crossed the river. The Jordan then flows into a gorge some 1,200 feet (365.8 meters) deep.<\/p>\n<li>2. The Sea of Galilee, about 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) from Huleh, has an elevation of -685 feet (-208.8 meters). It measures 15 by 8 miles (24.1 by 12.9 kilometers), with a maximum depth of 750 feet (228.6 meters). The shape of the lake gave it the OT name, Chinnereth, meaning “harp” (Nm 34:11; Jos 13:27). In the NT it was also called the Lake of Gennesaret (Lk 5:1) and the Sea of Tiberias (Jn 6:1; 21:1).<\/li>\n<li>3. The Middle Arabah, or Ghor. The name Jordan means “descender”; in the 60 miles or 96.5 kilometers (in a straight line) from the outlet of the Sea of Galilee to the northern end of the Dead Sea there is a fall of more than 600 feet (182.9 meters), or 10 feet per mile. The river flows in a series of S-curves or zigzags, so that its actual course between Galilee and the Dead Sea covers some 200 miles (321.8 kilometers).<\/li>\n<p>This stretch of the Jordan Valley is known as the Ghor, or Rift. Six miles (9.7 kilometers) below the Sea of Galilee the Yarmuk River enters from the east. Some smaller streams empty into the Jordan, but the next river of consequence is the Jabbok (Gn 32:22). Just south of the Sea of Galilee the Ghor is about four miles (6.4 kilometers) wide; near Beth-shan it reaches seven miles (11.3 kilometers) wide; beyond that for some 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the mountains close in on the river on both sides, narrowing the valley to two to three miles (3.2 to 4.8 kilometers); near Jericho it broadens to about 12 miles (19.3 kilometers).<\/p>\n<li>4. The Dead Sea is unique. Its surface is the deepest point on the face of the earth and its waters are of tremendous wealth. In the OT it is known as the Salt Sea (Gn 14:3; Nm 34:12; Jos 12:3) and the Sea of Arabah (Jos 12:3). Josephus calls it Lake Asphaltitis.<\/li>\n<p>This body of water is 46 miles (74 kilometers) long, 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) wide, and 1,300 feet (396.2 meters) deep and consists of about 25 percent mineral matter, making it a chemical deposit of great value. In addition to the flow of the Jordan, the Dead Sea receives the water of other streams, such as the Arnon River on the east. Much of the runoff of the seasonal rains also finds its way into the Salt Sea. Temperatures in the valley may reach 120° F (48.8° C) in summer; with the extreme humidity the climate is very debilitating and almost unbearable. It is estimated that the daily evaporation from the sea is 6 to 8 million tons (5.4–7.3 million metric tons).<\/p>\n<li>5. The Southern Arabah, mostly a barren wilderness, extends from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba, a distance of 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). There is a gradual ascent from the Dead Sea to a watershed just west of Petra. Near the tip of the Gulf of Aqaba were the ports of Elath (modern Eilat) and Ezion-geber.<\/li>\n<h5>The Eastern Plateau or Transjordan<\/h5>\n<p>The Eastern Plateau, or Transjordan, was not named as part of the land of promise, but it was taken by the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh. The region is better supplied with water than the Western Plateau and has perennial streams, such as the Yarmuk, Jabbok, and Arnon. A principal north-south road was the King’s Highway, followed by the Israelites during the exodus (Nm 21:22) and probably also the route taken by the invading kings of Genesis 14.<\/p>\n<p>The northern section of Transjordan was known as Bashan, noted for its cattle (Ps 22:12; Ez 39:18) and for its oak trees (Is 2:13; Zec 11:2).<\/p>\n<p>Gilead, famed for its balm (Gn 37:25; Jer 8:22), was often mentioned in the OT (e.g., Dt 3:10-16; Jgs 11). It extended from the Yarmuk River to the city of Heshbon. This area was heavily forested in David’s time (cf. 2 Sm 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine proper there were two important divisions: the plain of Esdraelon and the Negev. The plain of Esdraelon, often associated prophetically with Armageddon, lies between Galilee and Samaria. This is one of the most fertile areas of Palestine and also was the scene of numerous battles. The plain was guarded by fortress cities on its southern side (Megiddo, Ibleam, and Taanach). In the OT the valley of Jezreel was not regarded as a part of Esdraelon but as the valley between the hill of Moreh and Mt Gilboa. At the eastern end was the stronghold of Beth-shan.<\/p>\n<p>In the extreme south of the land is the wilderness area called the Negev, or South Country. This begins in the region of Beersheba and extends roughly to Kadesh-barnea. A district of infrequent and irregular rainfall, its agriculture is restricted, although a nomadic pastoral life has been widely practiced there. <em>See<\/em> Arabah; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Dead Sea; Decapolis; Sea of Galilee; Jordan River; Negev; Shephelah; Transjordan.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PALESTINE*<\/h3>\n<p>Country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, also known as Canaan and Israel. Palestine was situated at the west end of the Fertile Crescent—that arching stretch of highly productive land that ran from the Persian Gulf through Mesopotamia and Syria to Egypt. Palestine lay in a unique position, for it constituted a land bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt, the two primary cultural centers of the ancient Near East. It also served as a connection between the continents of Asia and Africa and as a continental link between Africa and Europe. Trade moved by well-defined routes as goods were brought into the Fertile Crescent from as far as northern Europe, India, and south of Egypt. The same roads were followed by prospective conquerors as they moved their armies from area to area in quest of power and wealth.<\/p>\n<p>It was the land promised by God to Abraham and his descendants, the homeland of God’s chosen people, and the geographical scene for much of biblical history. It has become a land sacred to three great world religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Physically, Palestine is a kind of microcosm. In a stretch of 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) one can find almost every kind of climate and terrain known on the earth. It has fertile plains, sandy deserts, rocky wastes, forests, mountains, lakes, and rivers. With such a variety in so small an area, the land provides sharp contrasts. In the north, Mt Hermon stands perpetually snowcapped at an altitude of about 9,100 feet (2,773.7 meters), while a scant 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) distant in the subtropical depression of the Jordan Valley is the Dead Sea, representing the deepest spot on the earth.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Territory<\/p>\n<p>• Climate<\/p>\n<p>• Geography<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>This land has been known by many names over its long history. The country seems to have been named after the maritime region, perhaps because this was the area that most foreigners contacted. So the land was called Canaan and later named after Philistia. In the table of nations, Canaan is said to have extended from Sidon in the north toward Gerar as far as Gaza and east toward the Cities of the Plain (Gn 10:19). The name Canaan appears in the Bible; the first occurrence of the name as that of a country or region is in Genesis 11:31.<\/p>\n<p>After the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the country was known as the land of Israel (1 Sm 13:19; 1 Chr 22:2). With the division of the kingdom in the reign of Rehoboam (930 <span>BC<\/span>), the name Israel went with the northern kingdom, and the southern kingdom was known as Judah (later, Judea).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Territory\">Territory<\/p>\n<p>The earliest reference to the extent of Palestine appears in the promise of the land to Abraham and to his descendants (Gn 15:18-21). Here the borders are given as the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) in the southwest to the Euphrates River in the northeast. It is further defined in terms of the peoples who occupied it at that time, 10 in all, including the Kenites, the Kenizzites, the Kadmonites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Rephaim, the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Girgashites, and the Jebusites. In Genesis 17:8 the land is called simply “all the land of Canaan.”<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave more detailed directions to Moses concerning the borders of the land that Israel was to occupy (Nm 34:1-12). The southern boundary was to be from the River of Egypt to the south of Kadesh-barnea and along the wilderness of Zin to the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. The western boundary was the Mediterranean, the northern border was set at the entrance to Hamath, and the eastern limit was the Jordan River and the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p>The greatest extent of the Promised Land is seen in the Lord’s declaration to Moses that he would set the bounds of Israel from the Red Sea to the Sea of the Philistines (Mediterranean) and from the wilderness to the Euphrates River (Ex 23:31). Historically, during the period of the judges and the reign of Saul, Israel did not conquer the land that had been given to the tribes in the division under Joshua. The military strength of David and the diplomacy of Solomon enabled them to achieve a marked expansion of Israelite rule. David defeated Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and thus pushed his northern frontier to the Euphrates River; he defeated Syria, Ammon, Moab, Edom, and Amalek, enlarging the kingdom also to the east and south (2 Sm 8:1-14; 1 Chr 18:1-13). Solomon had a fleet of merchant ships stationed at Ezion-geber on the Gulf of Aqaba. He also engaged in copper mining in that area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Climate\">Climate<\/p>\n<p>It has been said that the climate of Palestine is more varied than that of any other area of comparable size in the world. Generally, the climate may be described as temperate; at Jerusalem, for example, the temperature extremes range from 26°F (-3.3°C) to 107°F (41.6°C), and the average annual rainfall is about 20 inches (50.8 centimeters). The coastal plain is warmer and has been compared to the east coast of Florida. The average annual temperature at Jaffa (Joppa) is 67° F (19.4°C). The Jordan Valley in the area of the Dead Sea is subtropical; in summer its temperatures may reach 120°F (48.8°C).<\/p>\n<p>Rainfall is seasonal, with rain coming in the cooler months of the year as the prevailing west wind brings moisture over the comparatively colder land area, much like the “lake effect” snows of the Great Lakes region of the United States. The rainy season extends from October to April. Within this time the Israelites singled out two periods (Jer 5:24; Jl 2:23), the former rain and the latter rain, with the former rain occurring in the months of October and November and the latter rain falling in March and April. The coastal area receives about 28 inches (71.1 centimeters) of rain annually, while the average for the country in general is 22 to 24 inches (55.9–70 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>For purposes of description, the land of Palestine may be conveniently divided into five longitudinal sections:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Maritime or Coastal Plain<\/p>\n<li>2. The Shephelah<\/li>\n<li>3. The Western Plateau or Hill Country<\/li>\n<li>4. The Arabah or Jordan Valley<\/li>\n<li>5. The Eastern Plateau or Transjordan<\/li>\n<p>These divisions are based essentially on differences in elevation, but other geographic elements also serve to mark their limits or otherwise distinguish them.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Maritime or Coastal Plain<\/h5>\n<p>The Maritime or Coastal Plain may be divided into three separate plains from south to north: the plain of Philistia, the plain of Sharon, and the plain of Acre.<\/p>\n<p>1. The plain of Philistia begins with the Wadi el-Arish, or River of Egypt, and extends north to the Nahr el-Auja, about five miles (8 kilometers) north of Joppa. This plain is about 70 miles (112.6 kilometers) long and reaches its greatest width in the latitude of Gaza, where it measures about 30 miles (48.3 kilometers). Along the Mediterranean there were dunes of sand, but for the most part, this area was very fertile and admirably suited for the production of grain.<\/p>\n<li>2. The plain of Sharon is not sharply demarcated from the Philistine plain and was probably under Philistine control, but the OT recognizes it as a separate entity (cf. Sg 2:1; Is 65:10). The plain extends north to Mt Carmel. On the coast are the town of Dor, which is mentioned in “The Tale of Wenamon,” and the city of Caesarea, where Herod the Great did much building.<\/li>\n<li>3. Beyond the promontory of Carmel lies a bay on which was situated the city named Ptolemais (Acts 21:7), also known as Acre or Acco (Jgs 1:31). Here a narrow plain stretches some 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) to the Ladder of Tyre (Ras en-Nakurah). The Kishon River (Jgs 4:7, 13; 1 Kgs 18:40) flows through this plain to the sea.<\/li>\n<h5>The Shephelah<\/h5>\n<p>The Shephelah constitutes a kind of “midlands,” intermediate between the lowlands of the coastal plain and the highlands of the Western Plateau, with an elevation of about 500 to 1,000 feet (152.4– 304.8 meters) and a width of only a few miles. It extends from the valley of Aijalon to Beersheba.<\/p>\n<p>The valleys of the Shephelah produced grain crops, while the hills were well suited for grapes and olives. The region was very important strategically, because it afforded approaches to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>The Western Plateau or Hill Country<\/h5>\n<p>The Western Plateau or Hill Country ranges from 1,000 to 4,000 feet (304.8–609.6 meters) in elevation and covers some 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) from Lebanon to Beersheba. It may also be divided into three areas: Galilee, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>1. Galilee may be regarded as two parts, Upper Galilee (2,000–4,000 feet, or 609.6–1,219.2 meters) and Lower Galilee (below 2,000 feet, or 609.6 meters). The area was agricultural and pastoral, like much of Palestine, and was open to invasion. The highways that traversed Galilee made it a cosmopolitan district, so that Isaiah 9:1 calls it “Galilee of the nations.”<\/p>\n<li>2. Samaria was also suitable for crops and pasture. The brothers of Joseph were grazing their flocks in the plain of Dothan when Joseph visited them and became the victim of their conspiracy (Gn 37:17).<\/li>\n<li>3. Judea has an elevation of about 2,000 to 3,500 feet (609.6–1,066.8 meters) and reaches some 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) from Bethel to Beersheba. The city of Jerusalem stands at an elevation of 2,654 feet (808.9 meters), surrounded by mountains and valleys that served as part of its defense system (Ps 125:2). This was the heart of the nation, for from the time of David onward, the capital was here, and more important, the ark of the covenant had been brought here during David’s reign. As the Lord had long foretold, Jerusalem had become the center of his worship; here Solomon built the temple, one of the greatest structures ever made.<\/li>\n<h5>The Arabah or Jordan Valley<\/h5>\n<p>The Arabah or Jordan Valley presents the extremes of height and depth. Mt Hermon rises to 9,166 feet (2,793.8 meters), while the surface of the Dead Sea lies 1,275 feet (395 meters) below sea level, and at its deepest part the sea plunges another 1,300 feet (396.2 meters).<\/p>\n<p>1. The North Arabah or Upper Jordan Valley. The Jordan River has four sources, all near Mt Hermon. The Jordan flows through what was Lake Huleh, now partly drained and designated as a wildlife refuge. Two miles (3.2 kilometers) below the Huleh basin is the Bridge of Jacob’s Daughters, by which the old road to Damascus crossed the river. The Jordan then flows into a gorge some 1,200 feet (365.8 meters) deep.<\/p>\n<li>2. The Sea of Galilee, about 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) from Huleh, has an elevation of -685 feet (-208.8 meters). It measures 15 by 8 miles (24.1 by 12.9 kilometers), with a maximum depth of 750 feet (228.6 meters). The shape of the lake gave it the OT name, Chinnereth, meaning “harp” (Nm 34:11; Jos 13:27). In the NT it was also called the Lake of Gennesaret (Lk 5:1) and the Sea of Tiberias (Jn 6:1; 21:1).<\/li>\n<li>3. The Middle Arabah, or Ghor. The name Jordan means “descender”; in the 60 miles or 96.5 kilometers (in a straight line) from the outlet of the Sea of Galilee to the northern end of the Dead Sea there is a fall of more than 600 feet (182.9 meters), or 10 feet per mile. The river flows in a series of S-curves or zigzags, so that its actual course between Galilee and the Dead Sea covers some 200 miles (321.8 kilometers).<\/li>\n<p>This stretch of the Jordan Valley is known as the Ghor, or Rift. Six miles (9.7 kilometers) below the Sea of Galilee the Yarmuk River enters from the east. Some smaller streams empty into the Jordan, but the next river of consequence is the Jabbok (Gn 32:22). Just south of the Sea of Galilee the Ghor is about four miles (6.4 kilometers) wide; near Beth-shan it reaches seven miles (11.3 kilometers) wide; beyond that for some 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the mountains close in on the river on both sides, narrowing the valley to two to three miles (3.2 to 4.8 kilometers); near Jericho it broadens to about 12 miles (19.3 kilometers).<\/p>\n<li>4. The Dead Sea is unique. Its surface is the deepest point on the face of the earth and its waters are of tremendous wealth. In the OT it is known as the Salt Sea (Gn 14:3; Nm 34:12; Jos 12:3) and the Sea of Arabah (Jos 12:3). Josephus calls it Lake Asphaltitis.<\/li>\n<p>This body of water is 46 miles (74 kilometers) long, 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) wide, and 1,300 feet (396.2 meters) deep and consists of about 25 percent mineral matter, making it a chemical deposit of great value. In addition to the flow of the Jordan, the Dead Sea receives the water of other streams, such as the Arnon River on the east. Much of the runoff of the seasonal rains also finds its way into the Salt Sea. Temperatures in the valley may reach 120° F (48.8° C) in summer; with the extreme humidity the climate is very debilitating and almost unbearable. It is estimated that the daily evaporation from the sea is 6 to 8 million tons (5.4–7.3 million metric tons).<\/p>\n<li>5. The Southern Arabah, mostly a barren wilderness, extends from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba, a distance of 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). There is a gradual ascent from the Dead Sea to a watershed just west of Petra. Near the tip of the Gulf of Aqaba were the ports of Elath (modern Eilat) and Ezion-geber.<\/li>\n<h5>The Eastern Plateau or Transjordan<\/h5>\n<p>The Eastern Plateau, or Transjordan, was not named as part of the land of promise, but it was taken by the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh. The region is better supplied with water than the Western Plateau and has perennial streams, such as the Yarmuk, Jabbok, and Arnon. A principal north-south road was the King’s Highway, followed by the Israelites during the exodus (Nm 21:22) and probably also the route taken by the invading kings of Genesis 14.<\/p>\n<p>The northern section of Transjordan was known as Bashan, noted for its cattle (Ps 22:12; Ez 39:18) and for its oak trees (Is 2:13; Zec 11:2).<\/p>\n<p>Gilead, famed for its balm (Gn 37:25; Jer 8:22), was often mentioned in the OT (e.g., Dt 3:10-16; Jgs 11). It extended from the Yarmuk River to the city of Heshbon. This area was heavily forested in David’s time (cf. 2 Sm 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine proper there were two important divisions: the plain of Esdraelon and the Negev. The plain of Esdraelon, often associated prophetically with Armageddon, lies between Galilee and Samaria. This is one of the most fertile areas of Palestine and also was the scene of numerous battles. The plain was guarded by fortress cities on its southern side (Megiddo, Ibleam, and Taanach). In the OT the valley of Jezreel was not regarded as a part of Esdraelon but as the valley between the hill of Moreh and Mt Gilboa. At the eastern end was the stronghold of Beth-shan.<\/p>\n<p>In the extreme south of the land is the wilderness area called the Negev, or South Country. This begins in the region of Beersheba and extends roughly to Kadesh-barnea. A district of infrequent and irregular rainfall, its agriculture is restricted, although a nomadic pastoral life has been widely practiced there. <em>See<\/em> Arabah; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Dead Sea; Decapolis; Sea of Galilee; Jordan River; Negev; Shephelah; Transjordan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PALESTINE* Country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, also known as Canaan and Israel. Palestine was situated at the west end of the Fertile Crescent—that arching stretch of highly productive land that ran from the Persian Gulf through Mesopotamia and Syria to Egypt. Palestine lay in a unique position, for it constituted a land bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt, the two primary cultural centers of the ancient Near East. It also served as a connection between the continents of A...","summary_en":"PALESTINE* Country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, also known as Canaan and Israel. Palestine was situated at the west end of the Fertile Crescent—that arching stretch of highly productive land that ran from the Persian Gulf through Mesopotamia and Syria to Egypt. Palestine lay in a unique position, for it constituted a land bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt, the two primary cultural centers of the ancient Near East. It also served as a connection between the continents of A...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":40548,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40800,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68174,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68426,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95800,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96052,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123426,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123678,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":281,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>ABRAHAM<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut separation from pagan roots. The new name, interpreted by the biblical text as meaning “father of a multitude,” was also a statement of God’s promise to Abraham that he would have many descendants, as well as a significant test of his faith in God—since he was 99 years old at the time and his childless wife was 90 (Gn 11:30; 17:1-4, 17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AbrahamsLife\">Abraham’s Life<\/p>\n<p>The story of Abram begins in Genesis 11, where his family relationships are recorded (Gn 11:26-32). Terah, Abram’s father, was named after the moon deity worshiped at Ur. Terah had three sons, Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Haran, the father of Lot, died before the family left Ur. Terah took Lot, Abram, and Abram’s wife, Sarai, from Ur to go to Canaan but settled at the city of Haran (v 31). It is stated in Acts 7:2-4 that Abraham heard the call of God to leave for a new land while he was still in Ur.<\/p>\n<p>A note of major importance to the course of Abram’s life is found in Genesis 11:30: “Sarai was not able to have any children” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The problem of Sarai’s barrenness provided the basis for great crises of faith, promise, and fulfillment in the lives of Abram and Sarai.<\/p>\n\n<p>After Terah’s death, God told Abram, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you.” This command was the basis of a “covenant,” in which God promised to make Abram the founder of a new nation in that new land (Gn 12:1-3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Abram, trusting God’s promise, left Haran at the age of 74. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, an important Canaanite royal city between Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal. Near the oak of Moreh, a Canaanite shrine, God appeared to him (12:7). Abram built an altar at Shechem, then moved to the vicinity of Bethel and again built an altar to the Lord (12:8). The expression “to call on the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>rsv<\/span>) means more than just to pray. Rather, Abram made a proclamation, declaring the reality of God to the Canaanites in their centers of false worship. Later Abram moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, where again he built an altar to worship God. Another blessing given in a vision (15:1) led Abram to exclaim that he was still childless and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). Discovery of the Nuzi documents has helped to clarify that otherwise obscure statement. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of station and substance would adopt an heir. Often a slave, the heir would be responsible for the burial and mourning of his adoptive parents. If a son should be born after the adoption of a slave-heir, the natural son would of course supplant him. Thus God’s response to Abram’s question is directly to the point: “No, your servant will not be your heir, for you will have a son of your own to inherit everything I am giving you” (Gn 15:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). God then made a covenant with Abram insuring an heir, a nation, and the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abram was 86 years old when Ishmael was born. When Abram was 99, the Lord appeared to the aged patriarch and again reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and blessing (Gn 17). Circumcision was added as the seal of covenantal relationship (17:9-14), and at that point the names Abram and Sarai were changed to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham’s response to the promise of another son was to laugh: “Then Abraham bowed down to the ground, but he laughed to himself in disbelief. ‘How could I become a father at the age of one hundred?’ he wondered. ‘Besides, Sarah is ninety; how could she have a baby?’ ” (Gn 17:17, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 18 and 19 recount the total destruction of two cities of the Jordan plain, Sodom and Gomorrah. Chapter 18 begins with three individuals seeking comfort in the heat of the day. Abraham offered refreshment and a meal to his guests. They turned out to be no ordinary travelers, however, but the Angel of the Lord along with two other angels (18:1-2; 19:1). There is reason to believe that the Angel of the Lord was God himself (18:17, 33). Another announcement of a promised son made Sarah laugh in unbelief and then deny having laughed (18:12-15).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 21 to 23 form the climax of the story of Abraham. At long last, when Abraham was 100 years old and his wife 90, “the <span>Lord<\/span> did exactly what he had promised” (Gn 21:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). The joy of the aged couple on the birth of their long-promised son could not be contained. Both Abraham and Sarah had laughed in unbelief in the days of promise; now they laughed in joy as God had “the last laugh.” The baby, born at the time God promised, was named Isaac (“he laughs!”). Sarah said, “God has brought me laughter! All who hear about this will laugh with me” (Gn 21:6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The laughter over Isaac’s birth subsided entirely in the test of Abraham’s faith described in chapter 22, God’s command to sacrifice Isaac. Only when one has experienced vicariously with Abraham the long 25 years of God’s promise of a son can one imagine the trauma of such a supreme test. Just as the knife was about to fall, and only then, did the angel of God break the silence of heaven with the call, “Abraham!” (22:11). The name of promise, “father of a multitude,” took on its most significant meaning when Abraham’s son was spared and the test was explained: “I know that you truly fear God. You have not withheld even your beloved son from me” (Gn 22:12, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Those words were coupled with a promise implicit in the discovery of a ram caught in the thicket. The Lord provided an alternative sacrifice, a substitute. The place was named “the Lord will provide.” Christian believers generally see the whole episode as looking ahead to God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Patriarchs, Period of the; Israel, History of; “Abraham’s Bosom”; Sarah #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ABRAHAM<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut separation from pagan roots. The new name, interpreted by the biblical text as meaning “father of a multitude,” was also a statement of God’s promise to Abraham that he would have many descendants, as well as a significant test of his faith in God—since he was 99 years old at the time and his childless wife was 90 (Gn 11:30; 17:1-4, 17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AbrahamsLife\">Abraham’s Life<\/p>\n<p>The story of Abram begins in Genesis 11, where his family relationships are recorded (Gn 11:26-32). Terah, Abram’s father, was named after the moon deity worshiped at Ur. Terah had three sons, Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Haran, the father of Lot, died before the family left Ur. Terah took Lot, Abram, and Abram’s wife, Sarai, from Ur to go to Canaan but settled at the city of Haran (v 31). It is stated in Acts 7:2-4 that Abraham heard the call of God to leave for a new land while he was still in Ur.<\/p>\n<p>A note of major importance to the course of Abram’s life is found in Genesis 11:30: “Sarai was not able to have any children” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The problem of Sarai’s barrenness provided the basis for great crises of faith, promise, and fulfillment in the lives of Abram and Sarai.<\/p>\n\n<p>After Terah’s death, God told Abram, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you.” This command was the basis of a “covenant,” in which God promised to make Abram the founder of a new nation in that new land (Gn 12:1-3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Abram, trusting God’s promise, left Haran at the age of 74. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, an important Canaanite royal city between Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal. Near the oak of Moreh, a Canaanite shrine, God appeared to him (12:7). Abram built an altar at Shechem, then moved to the vicinity of Bethel and again built an altar to the Lord (12:8). The expression “to call on the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>rsv<\/span>) means more than just to pray. Rather, Abram made a proclamation, declaring the reality of God to the Canaanites in their centers of false worship. Later Abram moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, where again he built an altar to worship God. Another blessing given in a vision (15:1) led Abram to exclaim that he was still childless and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). Discovery of the Nuzi documents has helped to clarify that otherwise obscure statement. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of station and substance would adopt an heir. Often a slave, the heir would be responsible for the burial and mourning of his adoptive parents. If a son should be born after the adoption of a slave-heir, the natural son would of course supplant him. Thus God’s response to Abram’s question is directly to the point: “No, your servant will not be your heir, for you will have a son of your own to inherit everything I am giving you” (Gn 15:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). God then made a covenant with Abram insuring an heir, a nation, and the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abram was 86 years old when Ishmael was born. When Abram was 99, the Lord appeared to the aged patriarch and again reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and blessing (Gn 17). Circumcision was added as the seal of covenantal relationship (17:9-14), and at that point the names Abram and Sarai were changed to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham’s response to the promise of another son was to laugh: “Then Abraham bowed down to the ground, but he laughed to himself in disbelief. ‘How could I become a father at the age of one hundred?’ he wondered. ‘Besides, Sarah is ninety; how could she have a baby?’ ” (Gn 17:17, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 18 and 19 recount the total destruction of two cities of the Jordan plain, Sodom and Gomorrah. Chapter 18 begins with three individuals seeking comfort in the heat of the day. Abraham offered refreshment and a meal to his guests. They turned out to be no ordinary travelers, however, but the Angel of the Lord along with two other angels (18:1-2; 19:1). There is reason to believe that the Angel of the Lord was God himself (18:17, 33). Another announcement of a promised son made Sarah laugh in unbelief and then deny having laughed (18:12-15).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 21 to 23 form the climax of the story of Abraham. At long last, when Abraham was 100 years old and his wife 90, “the <span>Lord<\/span> did exactly what he had promised” (Gn 21:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). The joy of the aged couple on the birth of their long-promised son could not be contained. Both Abraham and Sarah had laughed in unbelief in the days of promise; now they laughed in joy as God had “the last laugh.” The baby, born at the time God promised, was named Isaac (“he laughs!”). Sarah said, “God has brought me laughter! All who hear about this will laugh with me” (Gn 21:6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The laughter over Isaac’s birth subsided entirely in the test of Abraham’s faith described in chapter 22, God’s command to sacrifice Isaac. Only when one has experienced vicariously with Abraham the long 25 years of God’s promise of a son can one imagine the trauma of such a supreme test. Just as the knife was about to fall, and only then, did the angel of God break the silence of heaven with the call, “Abraham!” (22:11). The name of promise, “father of a multitude,” took on its most significant meaning when Abraham’s son was spared and the test was explained: “I know that you truly fear God. You have not withheld even your beloved son from me” (Gn 22:12, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Those words were coupled with a promise implicit in the discovery of a ram caught in the thicket. The Lord provided an alternative sacrifice, a substitute. The place was named “the Lord will provide.” Christian believers generally see the whole episode as looking ahead to God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Patriarchs, Period of the; Israel, History of; “Abraham’s Bosom”; Sarah #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ABRAHAM One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people. Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut s...","summary_en":"ABRAHAM One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people. Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut s...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6659,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17931,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","summary_en":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21738,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"King","title_en":"King","content_ro":"<h3>KING<\/h3>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, or Persia). Other words may also refer to royalty. The Philistines introduced the title <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seren<\/span> (lord) into Hebrew vocabulary. The five Philistine cities were ruled by five lords. Another word for an Israelite king is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> (ruler). Both Saul and David were anointed as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> over Israel (1 Sm 10:1; 16:13). In the NT and the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> has a meaning similar to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span><em>.<\/em> The NT <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> refers to secular rulers living in the first century, kings of Israel, rulers of the past, and the divine King, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “King of kings,” attributed to Jesus (1 Tm 6:15), is a Hebrew expression meaning supreme or greatest king. For example, in Ezekiel’s prediction of the fall of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar is named the “king of kings” (Ez 26:7). The great rulers of Assyria and Babylon introduced this title. Before their time, rulers were called either “king” or “great king,” as in 2 Kings 18:28: “Hear the word of the great king, the king of Assyria” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Later rulers had their titles adjusted to keep up with the expanse of their empires.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KingshipinIsrael\">Kingship in Israel<\/p>\n<p>God chose Abraham as the father of nations; through him and his descendants the messianic rule would be established on earth. In his promises to Abraham, God repeatedly assured him that he would become the father of a mighty nation, to whom God would give the land of Canaan, and that kings would arise from his descendants (Gn 17:6). Abraham showed his acceptance of the rule of God over his family by obeying God’s command to be circumcised, which set the clan of Abraham apart for the service of God (vv 10-14). The ultimate purpose of God’s relation with Abraham and his descendants was that God would be King over Israel and that his people would show their acceptance of his rule by their faithful obedience to him (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of the covenant was God’s expectation of loyalty to his rule. Abraham and his descendants were to exercise their God-given “rule” over the nations by living in fellowship with the great King. Thus the Lord reestablished his dominion over mankind. Through Abraham and his descendants, he would raise up a “royal nation” to whom the full privileges of rule over his creation would be restored.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also made a covenant with Israel. This covenant was a sovereign administration of grace and promise by which the Lord consecrated the people unto himself by the sanctions of divine law and by his very presence. The nation, witnessing God’s care for them, had to learn that by their obedience to God’s expectations the theocratic kingdom might become a reality on earth. In the Sinaitic covenant the theocracy (the rule of God) was established. Israel was entrusted with the commandments, so that they might show themselves to be a theocratic nation, as God revealed to Moses: “Now if you will obey me and keep my covenant, you will be my own special treasure from among all the nations of the earth; for all the earth belongs to me. And you will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>). They were God’s elect for the sake of the nations; through Israel’s priestly obedience and intercession, the whole earth might know the Creator-Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p>The qualities of God’s kingship were power, glory, fidelity, wisdom, concern, service, delegation of power to man, blessing and protection, just rule, judgment, vindication, and deliverance. Israel’s kingship was to be no different from God’s. Their varied and sometimes complex laws taught Israel to distinguish between what was holy and common, clean and unclean, the ways of God and the ways of the nations. The ways of God enhanced love, fidelity, justice, peace, harmony, service, concern for others, wise living, defense of the needy, and judgment of the guilty. The ways of the kingdoms of the world all too often promoted selfishness, anarchy, despotism, and disregard for justice.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also instituted an organizational structure designed to promote his theocratic purposes. In the wilderness Moses and the chosen leaders of Israel (Ex 18:19-26; Nm 11:24-25; cf. Dt 1:15-18) were God’s instruments for upholding his kingship in Israel. Upon Moses’ death, Joshua took over the theocratic rule. The Lord was with him as he had been with Moses, and all Israel recognized the continuity of God’s rule in Joshua’s leadership (Dt 34:9; Jos 3:7; 4:14). Like Moses had before his death, Joshua charged the leadership and Israel to persevere in the gracious covenant relationship (Jos 23–24). However, Israel perished because of its greed, immorality, strife, and idolatry. During the period of the judges, each one did what was right in his own eyes (Jgs 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). There was no king in the land in those days. The judges were military leaders whom the Lord raised up to deliver his people from their foreign oppressors. But God remained King, regardless of the fact that Israel lived as if he were not. The period of the judges demonstrated that apostate Israel, disobedient to their King, was unsuccessful in dealing with the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<p>The theocratic leadership was restored to Israel by the ministry of Samuel. He was born into a Levitical family and served the Lord at the Shiloh tabernacle. He was called to be a prophet—an office which had not been filled since Moses’ death (1 Sm 3:20-21). He was recognized as a judge in Israel (7:15). In Samuel the offices of priest, prophet, and king were combined. He is never called king, as his lifestyle was that of a prophet rather than that of a ruler. The carefully calculated request of the people for a king was a rejection of Samuel’s ministry. The people were not satisfied with the spiritual, charismatic leadership of Samuel. In their search for a more dynamic leader they found in the kings of the surrounding nations attractive elements: power, manifestation of glory, and stability. Thus far the tribes had experienced several civil wars that endangered the unity of Israel. It was thought that a king would remedy all of the social and political problems. Though God had foreseen the days of the monarchy in the law (Dt 17:14-20), the people were motivated to introduce the kingship for secular rather than religious reasons: “Give us a king like all the other nations have” (1 Sm 8:5); “We want to be like the nations around us. Our king will govern us and lead us into battle” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Samuel never accepted the idea of kingship; it was foreign to the theocratic ideal.<\/p>\n<p>The crucial difference between kingship in Israel and kingship in neighboring lands lay in the fact that God endowed the king of Israel with his Spirit to establish his rule on earth. God ruled for his people, and his people benefited was from his rule; he was their provider, protector, and divine warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was instrumental in anointing Saul (a sad example of kingship) and David (a good example of kingly rule under God). Saul’s kingship revealed a despotic, uncaring attitude and self-aggrandizement. He was intent on establishing his dynasty, while not caring sufficiently for the people of God. Therefore, the Lord rejected his kingship (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingship, in contrast to Saul’s, was in line with God’s because it reflected the glory of Yahweh’s kingship. David’s life and rule are taken up in the two books of Samuel as a commentary on the pros and cons of kingship. Positively, David was a man after God’s heart, who sought the will of God, repented of his sin, and sought the glory of God. Negatively, David failed in his personal and family life to uphold the high standards of God’s law. Yet God was pleased to choose David’s dynasty as the lineage through which Jesus Christ would come. The prophet Nathan assured David that his dynasty would last: “Your dynasty and your kingdom will continue for all time before me, and your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sm 7:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). But God did not promise that it would be immune from prosecution or banishment.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding qualities of the kingship of David and his son Solomon reflect the true theocratic intention: concern for the Lord, for a heart of wisdom and integrity, and for the well-being of God’s people. Concern for the Lord found expression in the preparation for and actual building of the temple (cf. Ps 132). Concern for integrity and wisdom is clearly evident, especially in David’s response to Nathan’s rebuke (2 Sm 12) and in Solomon’s request to have a heart of wisdom (1 Kgs 3). Concern for the people comes to expression in their securing the borders against enemies, achieving national unification, and bringing opportunity for economic growth. The era of David and Solomon represented a true reflection of God’s kingship on earth.<\/p>\n<p>The accounts in Kings and Chronicles unfold the subsequent history of kingship in Israel and Judah. The good kings followed the examples provided by David and Solomon in securing Jerusalem against foreign invaders, in supplying for the needs of the temple, in having God’s people instructed in the word of God, and in modeling their rule after the law of Moses. A good Davidic king loved the Lord, the temple, the law, and God’s people. He served them as a good shepherd. Evil kings were those who rejected this model of kingship in favor of the pagan models. So Omri and Ahab introduced the Phoenician culture with its Baalism, utterly disregarding the heritage of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The Davidic king was treated as a member of God’s household, being a “son” of the great King (cf. 2 Sm 7:14-16; Ps 2:6-7). The Davidic king was to be loyal to the great King, Yahweh. He, like Moses and Joshua, received his orders directly from the Lord; but unlike with Moses, the word of the Lord was mediated through the prophets. He, like Moses and Joshua, was expected to serve his God and his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessiah-King\">The Messiah-King<\/p>\n<p>The descendants of David failed to maintain and expand the theocracy. By the eighth and seventh centuries <span>BC<\/span>, it was apparent that even the greatest kings were dwarfed by the stature of David and Solomon. The prophets (Is 9:2-7; 11:1-9; Jer 33:14-16; Ez 34:22-31; Mi 5:2-5) spoke of another king, the Messiah, a descendant of David who would rule permanently and by whose rule the reign of God would extend to the ends of the earth. He would put down all opposition to God’s rule, remove all enemies, and bring in an era of universal peace and righteousness. The Messiah-King would reveal the perfections of divine rule, as the Spirit of God would be upon him. His kingship would be marked by service to the people of God, so that they would be a well-cared-for flock; he would serve them as their shepherd.<\/p>\n<p>In the coming of Jesus the messianic kingdom is more clearly revealed. He is the King of whom the angels said, “The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born tonight in Bethlehem, the city of David!” (Lk 2:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). These magnificent words show continuity with the prophetic word. Jesus is the Savior, whose role includes deliverance from sin but also deliverance from all causes of adversity, evil, and the effects of the curse. His mission pertains to both forgiveness and to the establishment of peace on earth (1:77-79). In this light we must look at Jesus’ ministry of healing, feeding, opposing the forces of evil, suffering, and teaching as the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth. He is the King who serves, fights against the demonic powers, and overcomes. The resurrection marks his victory, and he is crowned with glory by being seated at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33-36; cf. 1 Cor 15:25). In being the Savior he is none other than Christ the Lord. The early apostolic preaching proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah of God and the Lord. The lordship of Jesus is corollary to his being the Messiah. To those who call on him, he is the Savior-Messiah-Lord (Rom 10:9-15), but to those who reject him, he is the divine warrior, before whom all knees will bow and who will bring in the era of the Father’s judgment (cf. Rv 1:12-16; 19:11-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught his disciples that at his coming in glory he would be seated on his throne and all mankind would pay him obeisance. The enemies of God will be cast out from his presence, and the people of God will fully inherit the kingdom (Mt 25:31-46). In accordance with Jesus’ teaching, the members of his body, the church, are expected to work out the theocratic ideal in their lives, that by their works and faith they may glorify the Father and show that they are his (Jn 17:20-26; cf. Mt 25:33-40). This is the biblical manner of witness that Israel failed to give and that the church is privileged to give; as Paul wrote to Timothy:<\/p>\n<p>I command you before God, who gives life to all, and before Christ Jesus, . . . that you obey his commands with all purity. Then no one can find fault with you from now until our Lord Jesus Christ returns. For at the right time Christ will be revealed from heaven by the blessed and only almighty God, the King of kings and Lord of lords. He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No one has ever seen him, nor ever will. To him be honor and power forever. Amen. (1 Tm 6:13-16, <span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul gives several instructions as to how the people of God must demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus. Throughout the book of Revelation, Jesus is viewed as King over the church (Rv 4:2, 9-11; 5:1, 9-13). At his return his kingship will be established. At this time, the enemies of the cross will see the one whom they have rejected and will bow before the messianic King (1 Cor 15:25-28). “After that the end will come, when he [Jesus] will turn the Kingdom over to God the Father, having put down all enemies of every kind” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KING<\/h3>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, or Persia). Other words may also refer to royalty. The Philistines introduced the title <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seren<\/span> (lord) into Hebrew vocabulary. The five Philistine cities were ruled by five lords. Another word for an Israelite king is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> (ruler). Both Saul and David were anointed as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> over Israel (1 Sm 10:1; 16:13). In the NT and the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> has a meaning similar to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span><em>.<\/em> The NT <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> refers to secular rulers living in the first century, kings of Israel, rulers of the past, and the divine King, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “King of kings,” attributed to Jesus (1 Tm 6:15), is a Hebrew expression meaning supreme or greatest king. For example, in Ezekiel’s prediction of the fall of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar is named the “king of kings” (Ez 26:7). The great rulers of Assyria and Babylon introduced this title. Before their time, rulers were called either “king” or “great king,” as in 2 Kings 18:28: “Hear the word of the great king, the king of Assyria” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Later rulers had their titles adjusted to keep up with the expanse of their empires.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KingshipinIsrael\">Kingship in Israel<\/p>\n<p>God chose Abraham as the father of nations; through him and his descendants the messianic rule would be established on earth. In his promises to Abraham, God repeatedly assured him that he would become the father of a mighty nation, to whom God would give the land of Canaan, and that kings would arise from his descendants (Gn 17:6). Abraham showed his acceptance of the rule of God over his family by obeying God’s command to be circumcised, which set the clan of Abraham apart for the service of God (vv 10-14). The ultimate purpose of God’s relation with Abraham and his descendants was that God would be King over Israel and that his people would show their acceptance of his rule by their faithful obedience to him (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of the covenant was God’s expectation of loyalty to his rule. Abraham and his descendants were to exercise their God-given “rule” over the nations by living in fellowship with the great King. Thus the Lord reestablished his dominion over mankind. Through Abraham and his descendants, he would raise up a “royal nation” to whom the full privileges of rule over his creation would be restored.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also made a covenant with Israel. This covenant was a sovereign administration of grace and promise by which the Lord consecrated the people unto himself by the sanctions of divine law and by his very presence. The nation, witnessing God’s care for them, had to learn that by their obedience to God’s expectations the theocratic kingdom might become a reality on earth. In the Sinaitic covenant the theocracy (the rule of God) was established. Israel was entrusted with the commandments, so that they might show themselves to be a theocratic nation, as God revealed to Moses: “Now if you will obey me and keep my covenant, you will be my own special treasure from among all the nations of the earth; for all the earth belongs to me. And you will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>). They were God’s elect for the sake of the nations; through Israel’s priestly obedience and intercession, the whole earth might know the Creator-Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p>The qualities of God’s kingship were power, glory, fidelity, wisdom, concern, service, delegation of power to man, blessing and protection, just rule, judgment, vindication, and deliverance. Israel’s kingship was to be no different from God’s. Their varied and sometimes complex laws taught Israel to distinguish between what was holy and common, clean and unclean, the ways of God and the ways of the nations. The ways of God enhanced love, fidelity, justice, peace, harmony, service, concern for others, wise living, defense of the needy, and judgment of the guilty. The ways of the kingdoms of the world all too often promoted selfishness, anarchy, despotism, and disregard for justice.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also instituted an organizational structure designed to promote his theocratic purposes. In the wilderness Moses and the chosen leaders of Israel (Ex 18:19-26; Nm 11:24-25; cf. Dt 1:15-18) were God’s instruments for upholding his kingship in Israel. Upon Moses’ death, Joshua took over the theocratic rule. The Lord was with him as he had been with Moses, and all Israel recognized the continuity of God’s rule in Joshua’s leadership (Dt 34:9; Jos 3:7; 4:14). Like Moses had before his death, Joshua charged the leadership and Israel to persevere in the gracious covenant relationship (Jos 23–24). However, Israel perished because of its greed, immorality, strife, and idolatry. During the period of the judges, each one did what was right in his own eyes (Jgs 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). There was no king in the land in those days. The judges were military leaders whom the Lord raised up to deliver his people from their foreign oppressors. But God remained King, regardless of the fact that Israel lived as if he were not. The period of the judges demonstrated that apostate Israel, disobedient to their King, was unsuccessful in dealing with the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<p>The theocratic leadership was restored to Israel by the ministry of Samuel. He was born into a Levitical family and served the Lord at the Shiloh tabernacle. He was called to be a prophet—an office which had not been filled since Moses’ death (1 Sm 3:20-21). He was recognized as a judge in Israel (7:15). In Samuel the offices of priest, prophet, and king were combined. He is never called king, as his lifestyle was that of a prophet rather than that of a ruler. The carefully calculated request of the people for a king was a rejection of Samuel’s ministry. The people were not satisfied with the spiritual, charismatic leadership of Samuel. In their search for a more dynamic leader they found in the kings of the surrounding nations attractive elements: power, manifestation of glory, and stability. Thus far the tribes had experienced several civil wars that endangered the unity of Israel. It was thought that a king would remedy all of the social and political problems. Though God had foreseen the days of the monarchy in the law (Dt 17:14-20), the people were motivated to introduce the kingship for secular rather than religious reasons: “Give us a king like all the other nations have” (1 Sm 8:5); “We want to be like the nations around us. Our king will govern us and lead us into battle” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Samuel never accepted the idea of kingship; it was foreign to the theocratic ideal.<\/p>\n<p>The crucial difference between kingship in Israel and kingship in neighboring lands lay in the fact that God endowed the king of Israel with his Spirit to establish his rule on earth. God ruled for his people, and his people benefited was from his rule; he was their provider, protector, and divine warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was instrumental in anointing Saul (a sad example of kingship) and David (a good example of kingly rule under God). Saul’s kingship revealed a despotic, uncaring attitude and self-aggrandizement. He was intent on establishing his dynasty, while not caring sufficiently for the people of God. Therefore, the Lord rejected his kingship (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingship, in contrast to Saul’s, was in line with God’s because it reflected the glory of Yahweh’s kingship. David’s life and rule are taken up in the two books of Samuel as a commentary on the pros and cons of kingship. Positively, David was a man after God’s heart, who sought the will of God, repented of his sin, and sought the glory of God. Negatively, David failed in his personal and family life to uphold the high standards of God’s law. Yet God was pleased to choose David’s dynasty as the lineage through which Jesus Christ would come. The prophet Nathan assured David that his dynasty would last: “Your dynasty and your kingdom will continue for all time before me, and your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sm 7:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). But God did not promise that it would be immune from prosecution or banishment.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding qualities of the kingship of David and his son Solomon reflect the true theocratic intention: concern for the Lord, for a heart of wisdom and integrity, and for the well-being of God’s people. Concern for the Lord found expression in the preparation for and actual building of the temple (cf. Ps 132). Concern for integrity and wisdom is clearly evident, especially in David’s response to Nathan’s rebuke (2 Sm 12) and in Solomon’s request to have a heart of wisdom (1 Kgs 3). Concern for the people comes to expression in their securing the borders against enemies, achieving national unification, and bringing opportunity for economic growth. The era of David and Solomon represented a true reflection of God’s kingship on earth.<\/p>\n<p>The accounts in Kings and Chronicles unfold the subsequent history of kingship in Israel and Judah. The good kings followed the examples provided by David and Solomon in securing Jerusalem against foreign invaders, in supplying for the needs of the temple, in having God’s people instructed in the word of God, and in modeling their rule after the law of Moses. A good Davidic king loved the Lord, the temple, the law, and God’s people. He served them as a good shepherd. Evil kings were those who rejected this model of kingship in favor of the pagan models. So Omri and Ahab introduced the Phoenician culture with its Baalism, utterly disregarding the heritage of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The Davidic king was treated as a member of God’s household, being a “son” of the great King (cf. 2 Sm 7:14-16; Ps 2:6-7). The Davidic king was to be loyal to the great King, Yahweh. He, like Moses and Joshua, received his orders directly from the Lord; but unlike with Moses, the word of the Lord was mediated through the prophets. He, like Moses and Joshua, was expected to serve his God and his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessiah-King\">The Messiah-King<\/p>\n<p>The descendants of David failed to maintain and expand the theocracy. By the eighth and seventh centuries <span>BC<\/span>, it was apparent that even the greatest kings were dwarfed by the stature of David and Solomon. The prophets (Is 9:2-7; 11:1-9; Jer 33:14-16; Ez 34:22-31; Mi 5:2-5) spoke of another king, the Messiah, a descendant of David who would rule permanently and by whose rule the reign of God would extend to the ends of the earth. He would put down all opposition to God’s rule, remove all enemies, and bring in an era of universal peace and righteousness. The Messiah-King would reveal the perfections of divine rule, as the Spirit of God would be upon him. His kingship would be marked by service to the people of God, so that they would be a well-cared-for flock; he would serve them as their shepherd.<\/p>\n<p>In the coming of Jesus the messianic kingdom is more clearly revealed. He is the King of whom the angels said, “The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born tonight in Bethlehem, the city of David!” (Lk 2:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). These magnificent words show continuity with the prophetic word. Jesus is the Savior, whose role includes deliverance from sin but also deliverance from all causes of adversity, evil, and the effects of the curse. His mission pertains to both forgiveness and to the establishment of peace on earth (1:77-79). In this light we must look at Jesus’ ministry of healing, feeding, opposing the forces of evil, suffering, and teaching as the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth. He is the King who serves, fights against the demonic powers, and overcomes. The resurrection marks his victory, and he is crowned with glory by being seated at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33-36; cf. 1 Cor 15:25). In being the Savior he is none other than Christ the Lord. The early apostolic preaching proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah of God and the Lord. The lordship of Jesus is corollary to his being the Messiah. To those who call on him, he is the Savior-Messiah-Lord (Rom 10:9-15), but to those who reject him, he is the divine warrior, before whom all knees will bow and who will bring in the era of the Father’s judgment (cf. Rv 1:12-16; 19:11-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught his disciples that at his coming in glory he would be seated on his throne and all mankind would pay him obeisance. The enemies of God will be cast out from his presence, and the people of God will fully inherit the kingdom (Mt 25:31-46). In accordance with Jesus’ teaching, the members of his body, the church, are expected to work out the theocratic ideal in their lives, that by their works and faith they may glorify the Father and show that they are his (Jn 17:20-26; cf. Mt 25:33-40). This is the biblical manner of witness that Israel failed to give and that the church is privileged to give; as Paul wrote to Timothy:<\/p>\n<p>I command you before God, who gives life to all, and before Christ Jesus, . . . that you obey his commands with all purity. Then no one can find fault with you from now until our Lord Jesus Christ returns. For at the right time Christ will be revealed from heaven by the blessed and only almighty God, the King of kings and Lord of lords. He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No one has ever seen him, nor ever will. To him be honor and power forever. Amen. (1 Tm 6:13-16, <span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul gives several instructions as to how the people of God must demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus. Throughout the book of Revelation, Jesus is viewed as King over the church (Rv 4:2, 9-11; 5:1, 9-13). At his return his kingship will be established. At this time, the enemies of the cross will see the one whom they have rejected and will bow before the messianic King (1 Cor 15:25-28). “After that the end will come, when he [Jesus] will turn the Kingdom over to God the Father, having put down all enemies of every kind” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KING The word melek (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Eg...","summary_en":"KING The word melek (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Eg...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37819,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Uncircumcision*","title_en":"Uncircumcision*","content_ro":"<h3>UNCIRCUMCISION*<\/h3>\n<p>Natural condition of the male, that is, with the foreskin covering his penis. Since the Jews, among many other peoples, surgically removed this as a sign of their covenant with God (Gn 17:9-14; Ex 12:48; Lv 12:3), the term came to designate “non-Jew” or “Gentile” (Philistines, Greeks, and Romans did not circumcise, but Egyptians and many Semitic peoples did). By extension, it connoted “those outside the covenant.”<\/p>\n<p>The term “uncircumcision” occurs 20 times in the NT, most of the time meaning simply “Gentile,” as opposed to Jew. Paul argues strongly against making such distinctions. For Paul, the attitude of one’s heart toward God is much more important than ritual law, which has nothing to do with his salvation (Rom 2:25-27). Abraham became a believer and was justified by God while he was uncircumcised, so circumcision has nothing to do with his salvation (3:30; 4:9-12). Formerly, Gentiles were excluded from the people of God (Eph 2:11-12), but now Jewish and gentile believers have become one in Christ (Gal 2:7; 5:6; 6:15; Col 3:11). Paul refuses to give way to those demanding circumcision for full church membership.<\/p>\n<p>In one passage (Col 2:8-15), Paul speaks of uncircumcision metaphorically, meaning a person’s unregenerate state. Here uncircumcision is equivalent to “the flesh” (meaning one’s evil impulse or natural state). As literal flesh is cut away in the rite of circumcision, so this “flesh” is cut away by Christ at the time of conversion, as symbolized in baptism. The baptized person is one purified from “uncleanness” as a circumcised Gentile is purified from previous uncircumcised uncleanness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Circumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>UNCIRCUMCISION*<\/h3>\n<p>Natural condition of the male, that is, with the foreskin covering his penis. Since the Jews, among many other peoples, surgically removed this as a sign of their covenant with God (Gn 17:9-14; Ex 12:48; Lv 12:3), the term came to designate “non-Jew” or “Gentile” (Philistines, Greeks, and Romans did not circumcise, but Egyptians and many Semitic peoples did). By extension, it connoted “those outside the covenant.”<\/p>\n<p>The term “uncircumcision” occurs 20 times in the NT, most of the time meaning simply “Gentile,” as opposed to Jew. Paul argues strongly against making such distinctions. For Paul, the attitude of one’s heart toward God is much more important than ritual law, which has nothing to do with his salvation (Rom 2:25-27). Abraham became a believer and was justified by God while he was uncircumcised, so circumcision has nothing to do with his salvation (3:30; 4:9-12). Formerly, Gentiles were excluded from the people of God (Eph 2:11-12), but now Jewish and gentile believers have become one in Christ (Gal 2:7; 5:6; 6:15; Col 3:11). Paul refuses to give way to those demanding circumcision for full church membership.<\/p>\n<p>In one passage (Col 2:8-15), Paul speaks of uncircumcision metaphorically, meaning a person’s unregenerate state. Here uncircumcision is equivalent to “the flesh” (meaning one’s evil impulse or natural state). As literal flesh is cut away in the rite of circumcision, so this “flesh” is cut away by Christ at the time of conversion, as symbolized in baptism. The baptized person is one purified from “uncleanness” as a circumcised Gentile is purified from previous uncircumcised uncleanness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Circumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"UNCIRCUMCISION* Natural condition of the male, that is, with the foreskin covering his penis. Since the Jews, among many other peoples, surgically removed this as a sign of their covenant with God (Gn 17:9-14; Ex 12:48; Lv 12:3), the term came to designate “non-Jew” or “Gentile” (Philistines, Greeks, and Romans did not circumcise, but Egyptians and many Semitic peoples did). By extension, it connoted “those outside the covenant.” The term “uncircumcision” occurs 20 times in the NT, most of th...","summary_en":"UNCIRCUMCISION* Natural condition of the male, that is, with the foreskin covering his penis. Since the Jews, among many other peoples, surgically removed this as a sign of their covenant with God (Gn 17:9-14; Ex 12:48; Lv 12:3), the term came to designate “non-Jew” or “Gentile” (Philistines, Greeks, and Romans did not circumcise, but Egyptians and many Semitic peoples did). By extension, it connoted “those outside the covenant.” The term “uncircumcision” occurs 20 times in the NT, most of th...","source":"Articles\/U.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40351,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"The Spiritual Significance of Circumcision","title_en":"The Spiritual Significance of Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>The Spiritual Significance of Circumcision<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>The hygienic act of circumcision symbolized the need for cleansing if the holy God was to enter into relationship with an unholy people. At first it was God’s intention to let the ritual teach its own lesson. In Genesis 17:9-27 the observance merely serves as the covenant seal; Abraham is given little explanation of the significance of the rite itself. Later Moses used the expression “uncircumcised lips” to describe his unskilled speech (Ex 6:12, 30). When Israel entered the Promised Land, the yield of its fruit trees was to be considered “uncircumcised” for the first three years; after that it would be holy to the Lord (Lv 19:23-24).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>By the time of the exodus, it became evident that circumcision had to do with ethical as well as physical considerations. In Deuteronomy 10:16 Moses exhorted the people to circumcise the foreskins of their hearts, and in Deuteronomy 30:6 this command assumes the form of a promise: “The <span>Lord<\/span> your God will circumcise your heart and theheart of your offspring, so that you will love the <span>Lord<\/span> your God with all your heart and with all your soul” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Sin in the lives of the chosen people made their circumcision meaningless before God. Thus Moses told the Israelites to humble their uncircumcised hearts (Lv 26:41). The prophets further develop this teaching. Jeremiah urged the citizens of Judah to remove the foreskins of their hearts to avoid God’s wrath because of their evil ways (Jer 4:4), warning that the “uncircumcised ears” of Israel were not sensitive to the word of the Lord (Jer 6:10, <span>rsv<\/span> mg). Judgment will come upon Egypt, Edom, Ammon, Moab, and Judah, declares God, for “I am going to punish all who are circumcised only in flesh . . . for all these nations, and the whole House of Israel too, are uncircumcised at heart” (Jer 9:24-25, JB). Through Ezekiel the Lord complains that the temple has been profaned by the admission of aliens uncircumcised in heart and flesh (Ez 44:7, 9). Isaiah looks forward to the day when there will be a new Jerusalem into which the uncircumcised and unclean will no longer come.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spiritual Significance of Circumcision<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>The hygienic act of circumcision symbolized the need for cleansing if the holy God was to enter into relationship with an unholy people. At first it was God’s intention to let the ritual teach its own lesson. In Genesis 17:9-27 the observance merely serves as the covenant seal; Abraham is given little explanation of the significance of the rite itself. Later Moses used the expression “uncircumcised lips” to describe his unskilled speech (Ex 6:12, 30). When Israel entered the Promised Land, the yield of its fruit trees was to be considered “uncircumcised” for the first three years; after that it would be holy to the Lord (Lv 19:23-24).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>By the time of the exodus, it became evident that circumcision had to do with ethical as well as physical considerations. In Deuteronomy 10:16 Moses exhorted the people to circumcise the foreskins of their hearts, and in Deuteronomy 30:6 this command assumes the form of a promise: “The <span>Lord<\/span> your God will circumcise your heart and theheart of your offspring, so that you will love the <span>Lord<\/span> your God with all your heart and with all your soul” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Sin in the lives of the chosen people made their circumcision meaningless before God. Thus Moses told the Israelites to humble their uncircumcised hearts (Lv 26:41). The prophets further develop this teaching. Jeremiah urged the citizens of Judah to remove the foreskins of their hearts to avoid God’s wrath because of their evil ways (Jer 4:4), warning that the “uncircumcised ears” of Israel were not sensitive to the word of the Lord (Jer 6:10, <span>rsv<\/span> mg). Judgment will come upon Egypt, Edom, Ammon, Moab, and Judah, declares God, for “I am going to punish all who are circumcised only in flesh . . . for all these nations, and the whole House of Israel too, are uncircumcised at heart” (Jer 9:24-25, JB). Through Ezekiel the Lord complains that the temple has been profaned by the admission of aliens uncircumcised in heart and flesh (Ez 44:7, 9). Isaiah looks forward to the day when there will be a new Jerusalem into which the uncircumcised and unclean will no longer come.<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spiritual Significance of Circumcision The hygienic act of circumcision symbolized the need for cleansing if the holy God was to enter into relationship with an unholy people. At first it was God’s intention to let the ritual teach its own lesson. In Genesis 17:9-27 the observance merely serves as the covenant seal; Abraham is given little explanation of the significance of the rite itself. Later Moses used the expression “uncircumcised lips” to describe his unskilled speech (Ex 6:12, 30)...","summary_en":"The Spiritual Significance of Circumcision The hygienic act of circumcision symbolized the need for cleansing if the holy God was to enter into relationship with an unholy people. At first it was God’s intention to let the ritual teach its own lesson. In Genesis 17:9-27 the observance merely serves as the covenant seal; Abraham is given little explanation of the significance of the rite itself. Later Moses used the expression “uncircumcised lips” to describe his unskilled speech (Ex 6:12, 30)...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43085,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:9","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:9-14<\/strong> God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to <em>the covenant<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:9-14<\/strong> God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to <em>the covenant<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:9-14 God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to the covenant.","summary_en":"17:9-14 God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to the covenant.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70711,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:9","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:9-14<\/strong> God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to <em>the covenant<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:9-14<\/strong> God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to <em>the covenant<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:9-14 God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to the covenant.","summary_en":"17:9-14 God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to the covenant.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98337,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:9","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:9-14<\/strong> God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to <em>the covenant<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:9-14<\/strong> God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to <em>the covenant<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:9-14 God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to the covenant.","summary_en":"17:9-14 God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to the covenant.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125963,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:9","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:9-14<\/strong> God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to <em>the covenant<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:9-14<\/strong> God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to <em>the covenant<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:9-14 God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to the covenant.","summary_en":"17:9-14 God gave circumcision as a confirming sign that reminded all households of loyalty to the covenant.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59828,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59881,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59909,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64724,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66495,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67307,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Righteousness by Faith","title_en":"Righteousness by Faith","content_ro":"<h3>Righteousness by Faith<\/h3>\n<p>A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust in him.<\/p>\n<p>For Jewish Christians in the first century, it was hard to accept this answer. From the time of Abraham, right relationship with God had been marked by circumcision, the rite of cutting off the male foreskin (Gen 17:9-14). Every male who was part of God’s family had to be circumcised, and those who neglected to do so were cut off from God’s people. Those who had received circumcision were also expected to keep the rest of the law, including the Sabbath and dietary regulations.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christian faith moved from the Jewish to the Gentile world, it was natural for questions to arise. Do Christians need to be circumcised—and keep God’s law in general—to be accepted as part of God’s family? Or does God accept people purely on the basis of their faith in Christ’s work on the cross? As Paul’s mission to Gentiles advanced, these questions became pressing.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Peter understood from his vision in Joppa and his experience in Caesarea that God has accepted Gentiles <em>as Gentiles,<\/em> on the basis of their faith in Christ’s finished work (Acts 10:9–11:18). They did not have to become Jewish by observing circumcision, for Christ provided them open access to God by faith. Peter and the Jerusalem church therefore welcomed Gentile believers into fellowship. But later, Peter temporarily withdrew from fellowship with Gentiles when some Jewish Christians criticized him (Gal 2:11-13). In response, Paul rebuked Peter for communicating that Gentiles must become Jews in order to be accepted by God (2:14-21).<\/p>\n<p>No one is accepted by God and made righteous before him on the basis of keeping the law (2:16). Even Abraham himself was counted as righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; Gal 3:6)—not because he was circumcised, which came later (Gen 17:9-14). Both Jews and Gentiles are made righteous before God on the basis of faith alone.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Hab 2:4; Acts 10:1–11:18; Rom 1:17; Gal 2:14-21; 3:11; Heb 10:38<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Righteousness by Faith<\/h3>\n<p>A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust in him.<\/p>\n<p>For Jewish Christians in the first century, it was hard to accept this answer. From the time of Abraham, right relationship with God had been marked by circumcision, the rite of cutting off the male foreskin (Gen 17:9-14). Every male who was part of God’s family had to be circumcised, and those who neglected to do so were cut off from God’s people. Those who had received circumcision were also expected to keep the rest of the law, including the Sabbath and dietary regulations.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christian faith moved from the Jewish to the Gentile world, it was natural for questions to arise. Do Christians need to be circumcised—and keep God’s law in general—to be accepted as part of God’s family? Or does God accept people purely on the basis of their faith in Christ’s work on the cross? As Paul’s mission to Gentiles advanced, these questions became pressing.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Peter understood from his vision in Joppa and his experience in Caesarea that God has accepted Gentiles <em>as Gentiles,<\/em> on the basis of their faith in Christ’s finished work (Acts 10:9–11:18). They did not have to become Jewish by observing circumcision, for Christ provided them open access to God by faith. Peter and the Jerusalem church therefore welcomed Gentile believers into fellowship. But later, Peter temporarily withdrew from fellowship with Gentiles when some Jewish Christians criticized him (Gal 2:11-13). In response, Paul rebuked Peter for communicating that Gentiles must become Jews in order to be accepted by God (2:14-21).<\/p>\n<p>No one is accepted by God and made righteous before him on the basis of keeping the law (2:16). Even Abraham himself was counted as righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; Gal 3:6)—not because he was circumcised, which came later (Gen 17:9-14). Both Jews and Gentiles are made righteous before God on the basis of faith alone.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Hab 2:4; Acts 10:1–11:18; Rom 1:17; Gal 2:14-21; 3:11; Heb 10:38<\/p>","summary_ro":"Righteousness by Faith A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God. For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust ...","summary_en":"Righteousness by Faith A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God. For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87454,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87507,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87535,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92350,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94121,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94933,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Righteousness by Faith","title_en":"Righteousness by Faith","content_ro":"<h3>Righteousness by Faith<\/h3>\n<p>A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust in him.<\/p>\n<p>For Jewish Christians in the first century, it was hard to accept this answer. From the time of Abraham, right relationship with God had been marked by circumcision, the rite of cutting off the male foreskin (Gen 17:9-14). Every male who was part of God’s family had to be circumcised, and those who neglected to do so were cut off from God’s people. Those who had received circumcision were also expected to keep the rest of the law, including the Sabbath and dietary regulations.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christian faith moved from the Jewish to the Gentile world, it was natural for questions to arise. Do Christians need to be circumcised—and keep God’s law in general—to be accepted as part of God’s family? Or does God accept people purely on the basis of their faith in Christ’s work on the cross? As Paul’s mission to Gentiles advanced, these questions became pressing.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Peter understood from his vision in Joppa and his experience in Caesarea that God has accepted Gentiles <em>as Gentiles,<\/em> on the basis of their faith in Christ’s finished work (Acts 10:9–11:18). They did not have to become Jewish by observing circumcision, for Christ provided them open access to God by faith. Peter and the Jerusalem church therefore welcomed Gentile believers into fellowship. But later, Peter temporarily withdrew from fellowship with Gentiles when some Jewish Christians criticized him (Gal 2:11-13). In response, Paul rebuked Peter for communicating that Gentiles must become Jews in order to be accepted by God (2:14-21).<\/p>\n<p>No one is accepted by God and made righteous before him on the basis of keeping the law (2:16). Even Abraham himself was counted as righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; Gal 3:6)—not because he was circumcised, which came later (Gen 17:9-14). Both Jews and Gentiles are made righteous before God on the basis of faith alone.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Hab 2:4; Acts 10:1–11:18; Rom 1:17; Gal 2:14-21; 3:11; Heb 10:38<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Righteousness by Faith<\/h3>\n<p>A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust in him.<\/p>\n<p>For Jewish Christians in the first century, it was hard to accept this answer. From the time of Abraham, right relationship with God had been marked by circumcision, the rite of cutting off the male foreskin (Gen 17:9-14). Every male who was part of God’s family had to be circumcised, and those who neglected to do so were cut off from God’s people. Those who had received circumcision were also expected to keep the rest of the law, including the Sabbath and dietary regulations.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christian faith moved from the Jewish to the Gentile world, it was natural for questions to arise. Do Christians need to be circumcised—and keep God’s law in general—to be accepted as part of God’s family? Or does God accept people purely on the basis of their faith in Christ’s work on the cross? As Paul’s mission to Gentiles advanced, these questions became pressing.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Peter understood from his vision in Joppa and his experience in Caesarea that God has accepted Gentiles <em>as Gentiles,<\/em> on the basis of their faith in Christ’s finished work (Acts 10:9–11:18). They did not have to become Jewish by observing circumcision, for Christ provided them open access to God by faith. Peter and the Jerusalem church therefore welcomed Gentile believers into fellowship. But later, Peter temporarily withdrew from fellowship with Gentiles when some Jewish Christians criticized him (Gal 2:11-13). In response, Paul rebuked Peter for communicating that Gentiles must become Jews in order to be accepted by God (2:14-21).<\/p>\n<p>No one is accepted by God and made righteous before him on the basis of keeping the law (2:16). Even Abraham himself was counted as righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; Gal 3:6)—not because he was circumcised, which came later (Gen 17:9-14). Both Jews and Gentiles are made righteous before God on the basis of faith alone.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Hab 2:4; Acts 10:1–11:18; Rom 1:17; Gal 2:14-21; 3:11; Heb 10:38<\/p>","summary_ro":"Righteousness by Faith A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God. For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust ...","summary_en":"Righteousness by Faith A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God. For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115080,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115133,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115161,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119976,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121747,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122559,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Righteousness by Faith","title_en":"Righteousness by Faith","content_ro":"<h3>Righteousness by Faith<\/h3>\n<p>A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust in him.<\/p>\n<p>For Jewish Christians in the first century, it was hard to accept this answer. From the time of Abraham, right relationship with God had been marked by circumcision, the rite of cutting off the male foreskin (Gen 17:9-14). Every male who was part of God’s family had to be circumcised, and those who neglected to do so were cut off from God’s people. Those who had received circumcision were also expected to keep the rest of the law, including the Sabbath and dietary regulations.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christian faith moved from the Jewish to the Gentile world, it was natural for questions to arise. Do Christians need to be circumcised—and keep God’s law in general—to be accepted as part of God’s family? Or does God accept people purely on the basis of their faith in Christ’s work on the cross? As Paul’s mission to Gentiles advanced, these questions became pressing.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Peter understood from his vision in Joppa and his experience in Caesarea that God has accepted Gentiles <em>as Gentiles,<\/em> on the basis of their faith in Christ’s finished work (Acts 10:9–11:18). They did not have to become Jewish by observing circumcision, for Christ provided them open access to God by faith. Peter and the Jerusalem church therefore welcomed Gentile believers into fellowship. But later, Peter temporarily withdrew from fellowship with Gentiles when some Jewish Christians criticized him (Gal 2:11-13). In response, Paul rebuked Peter for communicating that Gentiles must become Jews in order to be accepted by God (2:14-21).<\/p>\n<p>No one is accepted by God and made righteous before him on the basis of keeping the law (2:16). Even Abraham himself was counted as righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; Gal 3:6)—not because he was circumcised, which came later (Gen 17:9-14). Both Jews and Gentiles are made righteous before God on the basis of faith alone.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Hab 2:4; Acts 10:1–11:18; Rom 1:17; Gal 2:14-21; 3:11; Heb 10:38<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Righteousness by Faith<\/h3>\n<p>A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust in him.<\/p>\n<p>For Jewish Christians in the first century, it was hard to accept this answer. From the time of Abraham, right relationship with God had been marked by circumcision, the rite of cutting off the male foreskin (Gen 17:9-14). Every male who was part of God’s family had to be circumcised, and those who neglected to do so were cut off from God’s people. Those who had received circumcision were also expected to keep the rest of the law, including the Sabbath and dietary regulations.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christian faith moved from the Jewish to the Gentile world, it was natural for questions to arise. Do Christians need to be circumcised—and keep God’s law in general—to be accepted as part of God’s family? Or does God accept people purely on the basis of their faith in Christ’s work on the cross? As Paul’s mission to Gentiles advanced, these questions became pressing.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Peter understood from his vision in Joppa and his experience in Caesarea that God has accepted Gentiles <em>as Gentiles,<\/em> on the basis of their faith in Christ’s finished work (Acts 10:9–11:18). They did not have to become Jewish by observing circumcision, for Christ provided them open access to God by faith. Peter and the Jerusalem church therefore welcomed Gentile believers into fellowship. But later, Peter temporarily withdrew from fellowship with Gentiles when some Jewish Christians criticized him (Gal 2:11-13). In response, Paul rebuked Peter for communicating that Gentiles must become Jews in order to be accepted by God (2:14-21).<\/p>\n<p>No one is accepted by God and made righteous before him on the basis of keeping the law (2:16). Even Abraham himself was counted as righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; Gal 3:6)—not because he was circumcised, which came later (Gen 17:9-14). Both Jews and Gentiles are made righteous before God on the basis of faith alone.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Hab 2:4; Acts 10:1–11:18; Rom 1:17; Gal 2:14-21; 3:11; Heb 10:38<\/p>","summary_ro":"Righteousness by Faith A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God. For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust ...","summary_en":"Righteousness by Faith A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God. For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142706,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142759,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142787,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147602,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149373,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150185,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Righteousness by Faith","title_en":"Righteousness by Faith","content_ro":"<h3>Righteousness by Faith<\/h3>\n<p>A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust in him.<\/p>\n<p>For Jewish Christians in the first century, it was hard to accept this answer. From the time of Abraham, right relationship with God had been marked by circumcision, the rite of cutting off the male foreskin (Gen 17:9-14). Every male who was part of God’s family had to be circumcised, and those who neglected to do so were cut off from God’s people. Those who had received circumcision were also expected to keep the rest of the law, including the Sabbath and dietary regulations.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christian faith moved from the Jewish to the Gentile world, it was natural for questions to arise. Do Christians need to be circumcised—and keep God’s law in general—to be accepted as part of God’s family? Or does God accept people purely on the basis of their faith in Christ’s work on the cross? As Paul’s mission to Gentiles advanced, these questions became pressing.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Peter understood from his vision in Joppa and his experience in Caesarea that God has accepted Gentiles <em>as Gentiles,<\/em> on the basis of their faith in Christ’s finished work (Acts 10:9–11:18). They did not have to become Jewish by observing circumcision, for Christ provided them open access to God by faith. Peter and the Jerusalem church therefore welcomed Gentile believers into fellowship. But later, Peter temporarily withdrew from fellowship with Gentiles when some Jewish Christians criticized him (Gal 2:11-13). In response, Paul rebuked Peter for communicating that Gentiles must become Jews in order to be accepted by God (2:14-21).<\/p>\n<p>No one is accepted by God and made righteous before him on the basis of keeping the law (2:16). Even Abraham himself was counted as righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; Gal 3:6)—not because he was circumcised, which came later (Gen 17:9-14). Both Jews and Gentiles are made righteous before God on the basis of faith alone.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Hab 2:4; Acts 10:1–11:18; Rom 1:17; Gal 2:14-21; 3:11; Heb 10:38<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Righteousness by Faith<\/h3>\n<p>A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust in him.<\/p>\n<p>For Jewish Christians in the first century, it was hard to accept this answer. From the time of Abraham, right relationship with God had been marked by circumcision, the rite of cutting off the male foreskin (Gen 17:9-14). Every male who was part of God’s family had to be circumcised, and those who neglected to do so were cut off from God’s people. Those who had received circumcision were also expected to keep the rest of the law, including the Sabbath and dietary regulations.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christian faith moved from the Jewish to the Gentile world, it was natural for questions to arise. Do Christians need to be circumcised—and keep God’s law in general—to be accepted as part of God’s family? Or does God accept people purely on the basis of their faith in Christ’s work on the cross? As Paul’s mission to Gentiles advanced, these questions became pressing.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Peter understood from his vision in Joppa and his experience in Caesarea that God has accepted Gentiles <em>as Gentiles,<\/em> on the basis of their faith in Christ’s finished work (Acts 10:9–11:18). They did not have to become Jewish by observing circumcision, for Christ provided them open access to God by faith. Peter and the Jerusalem church therefore welcomed Gentile believers into fellowship. But later, Peter temporarily withdrew from fellowship with Gentiles when some Jewish Christians criticized him (Gal 2:11-13). In response, Paul rebuked Peter for communicating that Gentiles must become Jews in order to be accepted by God (2:14-21).<\/p>\n<p>No one is accepted by God and made righteous before him on the basis of keeping the law (2:16). Even Abraham himself was counted as righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; Gal 3:6)—not because he was circumcised, which came later (Gen 17:9-14). Both Jews and Gentiles are made righteous before God on the basis of faith alone.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 15:6; Hab 2:4; Acts 10:1–11:18; Rom 1:17; Gal 2:14-21; 3:11; Heb 10:38<\/p>","summary_ro":"Righteousness by Faith A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God. For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust ...","summary_en":"Righteousness by Faith A key issue that emerged in the first-century church was whether or not Gentiles who received the Good News had to follow Jewish regulations—including circumcision—in order to be able to join the family of God. For Paul, the answer was simple: There is nothing people can or need to do. Only Christ could do—and has done—what must be done to make people right with God. Our response is simply to receive his gift, gratefully thank him for what he has done for us, and trust ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":6663,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17701,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>ISAAC<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yitshaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Isaak<\/span><em>.<\/em> If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child (Gn 17:17; 18:12) and then suddenly becoming parents, as God had promised.<\/p>\n<p>Isaac’s pedigree is also interesting, for Sarah was not only the wife of Abraham but also his half sister (Gn 20:12), and this fact alone may have interfered with conception in their earlier years. Because of this relationship, Isaac belonged to both sides of Terah’s family. According to prevailing custom, the son of the legal wife took precedence over the male offspring of concubines, so that Isaac had priority of inheritance over Ishmael. The gifts that Abraham subsequently gave to the sons of his concubines (25:6) were without prejudice to the inheritance of Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>Following God’s instructions (Gn 17:10-14), Isaac was circumcised on the eighth day as a member of the covenant community. The next ceremony came when he was old enough for weaning, probably around three years old. In eastern countries where this procedure is still observed, the child’s transition from milk to solid protein and carbohydrates is normally celebrated in the context of a feast. During the celebration the mother chews a mouthful of solid food and then pushes it into the baby’s mouth with her tongue. The infant is often so shocked by this treatment that it promptly expels the food, whereupon the mother repeats the process. For an observer the procedure can be hilarious, and Ishmael may have been laughing at such a spectacle when he incurred Sarah’s wrath (21:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>During the years of Isaac’s adolescence, Abraham was living in Philistine territory (Gn 21:34). The supreme test of the father’s faith and obedience came in this period. Having watched this son of God’s promise grow up into a healthy young man, Abraham is asked by God to offer him as a sacrifice. Isaac was familiar with sacrificial rituals and helped with the preparations, though probably not without some misgivings, for he was also familiar with the patriarchal traditions that gave the head of the family power of life or death over everyone and everything in the family. If he voiced any protest as he lay bound on the sacrificial altar, it is not recorded. When Abraham’s faith did not waver, God intervened at the crucial moment and provided another offering in the form of a ram. Because of his obedience, God promised Abraham great blessing, blessing in which Isaac also participated (Gn 22; 25:11). It was this act of faith and obedience that Paul honored centuries later by calling Abraham the forefather of the Christian church (Rom 4).<\/p>\n<p>After Sarah’s death (Gn 23), Abraham set about securing a bride for Isaac, as it was the custom for parents to arrange marriages for their children. Rather than have Isaac marry a local pagan woman, Abraham sent his household steward to Nahor in Mesopotamia to seek a bride for his son from among his relatives. In an account that emphasizes faith, perseverance, and divine blessing, Genesis 24 describes how the servant met Rebekah and betrothed her to Isaac even before he had met the rest of her family. Bethuel, her father, and Laban, her brother, assented to this arrangement, and she left with the family’s blessing to take up her new responsibilities in Palestine as Isaac’s wife.<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham died at a ripe old age, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah (Gn 25:8-9). Isaac was now patriarch of the family. He pleaded with God that his wife, Rebekah, might bear children, and as a result, she bore twin sons, Esau (“the hairy one”) and Jacob (“supplanter”). Esau became a hunter, and Isaac favored him, while Jacob was more of a settler and agriculturalist and was favored by his mother. Jacob was also crafty and took advantage of Esau’s extreme hunger one day, bargaining with his older brother to exchange his birthright for some lentil stew. Possession of the birthright secured for Jacob a double portion of the inheritance (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>When famine gripped the land, God instructed Isaac not to visit Egypt (Gn 26:2), but to stay in Palestine, where he would enjoy great prosperity. When the men of the area asked about Rebekah, Isaac became fearful and said she was his sister. When the deception was uncovered, Abimelech the king rebuked Isaac and forbade anyone to interfere with him. Isaac prospered so greatly that Abimelech finally asked him to relocate, so he moved to Beersheba, where there was sufficient water for his flocks, and his fortune increased.<\/p>\n<p>Although Esau was Isaac’s favorite son, he displeased his father by marrying two Hittite women. When Isaac felt that the end of his life was approaching, he wanted to bless his firstborn in the traditional patriarchal manner (Gn 27). Rebekah overheard his instructions to Esau, and she encouraged Jacob to deceive the blind old man by disguising himself as Esau and taking his brother’s blessing. The deception succeeded, and Isaac gave Jacob the blessing of the firstborn. When Esau appeared to receive his blessing he was too late, and he was very bitter against Jacob because of what had happened. Rebekah sent Jacob away to her brother Laban in Mesopotamia, to escape Esau’s anger and also to obtain a wife. Esau did receive a blessing from Isaac, but a lesser one. Two decades later a rich and prosperous Jacob returned with his family. He made peace with Esau before Isaac died, and the brothers buried Isaac in Hebron (Gn 35:27-29).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac is given less prominence in the patriarchal narratives than Abraham or Jacob, but his importance for covenantal faith was recognized in such NT passages as Acts 7:8, Romans 9:7, Galatians 4:21-31, and Hebrews 11:9-20.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAAC<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yitshaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Isaak<\/span><em>.<\/em> If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child (Gn 17:17; 18:12) and then suddenly becoming parents, as God had promised.<\/p>\n<p>Isaac’s pedigree is also interesting, for Sarah was not only the wife of Abraham but also his half sister (Gn 20:12), and this fact alone may have interfered with conception in their earlier years. Because of this relationship, Isaac belonged to both sides of Terah’s family. According to prevailing custom, the son of the legal wife took precedence over the male offspring of concubines, so that Isaac had priority of inheritance over Ishmael. The gifts that Abraham subsequently gave to the sons of his concubines (25:6) were without prejudice to the inheritance of Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>Following God’s instructions (Gn 17:10-14), Isaac was circumcised on the eighth day as a member of the covenant community. The next ceremony came when he was old enough for weaning, probably around three years old. In eastern countries where this procedure is still observed, the child’s transition from milk to solid protein and carbohydrates is normally celebrated in the context of a feast. During the celebration the mother chews a mouthful of solid food and then pushes it into the baby’s mouth with her tongue. The infant is often so shocked by this treatment that it promptly expels the food, whereupon the mother repeats the process. For an observer the procedure can be hilarious, and Ishmael may have been laughing at such a spectacle when he incurred Sarah’s wrath (21:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>During the years of Isaac’s adolescence, Abraham was living in Philistine territory (Gn 21:34). The supreme test of the father’s faith and obedience came in this period. Having watched this son of God’s promise grow up into a healthy young man, Abraham is asked by God to offer him as a sacrifice. Isaac was familiar with sacrificial rituals and helped with the preparations, though probably not without some misgivings, for he was also familiar with the patriarchal traditions that gave the head of the family power of life or death over everyone and everything in the family. If he voiced any protest as he lay bound on the sacrificial altar, it is not recorded. When Abraham’s faith did not waver, God intervened at the crucial moment and provided another offering in the form of a ram. Because of his obedience, God promised Abraham great blessing, blessing in which Isaac also participated (Gn 22; 25:11). It was this act of faith and obedience that Paul honored centuries later by calling Abraham the forefather of the Christian church (Rom 4).<\/p>\n<p>After Sarah’s death (Gn 23), Abraham set about securing a bride for Isaac, as it was the custom for parents to arrange marriages for their children. Rather than have Isaac marry a local pagan woman, Abraham sent his household steward to Nahor in Mesopotamia to seek a bride for his son from among his relatives. In an account that emphasizes faith, perseverance, and divine blessing, Genesis 24 describes how the servant met Rebekah and betrothed her to Isaac even before he had met the rest of her family. Bethuel, her father, and Laban, her brother, assented to this arrangement, and she left with the family’s blessing to take up her new responsibilities in Palestine as Isaac’s wife.<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham died at a ripe old age, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah (Gn 25:8-9). Isaac was now patriarch of the family. He pleaded with God that his wife, Rebekah, might bear children, and as a result, she bore twin sons, Esau (“the hairy one”) and Jacob (“supplanter”). Esau became a hunter, and Isaac favored him, while Jacob was more of a settler and agriculturalist and was favored by his mother. Jacob was also crafty and took advantage of Esau’s extreme hunger one day, bargaining with his older brother to exchange his birthright for some lentil stew. Possession of the birthright secured for Jacob a double portion of the inheritance (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>When famine gripped the land, God instructed Isaac not to visit Egypt (Gn 26:2), but to stay in Palestine, where he would enjoy great prosperity. When the men of the area asked about Rebekah, Isaac became fearful and said she was his sister. When the deception was uncovered, Abimelech the king rebuked Isaac and forbade anyone to interfere with him. Isaac prospered so greatly that Abimelech finally asked him to relocate, so he moved to Beersheba, where there was sufficient water for his flocks, and his fortune increased.<\/p>\n<p>Although Esau was Isaac’s favorite son, he displeased his father by marrying two Hittite women. When Isaac felt that the end of his life was approaching, he wanted to bless his firstborn in the traditional patriarchal manner (Gn 27). Rebekah overheard his instructions to Esau, and she encouraged Jacob to deceive the blind old man by disguising himself as Esau and taking his brother’s blessing. The deception succeeded, and Isaac gave Jacob the blessing of the firstborn. When Esau appeared to receive his blessing he was too late, and he was very bitter against Jacob because of what had happened. Rebekah sent Jacob away to her brother Laban in Mesopotamia, to escape Esau’s anger and also to obtain a wife. Esau did receive a blessing from Isaac, but a lesser one. Two decades later a rich and prosperous Jacob returned with his family. He made peace with Esau before Isaac died, and the brothers buried Isaac in Hebron (Gn 35:27-29).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac is given less prominence in the patriarchal narratives than Abraham or Jacob, but his importance for covenantal faith was recognized in such NT passages as Acts 7:8, Romans 9:7, Galatians 4:21-31, and Hebrews 11:9-20.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAAC Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel. The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew Yitshaq, in Greek Isaak. If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child...","summary_en":"ISAAC Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel. The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew Yitshaq, in Greek Isaak. If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21737,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"King","title_en":"King","content_ro":"<h3>KING<\/h3>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, or Persia). Other words may also refer to royalty. The Philistines introduced the title <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seren<\/span> (lord) into Hebrew vocabulary. The five Philistine cities were ruled by five lords. Another word for an Israelite king is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> (ruler). Both Saul and David were anointed as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> over Israel (1 Sm 10:1; 16:13). In the NT and the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> has a meaning similar to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span><em>.<\/em> The NT <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> refers to secular rulers living in the first century, kings of Israel, rulers of the past, and the divine King, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “King of kings,” attributed to Jesus (1 Tm 6:15), is a Hebrew expression meaning supreme or greatest king. For example, in Ezekiel’s prediction of the fall of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar is named the “king of kings” (Ez 26:7). The great rulers of Assyria and Babylon introduced this title. Before their time, rulers were called either “king” or “great king,” as in 2 Kings 18:28: “Hear the word of the great king, the king of Assyria” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Later rulers had their titles adjusted to keep up with the expanse of their empires.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KingshipinIsrael\">Kingship in Israel<\/p>\n<p>God chose Abraham as the father of nations; through him and his descendants the messianic rule would be established on earth. In his promises to Abraham, God repeatedly assured him that he would become the father of a mighty nation, to whom God would give the land of Canaan, and that kings would arise from his descendants (Gn 17:6). Abraham showed his acceptance of the rule of God over his family by obeying God’s command to be circumcised, which set the clan of Abraham apart for the service of God (vv 10-14). The ultimate purpose of God’s relation with Abraham and his descendants was that God would be King over Israel and that his people would show their acceptance of his rule by their faithful obedience to him (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of the covenant was God’s expectation of loyalty to his rule. Abraham and his descendants were to exercise their God-given “rule” over the nations by living in fellowship with the great King. Thus the Lord reestablished his dominion over mankind. Through Abraham and his descendants, he would raise up a “royal nation” to whom the full privileges of rule over his creation would be restored.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also made a covenant with Israel. This covenant was a sovereign administration of grace and promise by which the Lord consecrated the people unto himself by the sanctions of divine law and by his very presence. The nation, witnessing God’s care for them, had to learn that by their obedience to God’s expectations the theocratic kingdom might become a reality on earth. In the Sinaitic covenant the theocracy (the rule of God) was established. Israel was entrusted with the commandments, so that they might show themselves to be a theocratic nation, as God revealed to Moses: “Now if you will obey me and keep my covenant, you will be my own special treasure from among all the nations of the earth; for all the earth belongs to me. And you will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>). They were God’s elect for the sake of the nations; through Israel’s priestly obedience and intercession, the whole earth might know the Creator-Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p>The qualities of God’s kingship were power, glory, fidelity, wisdom, concern, service, delegation of power to man, blessing and protection, just rule, judgment, vindication, and deliverance. Israel’s kingship was to be no different from God’s. Their varied and sometimes complex laws taught Israel to distinguish between what was holy and common, clean and unclean, the ways of God and the ways of the nations. The ways of God enhanced love, fidelity, justice, peace, harmony, service, concern for others, wise living, defense of the needy, and judgment of the guilty. The ways of the kingdoms of the world all too often promoted selfishness, anarchy, despotism, and disregard for justice.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also instituted an organizational structure designed to promote his theocratic purposes. In the wilderness Moses and the chosen leaders of Israel (Ex 18:19-26; Nm 11:24-25; cf. Dt 1:15-18) were God’s instruments for upholding his kingship in Israel. Upon Moses’ death, Joshua took over the theocratic rule. The Lord was with him as he had been with Moses, and all Israel recognized the continuity of God’s rule in Joshua’s leadership (Dt 34:9; Jos 3:7; 4:14). Like Moses had before his death, Joshua charged the leadership and Israel to persevere in the gracious covenant relationship (Jos 23–24). However, Israel perished because of its greed, immorality, strife, and idolatry. During the period of the judges, each one did what was right in his own eyes (Jgs 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). There was no king in the land in those days. The judges were military leaders whom the Lord raised up to deliver his people from their foreign oppressors. But God remained King, regardless of the fact that Israel lived as if he were not. The period of the judges demonstrated that apostate Israel, disobedient to their King, was unsuccessful in dealing with the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<p>The theocratic leadership was restored to Israel by the ministry of Samuel. He was born into a Levitical family and served the Lord at the Shiloh tabernacle. He was called to be a prophet—an office which had not been filled since Moses’ death (1 Sm 3:20-21). He was recognized as a judge in Israel (7:15). In Samuel the offices of priest, prophet, and king were combined. He is never called king, as his lifestyle was that of a prophet rather than that of a ruler. The carefully calculated request of the people for a king was a rejection of Samuel’s ministry. The people were not satisfied with the spiritual, charismatic leadership of Samuel. In their search for a more dynamic leader they found in the kings of the surrounding nations attractive elements: power, manifestation of glory, and stability. Thus far the tribes had experienced several civil wars that endangered the unity of Israel. It was thought that a king would remedy all of the social and political problems. Though God had foreseen the days of the monarchy in the law (Dt 17:14-20), the people were motivated to introduce the kingship for secular rather than religious reasons: “Give us a king like all the other nations have” (1 Sm 8:5); “We want to be like the nations around us. Our king will govern us and lead us into battle” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Samuel never accepted the idea of kingship; it was foreign to the theocratic ideal.<\/p>\n<p>The crucial difference between kingship in Israel and kingship in neighboring lands lay in the fact that God endowed the king of Israel with his Spirit to establish his rule on earth. God ruled for his people, and his people benefited was from his rule; he was their provider, protector, and divine warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was instrumental in anointing Saul (a sad example of kingship) and David (a good example of kingly rule under God). Saul’s kingship revealed a despotic, uncaring attitude and self-aggrandizement. He was intent on establishing his dynasty, while not caring sufficiently for the people of God. Therefore, the Lord rejected his kingship (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingship, in contrast to Saul’s, was in line with God’s because it reflected the glory of Yahweh’s kingship. David’s life and rule are taken up in the two books of Samuel as a commentary on the pros and cons of kingship. Positively, David was a man after God’s heart, who sought the will of God, repented of his sin, and sought the glory of God. Negatively, David failed in his personal and family life to uphold the high standards of God’s law. Yet God was pleased to choose David’s dynasty as the lineage through which Jesus Christ would come. The prophet Nathan assured David that his dynasty would last: “Your dynasty and your kingdom will continue for all time before me, and your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sm 7:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). But God did not promise that it would be immune from prosecution or banishment.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding qualities of the kingship of David and his son Solomon reflect the true theocratic intention: concern for the Lord, for a heart of wisdom and integrity, and for the well-being of God’s people. Concern for the Lord found expression in the preparation for and actual building of the temple (cf. Ps 132). Concern for integrity and wisdom is clearly evident, especially in David’s response to Nathan’s rebuke (2 Sm 12) and in Solomon’s request to have a heart of wisdom (1 Kgs 3). Concern for the people comes to expression in their securing the borders against enemies, achieving national unification, and bringing opportunity for economic growth. The era of David and Solomon represented a true reflection of God’s kingship on earth.<\/p>\n<p>The accounts in Kings and Chronicles unfold the subsequent history of kingship in Israel and Judah. The good kings followed the examples provided by David and Solomon in securing Jerusalem against foreign invaders, in supplying for the needs of the temple, in having God’s people instructed in the word of God, and in modeling their rule after the law of Moses. A good Davidic king loved the Lord, the temple, the law, and God’s people. He served them as a good shepherd. Evil kings were those who rejected this model of kingship in favor of the pagan models. So Omri and Ahab introduced the Phoenician culture with its Baalism, utterly disregarding the heritage of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The Davidic king was treated as a member of God’s household, being a “son” of the great King (cf. 2 Sm 7:14-16; Ps 2:6-7). The Davidic king was to be loyal to the great King, Yahweh. He, like Moses and Joshua, received his orders directly from the Lord; but unlike with Moses, the word of the Lord was mediated through the prophets. He, like Moses and Joshua, was expected to serve his God and his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessiah-King\">The Messiah-King<\/p>\n<p>The descendants of David failed to maintain and expand the theocracy. By the eighth and seventh centuries <span>BC<\/span>, it was apparent that even the greatest kings were dwarfed by the stature of David and Solomon. The prophets (Is 9:2-7; 11:1-9; Jer 33:14-16; Ez 34:22-31; Mi 5:2-5) spoke of another king, the Messiah, a descendant of David who would rule permanently and by whose rule the reign of God would extend to the ends of the earth. He would put down all opposition to God’s rule, remove all enemies, and bring in an era of universal peace and righteousness. The Messiah-King would reveal the perfections of divine rule, as the Spirit of God would be upon him. His kingship would be marked by service to the people of God, so that they would be a well-cared-for flock; he would serve them as their shepherd.<\/p>\n<p>In the coming of Jesus the messianic kingdom is more clearly revealed. He is the King of whom the angels said, “The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born tonight in Bethlehem, the city of David!” (Lk 2:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). These magnificent words show continuity with the prophetic word. Jesus is the Savior, whose role includes deliverance from sin but also deliverance from all causes of adversity, evil, and the effects of the curse. His mission pertains to both forgiveness and to the establishment of peace on earth (1:77-79). In this light we must look at Jesus’ ministry of healing, feeding, opposing the forces of evil, suffering, and teaching as the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth. He is the King who serves, fights against the demonic powers, and overcomes. The resurrection marks his victory, and he is crowned with glory by being seated at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33-36; cf. 1 Cor 15:25). In being the Savior he is none other than Christ the Lord. The early apostolic preaching proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah of God and the Lord. The lordship of Jesus is corollary to his being the Messiah. To those who call on him, he is the Savior-Messiah-Lord (Rom 10:9-15), but to those who reject him, he is the divine warrior, before whom all knees will bow and who will bring in the era of the Father’s judgment (cf. Rv 1:12-16; 19:11-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught his disciples that at his coming in glory he would be seated on his throne and all mankind would pay him obeisance. The enemies of God will be cast out from his presence, and the people of God will fully inherit the kingdom (Mt 25:31-46). In accordance with Jesus’ teaching, the members of his body, the church, are expected to work out the theocratic ideal in their lives, that by their works and faith they may glorify the Father and show that they are his (Jn 17:20-26; cf. Mt 25:33-40). This is the biblical manner of witness that Israel failed to give and that the church is privileged to give; as Paul wrote to Timothy:<\/p>\n<p>I command you before God, who gives life to all, and before Christ Jesus, . . . that you obey his commands with all purity. Then no one can find fault with you from now until our Lord Jesus Christ returns. For at the right time Christ will be revealed from heaven by the blessed and only almighty God, the King of kings and Lord of lords. He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No one has ever seen him, nor ever will. To him be honor and power forever. Amen. (1 Tm 6:13-16, <span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul gives several instructions as to how the people of God must demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus. Throughout the book of Revelation, Jesus is viewed as King over the church (Rv 4:2, 9-11; 5:1, 9-13). At his return his kingship will be established. At this time, the enemies of the cross will see the one whom they have rejected and will bow before the messianic King (1 Cor 15:25-28). “After that the end will come, when he [Jesus] will turn the Kingdom over to God the Father, having put down all enemies of every kind” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KING<\/h3>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, or Persia). Other words may also refer to royalty. The Philistines introduced the title <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seren<\/span> (lord) into Hebrew vocabulary. The five Philistine cities were ruled by five lords. Another word for an Israelite king is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> (ruler). Both Saul and David were anointed as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> over Israel (1 Sm 10:1; 16:13). In the NT and the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> has a meaning similar to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span><em>.<\/em> The NT <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> refers to secular rulers living in the first century, kings of Israel, rulers of the past, and the divine King, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “King of kings,” attributed to Jesus (1 Tm 6:15), is a Hebrew expression meaning supreme or greatest king. For example, in Ezekiel’s prediction of the fall of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar is named the “king of kings” (Ez 26:7). The great rulers of Assyria and Babylon introduced this title. Before their time, rulers were called either “king” or “great king,” as in 2 Kings 18:28: “Hear the word of the great king, the king of Assyria” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Later rulers had their titles adjusted to keep up with the expanse of their empires.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KingshipinIsrael\">Kingship in Israel<\/p>\n<p>God chose Abraham as the father of nations; through him and his descendants the messianic rule would be established on earth. In his promises to Abraham, God repeatedly assured him that he would become the father of a mighty nation, to whom God would give the land of Canaan, and that kings would arise from his descendants (Gn 17:6). Abraham showed his acceptance of the rule of God over his family by obeying God’s command to be circumcised, which set the clan of Abraham apart for the service of God (vv 10-14). The ultimate purpose of God’s relation with Abraham and his descendants was that God would be King over Israel and that his people would show their acceptance of his rule by their faithful obedience to him (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of the covenant was God’s expectation of loyalty to his rule. Abraham and his descendants were to exercise their God-given “rule” over the nations by living in fellowship with the great King. Thus the Lord reestablished his dominion over mankind. Through Abraham and his descendants, he would raise up a “royal nation” to whom the full privileges of rule over his creation would be restored.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also made a covenant with Israel. This covenant was a sovereign administration of grace and promise by which the Lord consecrated the people unto himself by the sanctions of divine law and by his very presence. The nation, witnessing God’s care for them, had to learn that by their obedience to God’s expectations the theocratic kingdom might become a reality on earth. In the Sinaitic covenant the theocracy (the rule of God) was established. Israel was entrusted with the commandments, so that they might show themselves to be a theocratic nation, as God revealed to Moses: “Now if you will obey me and keep my covenant, you will be my own special treasure from among all the nations of the earth; for all the earth belongs to me. And you will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>). They were God’s elect for the sake of the nations; through Israel’s priestly obedience and intercession, the whole earth might know the Creator-Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p>The qualities of God’s kingship were power, glory, fidelity, wisdom, concern, service, delegation of power to man, blessing and protection, just rule, judgment, vindication, and deliverance. Israel’s kingship was to be no different from God’s. Their varied and sometimes complex laws taught Israel to distinguish between what was holy and common, clean and unclean, the ways of God and the ways of the nations. The ways of God enhanced love, fidelity, justice, peace, harmony, service, concern for others, wise living, defense of the needy, and judgment of the guilty. The ways of the kingdoms of the world all too often promoted selfishness, anarchy, despotism, and disregard for justice.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also instituted an organizational structure designed to promote his theocratic purposes. In the wilderness Moses and the chosen leaders of Israel (Ex 18:19-26; Nm 11:24-25; cf. Dt 1:15-18) were God’s instruments for upholding his kingship in Israel. Upon Moses’ death, Joshua took over the theocratic rule. The Lord was with him as he had been with Moses, and all Israel recognized the continuity of God’s rule in Joshua’s leadership (Dt 34:9; Jos 3:7; 4:14). Like Moses had before his death, Joshua charged the leadership and Israel to persevere in the gracious covenant relationship (Jos 23–24). However, Israel perished because of its greed, immorality, strife, and idolatry. During the period of the judges, each one did what was right in his own eyes (Jgs 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). There was no king in the land in those days. The judges were military leaders whom the Lord raised up to deliver his people from their foreign oppressors. But God remained King, regardless of the fact that Israel lived as if he were not. The period of the judges demonstrated that apostate Israel, disobedient to their King, was unsuccessful in dealing with the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<p>The theocratic leadership was restored to Israel by the ministry of Samuel. He was born into a Levitical family and served the Lord at the Shiloh tabernacle. He was called to be a prophet—an office which had not been filled since Moses’ death (1 Sm 3:20-21). He was recognized as a judge in Israel (7:15). In Samuel the offices of priest, prophet, and king were combined. He is never called king, as his lifestyle was that of a prophet rather than that of a ruler. The carefully calculated request of the people for a king was a rejection of Samuel’s ministry. The people were not satisfied with the spiritual, charismatic leadership of Samuel. In their search for a more dynamic leader they found in the kings of the surrounding nations attractive elements: power, manifestation of glory, and stability. Thus far the tribes had experienced several civil wars that endangered the unity of Israel. It was thought that a king would remedy all of the social and political problems. Though God had foreseen the days of the monarchy in the law (Dt 17:14-20), the people were motivated to introduce the kingship for secular rather than religious reasons: “Give us a king like all the other nations have” (1 Sm 8:5); “We want to be like the nations around us. Our king will govern us and lead us into battle” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Samuel never accepted the idea of kingship; it was foreign to the theocratic ideal.<\/p>\n<p>The crucial difference between kingship in Israel and kingship in neighboring lands lay in the fact that God endowed the king of Israel with his Spirit to establish his rule on earth. God ruled for his people, and his people benefited was from his rule; he was their provider, protector, and divine warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was instrumental in anointing Saul (a sad example of kingship) and David (a good example of kingly rule under God). Saul’s kingship revealed a despotic, uncaring attitude and self-aggrandizement. He was intent on establishing his dynasty, while not caring sufficiently for the people of God. Therefore, the Lord rejected his kingship (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingship, in contrast to Saul’s, was in line with God’s because it reflected the glory of Yahweh’s kingship. David’s life and rule are taken up in the two books of Samuel as a commentary on the pros and cons of kingship. Positively, David was a man after God’s heart, who sought the will of God, repented of his sin, and sought the glory of God. Negatively, David failed in his personal and family life to uphold the high standards of God’s law. Yet God was pleased to choose David’s dynasty as the lineage through which Jesus Christ would come. The prophet Nathan assured David that his dynasty would last: “Your dynasty and your kingdom will continue for all time before me, and your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sm 7:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). But God did not promise that it would be immune from prosecution or banishment.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding qualities of the kingship of David and his son Solomon reflect the true theocratic intention: concern for the Lord, for a heart of wisdom and integrity, and for the well-being of God’s people. Concern for the Lord found expression in the preparation for and actual building of the temple (cf. Ps 132). Concern for integrity and wisdom is clearly evident, especially in David’s response to Nathan’s rebuke (2 Sm 12) and in Solomon’s request to have a heart of wisdom (1 Kgs 3). Concern for the people comes to expression in their securing the borders against enemies, achieving national unification, and bringing opportunity for economic growth. The era of David and Solomon represented a true reflection of God’s kingship on earth.<\/p>\n<p>The accounts in Kings and Chronicles unfold the subsequent history of kingship in Israel and Judah. The good kings followed the examples provided by David and Solomon in securing Jerusalem against foreign invaders, in supplying for the needs of the temple, in having God’s people instructed in the word of God, and in modeling their rule after the law of Moses. A good Davidic king loved the Lord, the temple, the law, and God’s people. He served them as a good shepherd. Evil kings were those who rejected this model of kingship in favor of the pagan models. So Omri and Ahab introduced the Phoenician culture with its Baalism, utterly disregarding the heritage of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The Davidic king was treated as a member of God’s household, being a “son” of the great King (cf. 2 Sm 7:14-16; Ps 2:6-7). The Davidic king was to be loyal to the great King, Yahweh. He, like Moses and Joshua, received his orders directly from the Lord; but unlike with Moses, the word of the Lord was mediated through the prophets. He, like Moses and Joshua, was expected to serve his God and his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessiah-King\">The Messiah-King<\/p>\n<p>The descendants of David failed to maintain and expand the theocracy. By the eighth and seventh centuries <span>BC<\/span>, it was apparent that even the greatest kings were dwarfed by the stature of David and Solomon. The prophets (Is 9:2-7; 11:1-9; Jer 33:14-16; Ez 34:22-31; Mi 5:2-5) spoke of another king, the Messiah, a descendant of David who would rule permanently and by whose rule the reign of God would extend to the ends of the earth. He would put down all opposition to God’s rule, remove all enemies, and bring in an era of universal peace and righteousness. The Messiah-King would reveal the perfections of divine rule, as the Spirit of God would be upon him. His kingship would be marked by service to the people of God, so that they would be a well-cared-for flock; he would serve them as their shepherd.<\/p>\n<p>In the coming of Jesus the messianic kingdom is more clearly revealed. He is the King of whom the angels said, “The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born tonight in Bethlehem, the city of David!” (Lk 2:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). These magnificent words show continuity with the prophetic word. Jesus is the Savior, whose role includes deliverance from sin but also deliverance from all causes of adversity, evil, and the effects of the curse. His mission pertains to both forgiveness and to the establishment of peace on earth (1:77-79). In this light we must look at Jesus’ ministry of healing, feeding, opposing the forces of evil, suffering, and teaching as the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth. He is the King who serves, fights against the demonic powers, and overcomes. The resurrection marks his victory, and he is crowned with glory by being seated at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33-36; cf. 1 Cor 15:25). In being the Savior he is none other than Christ the Lord. The early apostolic preaching proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah of God and the Lord. The lordship of Jesus is corollary to his being the Messiah. To those who call on him, he is the Savior-Messiah-Lord (Rom 10:9-15), but to those who reject him, he is the divine warrior, before whom all knees will bow and who will bring in the era of the Father’s judgment (cf. Rv 1:12-16; 19:11-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught his disciples that at his coming in glory he would be seated on his throne and all mankind would pay him obeisance. The enemies of God will be cast out from his presence, and the people of God will fully inherit the kingdom (Mt 25:31-46). In accordance with Jesus’ teaching, the members of his body, the church, are expected to work out the theocratic ideal in their lives, that by their works and faith they may glorify the Father and show that they are his (Jn 17:20-26; cf. Mt 25:33-40). This is the biblical manner of witness that Israel failed to give and that the church is privileged to give; as Paul wrote to Timothy:<\/p>\n<p>I command you before God, who gives life to all, and before Christ Jesus, . . . that you obey his commands with all purity. Then no one can find fault with you from now until our Lord Jesus Christ returns. For at the right time Christ will be revealed from heaven by the blessed and only almighty God, the King of kings and Lord of lords. He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No one has ever seen him, nor ever will. To him be honor and power forever. Amen. (1 Tm 6:13-16, <span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul gives several instructions as to how the people of God must demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus. Throughout the book of Revelation, Jesus is viewed as King over the church (Rv 4:2, 9-11; 5:1, 9-13). At his return his kingship will be established. At this time, the enemies of the cross will see the one whom they have rejected and will bow before the messianic King (1 Cor 15:25-28). “After that the end will come, when he [Jesus] will turn the Kingdom over to God the Father, having put down all enemies of every kind” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KING The word melek (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Eg...","summary_en":"KING The word melek (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Eg...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22671,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Biblical Concept of Law","title_en":"Biblical Concept of Law","content_ro":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","summary_en":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26342,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moses","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>MOSES<\/h3>\n<p>Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:17; Ps 18:16). If, however, it is an Egyptian name given him by the daughter of Pharaoh who found him, it is more likely from an Egyptian word for “son” (also found as part of many well-known Egyptian names such as Ahmose, Thutmose, and Ramses). No one else in the OT bears this name.<\/p>\n<p>Without question, the greatest figure in the OT (mentioned by name 767 times), his influence also extends to the pages of the NT (where he is mentioned 79 times). The first 40 years of his life were spent in the household of Pharaoh (Acts 7:23), where he was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The next 40 years he spent in Midian as a fugitive from the wrath of Pharaoh, after killing an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. His last 40 years were devoted to leading the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to the land God had promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gn 12:1-3). He died at the age of 120 after leading the Israelites successfully through 40 years of wandering in the wilderness to the very edge of the Promised Land on the east side of the Jordan River (Dt 34:7). He is one of the great figures in all of history, a man who took a group of slaves and, under inconceivably difficult circumstances, molded them into a nation that has influenced and altered the entire course of history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<p>• The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<p>• Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The only source of information for the life of Moses is the Bible. Archaeology confirms the credibility of the events associated with Moses, but it has never provided any specific confirmation of his existence or work. His story begins with the arrival in Egypt of Jacob, his sons, and their families during a time of famine in Canaan. Invited by Joseph and welcomed by Pharaoh, the family settled down in northeast Egypt in an area known as Goshen, where they remained for 430 years (Ex 12:40). With the passing of time, their numbers grew rapidly, so that the land was filled with them (1:7). A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. The biblical account does not give the name of this pharaoh, and there has never been agreement as to his identity. He has most frequently been identified as Thutmose III (1504–1451 <span>BC<\/span>), Seti I (1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>), or Ramses II (1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). Out of fear that their growing numbers might become a threat to the security of his nation, Pharaoh determined to take measures to reduce their number. He put them to work building the store cities of Pithom and Rameses, but the severity of the work did not diminish them. He next tried to enlist the cooperation of the midwives to destroy the male babies, but they would not carry out his orders. He then ordered his own people to drown the male infants in the Nile River. Against the background of this first-known Jewish persecution, the baby Moses was born.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFirst40YearsInEgypt\">The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<h5>Birth and Early Life<\/h5>\n<p>A man of the family of Levi named Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed (Ex 6:20; cf. 2:1). Their first son, Aaron, three years older than Moses, was born before the command to drown the Hebrew babies was given, as there is no indication that his life was in danger. However, the cruel order was in force when Moses was born, and after three months, when his mother could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of bulrushes and daubed it with bitumen and pitch. She put the baby into the basket and placed it among the reeds along the banks of the river. An older sister, Miriam, stayed near the river to see what would happen. Soon the daughter of Pharaoh (identified by Josephus as Thermuthis and by others as Hatshepsut, but whose actual identity cannot be determined) came to the river to bathe, as was her custom. She discovered the baby, recognized it as one of the Hebrew children, and determined that she would raise the child as her own. Miriam emerged from her hiding place and offered to secure a Hebrew woman to nurse the child, an arrangement that was agreeable to the princess. Miriam took the baby to his own mother, who kept him for perhaps two or three years (cf. 1 Sm 1:19-24). Nothing is recorded of those formative years. Whether his mother continued seeing him during his later childhood and young manhood or revealed his true identity to him or taught him the Hebrew faith are matters of speculation. Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, as would befit a member of the royal household, and he became mighty in his words and deeds (Acts 7:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Identification with His Own People<\/h5>\n<p>Just when Moses became aware that he was a Hebrew rather than Egyptian cannot be known, but it is clear that he knew it by the time he was 40 years old. One day he went out to visit his people and to observe their treatment, for the cruel measures taken against them by Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth had not been lifted. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, Moses in great anger killed the Egyptian and buried him. He thought the deed had gone unnoticed until the next day when he encountered two Hebrews fighting with each other. When he tried to act as peacemaker, they both turned on him and accused him of murder: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you mean to kill me, as you killed the Egyptian?” (Ex 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). Acts 7:25 adds: “He supposed that his brethren understood that God was giving them deliverance by his hand” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Aware that being a member of Pharaoh’s household would not exempt him from punishment now that the deed was known, Moses fled for his life to the land of Midian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecond40YearsInMidian\">The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<h5>Marriage into the Family of Jethro<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after arriving in Midian, Moses sat down by a well, where he observed the seven daughters of the priest of Midian who had come to the well to draw water for their father’s flock. Shepherds came and drove them away, but Moses intervened and helped them water their animals. When Jethro (Ex 3:1; also called Reuel, 2:18; Hobab, Nm 10:29) learned what had happened, he invited Moses to stay with his family and gave him Zipporah as his wife. (There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the identity of Hobab in Numbers 10:29; some think he was Moses’ father-in-law, while others maintain that Hobab was Moses’ brother-in-law. <em>See also<\/em> Hobab). Two children, Gershom (Ex 2:22) and Eliezer (18:4), were born to Moses and Zipporah during the years in Midian. Forty years passed, and Moses’ thoughts about his former life in Egypt must have faded into the past. He could not have foreseen that God would soon thrust him back into the midst of the court in Egypt, where he would confront the son of the now-dead pharaoh with the demand to release the Hebrew people from the bondage they had endured for so many years. God had not forgotten his people and was now ready to deliver them.<\/p>\n<h5>Encounter with God at the Burning Bush<\/h5>\n<p>One day, while Moses was taking care of the flocks of his father-in-law, he led them to Mt Horeb (known also as Sinai), where God appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush that burned but was not consumed. Moses approached to observe the strange sight more closely and heard God speak to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” Moses replied, “Here am I.” Before he could come any nearer to the bush, God said, “Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (Ex 3:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). He further identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He assured Moses that he was aware of the cruel afflictions of his people and had heard their cries. Then he told of his plan to send Moses to Egypt to deliver his people from their bondage.<\/p>\n<p>Faced with a challenge that seemed beyond his capabilities, the aged Moses began making excuses for not accepting the task. God assured Moses that he would be with him (Ex 3:11-12). To his excuse that he would not be able to give an answer if the people asked him the name of the God he represented, God revealed his name in the cryptic statement, “ ‘<span>I Am the One Who Always Is<\/span>’ . . . Just tell them, ‘I <span>Am<\/span> has sent me to you’ ” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many interpretations have been proposed for the name. Whatever else it means, it undoubtedly suggests the self-existence and all-sufficiency of God. Moses then argued that the people would not believe him when he told them that God had sent him to deliver them from Egypt. In response God gave him three signs: When he cast his shepherd’s rod to the ground, it became a serpent. When he put his hand to his bosom, it became leprous. He was also told that when he would pour water from the Nile on the ground, it would become blood (Ex 4:1-9). Even armed with these powerful evidences of the presence of God with him, Moses raised still another objection, “O Lord, I’m just not a good speaker. I never have been, and I’m not now, even after you have spoken to me. I’m clumsy with words” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>). God told him that he would teach him what to say, but despite such assurance, Moses asked God to send someone else. In anger mingled with compassion, God made Moses’ brother, Aaron, the spokesman, but said his instructions would still be given directly to Moses.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>Moses took his wife and sons and set out for Egypt, telling his father-in-law only that he wanted to go back to Egypt to visit his kinsmen there (Ex 4:18). The biblical account says he put his wife and sons on the same donkey to journey back to Egypt (v 20). The fact that all three rode the same animal indicates that both children were quite young and had not been born in the early years of Moses’ marriage. At a lodging place along the way a strange thing happened. The Lord met him and sought to kill him (v 24), apparently because Moses had failed to circumcise the baby before leaving Midian. When Zipporah realized that Moses’ life was in danger, she performed the rite herself and said to her husband, “What a blood-smeared bridegroom you are to me!” (v 25, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whatever else may have been involved in this unusual encounter with God, it was a solemn reminder that the one who was to be the leader of the covenant people must not himself neglect any part of the covenant (Gn 17:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God told Aaron (who was still in Egypt) to go to the mountain where Moses had encountered God at the burning bush and meet his brother there. Moses told Aaron everything that had happened, and together they went to Egypt, gathered the elders together, and informed them of these matters. When Moses and Aaron performed the signs in the presence of the people, they believed these leaders had been sent by God to deliver them from their affliction (Ex 4:30-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheThird40YearsFromEgypttoCanaan\">The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<h5>The Encounter with Pharaoh<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after his return to Egypt, Moses, accompanied by Aaron, went to Pharaoh and repeated the demands of the Lord, “Let my people go, for they must go out into the wilderness to hold a religious festival in my honor” (Ex 5:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Pharaoh rejected the demand with the observation that he had never heard of this God of Moses. When one realizes that Egyptian kings considered themselves to be gods, the affront to Pharaoh becomes even more acute. Not only did he reject Moses’ demands, but he intensified the burdens of the Hebrews. Their work had up until then required them to make brick using straw provided for them, but now Pharaoh said they would have to gather their own straw and still produce the same number of bricks. The Hebrews turned in anguish and anger to Moses and blamed him for making them offensive in the sight of Pharaoh. Even Moses could not understand the turn of events and complained bitterly to God. God reassured Moses that he would deliver the Hebrews from their bondage, and moreover, he would bring them into the land he had promised Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He then instructed Moses to return to Pharaoh and repeat the demand to release the Hebrews upon threat of severe reprisal if the demand were ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Ushered again into Pharaoh’s presence, Moses repeated his request for release of the Israelites. He attempted to impress Pharaoh by turning his rod into a serpent, but the Egyptian wise men, through their secret arts, were able to duplicate the miracle, so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened and he would not listen to Moses. In rapid succession Moses brought nine plagues upon the land of Egypt to show the omnipotence of God to force the compliance of Pharaoh. These included a plague in which the water of the Nile turned to blood, a plague of frogs, one of gnats, then of flies, a plague on the livestock, boils on the people, plagues of hail, locusts, and complete darkness. During the plagues of the frogs, flies, hail, locusts, and darkness, Pharaoh was distraught and would temporarily relent and agree to Moses’ demands, but as soon as the plague was lifted, his heart hardened and he would retract his promise. The outcome of the first nine plagues was terrible devastation of the land of Egypt, but the Israelites were not released. There was yet one more plague in store, the most terrible of all.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Passover<\/h5>\n<p>God told Moses that there remained one more plague in store for the Egyptians: “All the firstborn sons will die in every family in Egypt, from the oldest son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the oldest son of his lowliest slave. Even the firstborn of the animals will die” (Ex 11:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). Furthermore, he assured Moses that the plague would not touch a single household of the Hebrews, “Then you will know that the <span>Lord<\/span> makes a distinction between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (v 7, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed the people through Moses and Aaron to make their preparations for leaving the land in haste. They were to go to the Egyptians and ask them for their jewels of silver and gold (Ex 11:2-3), a request to which the Egyptians agreed, perhaps out of fear of the Hebrews and in the belief that the gifts would bring about an end of the terrors that had struck the land. The Hebrews were also instructed to prepare a lamb for each family—small families could share—for the last meal to be eaten in the land of Egypt (a rite that became the pattern for the Jewish observance of the Passover for many centuries). Blood of the lamb was to be put on the doorposts and lintels of the houses in which the Passover meal was being eaten that night. The Hebrews were promised that wherever the blood was on the door, no harm would come to that household. They were also instructed to prepare unleavened bread. At midnight the death angel of the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh himself to the lowest captive in a dungeon; not a single house of the Egyptians escaped tragedy. When Pharaoh saw what had happened, he ordered Moses and the people to leave the land at once (12:31-32). The biblical record says that about 600,000 Hebrew men left Egypt. Together with women and children, the total would have been in excess of 2 million people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Exodus from Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The exodus is the central event of the OT and marks the birth of Israel as a nation. The Jewish people still look back to that event as the great redemptive act of God in history on behalf of his people, much as Christians look upon the cross as the great redemptive act of their faith.<\/p>\n\n<p>The exact route taken by the Hebrews out of Egypt cannot be determined today, though many possibilities have been proposed. They did not take the shortest, most direct route to Canaan (which would have been about a 10 days’ journey along the Mediterranean coastline), but set out in the direction of Mt Sinai, where Moses had earlier met God at the burning bush. As a sign that Moses had been sent to deliver the people, God told Moses he would bring them to that same spot, where they would worship God (Ex 3:12). The Hebrews did not forget the request of Joseph to carry his bones with them when they returned to their own land (Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19).<\/p>\n<p>As the people journeyed, they were preceded by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. The cloud represented the presence of God with his people and guided them along the route they should travel.<\/p>\n<p>Back in Egypt, Pharaoh was having second thoughts about letting the Hebrews leave the land and decided to pursue them with his army and bring them back. When the Hebrews saw the approaching cloud of dust and realized that the Egyptian army was pursuing them, they were terrified. The sea lay ahead of them and the Egyptians were behind; there seemed to be no way of escape. The people turned on Moses, blaming him for bringing them out of Egypt. God again assured them that they did not need to be afraid or do anything to defend themselves. He promised to fight the battle for them and give them victory (Ex 14:14).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord parted the water of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally but erroneously referred to as the Red Sea) by a strong east wind and allowed the Israelites to pass through the sea on dry ground to the other side. The Egyptians rushed after the Israelites, following them into the dry bed of the sea. But before they reached the other side, the waters rushed back together, destroying the Egyptian army in the midst of the sea and leaving the Israelites safe on the other side. The people celebrated their great deliverance in song (Ex 15) and then continued their journey. The narrative that follows describes the struggle of the Israelites to survive in the desert—problems of food and water, internal dissension, murmurings against Moses, and battles with enemies. Through all their experiences, Moses towers as the unifying force and great spiritual leader.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of having seen God’s great act of deliverance so recently, the faith of the Israelites was not strong. Three days later they came to a place where the water was not fit to drink, and they began complaining against Moses. The Lord showed Moses how to purify the water, and the people’s needs were satisfied (Ex 15:22-25). When they reached the wilderness of Sin, they complained again, this time because of lack of food. God met their need by supplying manna, a breadlike substance that would serve as their food until they came to Canaan (16:1-21). Later, camped at Rephidim, the people complained again, this time for lack of water. Once again God met their needs by supplying water from the rock at Horeb (17:1-7). The Amalekites attacked them while they were still camped at Rephidim, but God gave a great victory to the Israelites (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the people reached Sinai and camped there. Jethro came to visit, bringing Moses’ wife and sons. Zipporah had apparently decided to return with her children to stay with her father rather than to go on to Egypt with Moses. It was a joyful reunion, and Jethro made a burnt offering and sacrifices to God (an act that has evoked the suggestion that Jethro was a true worshiper of God, though nothing is known of his links to the Hebrew faith). When Jethro observed Moses trying to settle all the disputes and problems of the Hebrews unaided, he proposed that Moses delegate responsibility for some of the lesser matters to able men chosen from among the people. Moses accepted the suggestion, and shortly afterward Jethro returned to his own land. He did not remain at Sinai to participate in the ratification of the covenant (Ex 18:13-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Giving of the Law at Sinai<\/h5>\n<p>God had kept his promises to Moses. He had delivered the Hebrews from their Egyptian bondage and brought them to the very place where he had commissioned Moses to be their leader. He was now ready to enter into a covenant relationship with Israel. Amid a spectacular and terrifying scene of lightning, thunder, thick clouds, fire, smoke, and earthquake, God descended to the top of Sinai and called Moses to come up the mountain, where he remained 40 days to receive the law that would become the basis of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God was revealed as the God who demands exclusive allegiance in all areas of life and, at the same time, as the God who desires personal fellowship with his people.<\/p>\n<h5>Apostasy of the People<\/h5>\n<p>While Moses tarried on Mt Sinai, the people below became impatient and skeptical about his return, so they went to Aaron and asked him to make idols for them to worship. They contributed the gold earrings they were wearing. “Then Aaron took the gold, melted it down, and molded and tooled it into the shape of a calf. The people exclaimed, ‘O Israel, these are the gods who brought you out of Egypt!’ ” (Ex 32:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). The next day they joined in the worship of the idol with sacrifices and revelry. God told Moses what was taking place below and angrily declared that he was going to destroy the people but would make a great nation of Moses and his descendants. Moses immediately interceded on behalf of the people, and God’s wrath abated. Moses descended the mountain, carrying the two tablets of stone on which the law had been written, but when he entered the camp and saw what was taking place, he could not restrain his anger. He threw the stone tablets to the ground, ground the golden calf to powder, mixed it with water, and forced the people to drink it. He turned angrily to Aaron and demanded an explanation for the great sin that had been committed. Aaron lamely tried to shift the blame by minimizing his own role: “I threw them [the gold] into the fire—and out came this calf!” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses called for volunteers to carry out God’s judgment on the people for the great sin they had committed. Men of the tribe of Levi responded and executed about 3,000 men. Later they were commended and rewarded (Dt 33:9-10). Moses again interceded for the people, requesting that he be destroyed with the rest if God could not forgive them. God relented and promised Moses that the angel of the Lord would go with them still (Ex 32:34).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses made a special request that he might be allowed to see the glory of the Lord. God instructed Moses to hew out two more tablets of stone like the ones he had destroyed and to return to the top of the mountain the next day. There the Lord passed before him and proclaimed his name: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, the merciful and gracious God. I am slow to anger and rich in unfailing love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses remained on the mountain another 40 days, where he received renewed warnings against idolatry and further instructions from the Lord, together with another copy of the Ten Commandments on tablets of stone. When Moses came down from the mountain, he was not aware that the skin of his face shone as a result of talking with God. At first the people were afraid to come near him, but he called them together and repeated all the Lord had said to him on the mountain. Afterward, he covered his face with a veil, which he removed only when he went into the presence of the Lord. Paul said the purpose of the veil was to prevent the people from seeing the heavenly light gradually fade from Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Tabernacle and Establishment of the Priesthood<\/h5>\n<p>When Moses went up to the mountain the first time to receive the law from God, he was instructed to collect materials to be used in the construction of the tabernacle or tent. Gold, silver, bronze, blue and purple and scarlet yarn, fine twined linen, goats’ hair, tanned rams’ skins, goatskins, and acacia wood would be needed, along with oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, onyx stones, and stones for setting (Ex 25:3-7). The pattern for construction was also given to him, together with the ritual to be used for the consecration of the priests. A man named Bezalel was put in charge of the construction of the tabernacle, assisted by Oholiab (31:1-6). The tabernacle was portable like a tent so that it could be taken down and moved from place to place as the Hebrews continued their journey toward Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to giving Moses directions for the tabernacle, God also instructed him concerning the sacrifices that were to be brought: the burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guilt offering (Lv 1–7). The solemn ceremony for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests and for inaugurating the worship practices were to be performed by Moses (chs 8–9).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after this solemn inauguration of the religious ritual actually took place, Nadab and Abihu, two of Aaron’s four sons, offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. A fire came out from the Lord and destroyed them. Moses forbade Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar to express grief because of the sinfulness of the act (Lv 10:1-7). The nature of their sin is difficult to determine, but it surely involved a violation of God’s holiness. Therefore, it is appropriate that a large part of the remainder of the book of Leviticus gives regulations that stress the holy living that God expected from his people.<\/p>\n<h5>From Sinai to Kadesh<\/h5>\n<p>A year had elapsed from the time the Israelites left Egypt until the census was taken (Nm 9:1). God reminded the people that it was time to observe the Passover, which they did, and a month later they set out from Sinai and came to the wilderness of Paran. Along the way they complained about the unvarying diet of manna and they longed for the fish, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic they had eaten in Egypt (11:4-6). In anger God sent quail in abundance, but even while the people were devouring the meat, God sent a great plague that killed many Israelites. The complaining attitude of the people was shared even by Miriam and Aaron. They began to speak against the Cushite woman Moses had married (12:1-2). It is not certain whether the Cushite was an Ethiopian or whether this was another way of referring to Zipporah. If Moses did marry a second time, no mention is made of it elsewhere in the OT. Moses made no reply to the accusations of his brother and sister. It was not necessary, for God intervened in defense of his servant. He smote Miriam with leprosy for her part in speaking against Moses, and when Aaron saw what had happened to Miriam, he acknowledged that they both had sinned. Miriam’s leprosy was removed in response to Moses’ fervent intercession.<\/p>\n\n<p>While the people were encamped at Kadesh (also called Kadesh-barnea—Nm 32:8) in the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent 12 men into Canaan, one from each tribe, to spy out the land in preparation for the Israelite entry. After 40 days the spies returned and, though they acknowledged that the land was fertile and inviting, 10 of them were afraid of the Canaanite inhabitants and advised against going into the land. Only Joshua and Caleb were willing to go ahead and occupy the territory. The entire congregation joined the protest against going in and determined to choose a new leader and return to Egypt rather than risk death by the sword in Canaan. They threatened to stone Moses and Aaron. At that moment God intervened and would have destroyed all the people on the spot except for the intervention of Moses (13:1–14:19). He declared that, if God did not bring the people into Canaan, the nations round about would conclude that the God of the Israelites was unable to bring them into the land. Once again God acquiesced to Moses’ request to pardon the people but said that none of them 20 years and older who had complained against him would be allowed to enter the land. All the people would wander in the wilderness for 40 years until that generation died, and then their children would be allowed to enter Canaan (14:29-33). When they heard the Lord’s sentence upon them, the people quickly decided to lift the sentence of judgment by entering the land at once, but God was not with them, and they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<h5>Forty Years in the Wilderness<\/h5>\n<p>Very little is known about events during the 40 years of wilderness wanderings. In spite of the judgment that had already come upon them, the people did not seem to change their ways. A man named Korah led another rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron. God would not listen to the pleas of Moses and Aaron on behalf of these dissidents (Nm 16:22-24), but told the congregation to separate itself from the tents of Korah and his conspirators. While the people watched, the ground split open and swallowed up the rebellious factions together with their households and all their possessions. Though the rest of the Israelites witnessed the fate of the rebels, it did not deter them from again turning on Moses and Aaron. At this, God told Moses to remove himself from the murmuring congregation in order that he could take vengeance. Though Moses offered atonement for the people’s sins, 14,700 died by plague before the punishment was ended. To demonstrate further to the people that Moses was his chosen leader, the Lord instructed Moses to take rods, one for each tribe, and to deposit them in the tent of meeting. God would cause the rod of the man chosen by him to sprout, and so silence the murmurings of the people. The rod belonging to Aaron sprouted and budded and bloomed, but the people only complained more.<\/p>\n<p>As the people neared the end of their years of wilderness wanderings, Miriam died in Kadesh and was buried there (Nm 20:1). Soon after, the people began to complain once more for lack of water. God instructed Moses to speak to a rock that would bring forth water to satisfy the needs of the people. Instead of speaking to the rock, Moses struck it twice with his rod. The water came forth, but God rebuked Moses and Aaron: “Because you did not trust me enough to demonstrate my holiness to the people of Israel, you will not lead them into the land I am giving them!” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). The nature of the sin is not clear, but Moses and Aaron were apparently taking to themselves honor that belonged to God alone. Because of the sin, they were denied the privilege of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. The punishment may seem too severe for the sin, but it shows that the privileged role of leadership given to Moses and Aaron carried with it an unusual measure of responsibility.<\/p>\n<p>The people then journeyed from Kadesh to Mt Hor on the border of the land of Edom, where Aaron died. Moses took his priestly garments from him and gave them to Eleazar, his son, thereby transferring the priestly office (Nm 20:28).<\/p>\n<p>As the people came closer to their destination, resistance on the part of the native population increased. There was a skirmish with the king of Arad and his forces at Hormah, resulting in a victory for Israel (Nm 21:1-3). As they journeyed around Edom, some of the Israelites began speaking against God and Moses because there was no food or water and they were tired of eating manna. This time the Lord sent poisonous snakes among the people, and many of them died of the venomous bites. Those who had not yet been bitten came to Moses, acknowledged their sin, and asked that the serpents be removed from their midst. God instructed Moses to make a serpent of bronze and set it on a pole. If a person bitten by a serpent looked up at the bronze serpent, he or she would live.<\/p>\n<p>As the Israelites approached the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, they sent messengers asking permission to pass peaceably through his land. Instead of granting the request, Sihon gathered his army together and fought against Israel. He was killed in the battle, and his land and cities were taken and occupied by the Hebrews (Nm 21:21-25).<\/p>\n<h5>Arrival at the Jordan River<\/h5>\n<p>After their victory over Sihon, the Israelites set out again and encamped in the plains of Moab on the east side of the Jordan River facing Jericho, in full view of the Promised Land. The Moabites were terrified by the presence of these people because they had heard what happened to the Amorites. Their king, Balak, hired a magician named Balaam to curse the Israelites. Three times Balaam attempted to curse them, but each time God turned his words into a blessing (Nm 22–24). Though unable to curse the Israelites, Balaam was responsible for an even greater calamity. He advised the Moabites to entice the Israelites to sacrifice to their gods and bow down to them (Nm 25:1-3; 31:16; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). While the people were worshiping the Moabite deity, Baal of Peor, God’s anger was kindled against them, and he sent a plague that killed 24,000 of them (Nm 25:9). It was Israel’s first encounter with the seductive allurement of licentious idolatry and an ominous foreview of what would happen after they settled down in Canaan. Their continued attraction to idolatry would be their final undoing.<\/p>\n<p>After the plague, God instructed Moses and Eleazar to take another census of the people like the one almost 40 years earlier. A whole generation of Israelites had died in the wilderness, but they had been replaced by an almost equal number, so that now there were 601,730 men 20 years and older who were able to go to war (Nm 26:51). Not a man remained of those who had been counted in the first census, except Caleb and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses to lay hands on Joshua and commission him as the new leader in the sight of Eleazar the priest and all the congregation (Nm 27:12-23). In addition, the Lord gave Moses instructions concerning feasts and offerings and vows (chs 28–30). God ordered Moses, as his last act as leader, to avenge the Israelites on the Midianites. In that battle the armies of Israel gained a great victory over the Midianites, killing their kings, their men, and also Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave instructions to Moses concerning the boundaries that would mark the Promised Land and named the men who would divide the land among the tribes (Nm 34). He also ordered that 48 cities be given to the Levites, the priestly tribe, as their portion. Six of these were designated as cities of refuge where murderers could flee so that they would not be killed by those seeking vengeance without having an opportunity to stand before the congregation for judgment (ch 35).<\/p>\n<h5>Moses’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy has often been called Moses’ valedictory speech to the people, for in it Moses is not merely the chief speaker but the only speaker. With the congregation of his people gathered before him, he rehearsed all that God had done for them since leaving Sinai, and he reminded them of their failure to enter the Promised Land 38 years earlier (Dt 2:14). He recalled his plea that God would let him cross the Jordan and see the land that was to be the home of the people, but God responded that Moses would only be allowed to view the land from the top of Pisgah. Moses then exhorted the people to obey the statutes and ordinances that had been given to them in order to experience God’s blessings in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>As the day of Moses’ death approached, the Lord ordered Moses and Joshua to present themselves at the tent of meeting in order for Joshua to be commissioned as the new leader (Dt 31:14-23). Before his death, Moses pronounced a blessing upon all the Israelites (ch 33). Having completed these tasks, Moses went up from the plains of Moab to Mt Nebo, and to the top of Pisgah. From there God showed him the land promised long ago to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the land that was soon to be the home of the wandering Israelite tribes. Again God told him that he would not be allowed to cross over the Jordan. Moses died there and God buried him somewhere in the valley in the land of Moab opposite Beth-peor (34:6). Moses was 120 years old when he died, and the Israelites mourned his death for 30 days. The finest tribute to Moses is found in the closing words of the book of Deuteronomy, “There has never been another prophet like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MosesintheNewTestament\">Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>All Jews and Christians in apostolic times considered Moses the author of the Pentateuch. Such expressions as “the law of Moses” (Lk 2:22), “Moses commanded” (Mt 19:7), “Moses said” (Mk 7:10) “and Moses wrote” (12:19) shows that his name was synonymous with the OT books attributed to him. He is mentioned in the NT more than any other OT figure, a total of 79 times. His role as lawgiver is emphasized more than any other aspect of his life (Mt 8:4; Mk 7:10; Jn 1:17; Acts 15:1). He appears at the transfiguration of Jesus as the representative of OT law, along with Elijah as the representative of OT prophets (Mt 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ role as prophet is also mentioned in the NT. As a prophet, he spoke of the coming Messiah and his sufferings (Lk 24:25-27; Acts 3:22). The NT also draws from the life and experiences of Moses to show patterns of life under the new covenant. The nativity story of Jesus parallels the Mosaic story of the infant deliverer being rescued from the evil designs of an earthly despot (Mt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount parallels the giving of the law at Sinai (Mt 5–7) and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of the will of God. Contrast between the old law and the new relationship with God is especially marked in the book of Galatians. The comparison of Moses with Christ is an important emphasis of the book of Hebrews (Heb 3:5-6; 9:11-22). John contrasted the law that was given through Moses with the grace and truth that came through Jesus Christ (Jn 1:17). He also contrasted the manna in the wilderness to Jesus as “the bread of life” (6:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Other references to Moses or to events associated with him include his birth (Acts 7:20; Heb 11:23), the burning bush (Lk 20:37), the magicians of Egypt (2 Tm 3:8), the Passover (Heb 11:28), the exodus (3:16), crossing of the sea (1 Cor 10:2), the covenant sacrifice at Sinai (Mt 26:28), the manna (1 Cor 10:3), the glory on Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:7-18), water from the rock (1 Cor 10:4), the bronze serpent (Jn 3:14), and the song of Moses (Rv 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Plagues upon Egypt; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOSES<\/h3>\n<p>Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:17; Ps 18:16). If, however, it is an Egyptian name given him by the daughter of Pharaoh who found him, it is more likely from an Egyptian word for “son” (also found as part of many well-known Egyptian names such as Ahmose, Thutmose, and Ramses). No one else in the OT bears this name.<\/p>\n<p>Without question, the greatest figure in the OT (mentioned by name 767 times), his influence also extends to the pages of the NT (where he is mentioned 79 times). The first 40 years of his life were spent in the household of Pharaoh (Acts 7:23), where he was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The next 40 years he spent in Midian as a fugitive from the wrath of Pharaoh, after killing an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. His last 40 years were devoted to leading the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to the land God had promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gn 12:1-3). He died at the age of 120 after leading the Israelites successfully through 40 years of wandering in the wilderness to the very edge of the Promised Land on the east side of the Jordan River (Dt 34:7). He is one of the great figures in all of history, a man who took a group of slaves and, under inconceivably difficult circumstances, molded them into a nation that has influenced and altered the entire course of history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<p>• The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<p>• Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The only source of information for the life of Moses is the Bible. Archaeology confirms the credibility of the events associated with Moses, but it has never provided any specific confirmation of his existence or work. His story begins with the arrival in Egypt of Jacob, his sons, and their families during a time of famine in Canaan. Invited by Joseph and welcomed by Pharaoh, the family settled down in northeast Egypt in an area known as Goshen, where they remained for 430 years (Ex 12:40). With the passing of time, their numbers grew rapidly, so that the land was filled with them (1:7). A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. The biblical account does not give the name of this pharaoh, and there has never been agreement as to his identity. He has most frequently been identified as Thutmose III (1504–1451 <span>BC<\/span>), Seti I (1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>), or Ramses II (1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). Out of fear that their growing numbers might become a threat to the security of his nation, Pharaoh determined to take measures to reduce their number. He put them to work building the store cities of Pithom and Rameses, but the severity of the work did not diminish them. He next tried to enlist the cooperation of the midwives to destroy the male babies, but they would not carry out his orders. He then ordered his own people to drown the male infants in the Nile River. Against the background of this first-known Jewish persecution, the baby Moses was born.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFirst40YearsInEgypt\">The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<h5>Birth and Early Life<\/h5>\n<p>A man of the family of Levi named Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed (Ex 6:20; cf. 2:1). Their first son, Aaron, three years older than Moses, was born before the command to drown the Hebrew babies was given, as there is no indication that his life was in danger. However, the cruel order was in force when Moses was born, and after three months, when his mother could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of bulrushes and daubed it with bitumen and pitch. She put the baby into the basket and placed it among the reeds along the banks of the river. An older sister, Miriam, stayed near the river to see what would happen. Soon the daughter of Pharaoh (identified by Josephus as Thermuthis and by others as Hatshepsut, but whose actual identity cannot be determined) came to the river to bathe, as was her custom. She discovered the baby, recognized it as one of the Hebrew children, and determined that she would raise the child as her own. Miriam emerged from her hiding place and offered to secure a Hebrew woman to nurse the child, an arrangement that was agreeable to the princess. Miriam took the baby to his own mother, who kept him for perhaps two or three years (cf. 1 Sm 1:19-24). Nothing is recorded of those formative years. Whether his mother continued seeing him during his later childhood and young manhood or revealed his true identity to him or taught him the Hebrew faith are matters of speculation. Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, as would befit a member of the royal household, and he became mighty in his words and deeds (Acts 7:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Identification with His Own People<\/h5>\n<p>Just when Moses became aware that he was a Hebrew rather than Egyptian cannot be known, but it is clear that he knew it by the time he was 40 years old. One day he went out to visit his people and to observe their treatment, for the cruel measures taken against them by Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth had not been lifted. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, Moses in great anger killed the Egyptian and buried him. He thought the deed had gone unnoticed until the next day when he encountered two Hebrews fighting with each other. When he tried to act as peacemaker, they both turned on him and accused him of murder: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you mean to kill me, as you killed the Egyptian?” (Ex 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). Acts 7:25 adds: “He supposed that his brethren understood that God was giving them deliverance by his hand” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Aware that being a member of Pharaoh’s household would not exempt him from punishment now that the deed was known, Moses fled for his life to the land of Midian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecond40YearsInMidian\">The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<h5>Marriage into the Family of Jethro<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after arriving in Midian, Moses sat down by a well, where he observed the seven daughters of the priest of Midian who had come to the well to draw water for their father’s flock. Shepherds came and drove them away, but Moses intervened and helped them water their animals. When Jethro (Ex 3:1; also called Reuel, 2:18; Hobab, Nm 10:29) learned what had happened, he invited Moses to stay with his family and gave him Zipporah as his wife. (There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the identity of Hobab in Numbers 10:29; some think he was Moses’ father-in-law, while others maintain that Hobab was Moses’ brother-in-law. <em>See also<\/em> Hobab). Two children, Gershom (Ex 2:22) and Eliezer (18:4), were born to Moses and Zipporah during the years in Midian. Forty years passed, and Moses’ thoughts about his former life in Egypt must have faded into the past. He could not have foreseen that God would soon thrust him back into the midst of the court in Egypt, where he would confront the son of the now-dead pharaoh with the demand to release the Hebrew people from the bondage they had endured for so many years. God had not forgotten his people and was now ready to deliver them.<\/p>\n<h5>Encounter with God at the Burning Bush<\/h5>\n<p>One day, while Moses was taking care of the flocks of his father-in-law, he led them to Mt Horeb (known also as Sinai), where God appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush that burned but was not consumed. Moses approached to observe the strange sight more closely and heard God speak to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” Moses replied, “Here am I.” Before he could come any nearer to the bush, God said, “Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (Ex 3:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). He further identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He assured Moses that he was aware of the cruel afflictions of his people and had heard their cries. Then he told of his plan to send Moses to Egypt to deliver his people from their bondage.<\/p>\n<p>Faced with a challenge that seemed beyond his capabilities, the aged Moses began making excuses for not accepting the task. God assured Moses that he would be with him (Ex 3:11-12). To his excuse that he would not be able to give an answer if the people asked him the name of the God he represented, God revealed his name in the cryptic statement, “ ‘<span>I Am the One Who Always Is<\/span>’ . . . Just tell them, ‘I <span>Am<\/span> has sent me to you’ ” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many interpretations have been proposed for the name. Whatever else it means, it undoubtedly suggests the self-existence and all-sufficiency of God. Moses then argued that the people would not believe him when he told them that God had sent him to deliver them from Egypt. In response God gave him three signs: When he cast his shepherd’s rod to the ground, it became a serpent. When he put his hand to his bosom, it became leprous. He was also told that when he would pour water from the Nile on the ground, it would become blood (Ex 4:1-9). Even armed with these powerful evidences of the presence of God with him, Moses raised still another objection, “O Lord, I’m just not a good speaker. I never have been, and I’m not now, even after you have spoken to me. I’m clumsy with words” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>). God told him that he would teach him what to say, but despite such assurance, Moses asked God to send someone else. In anger mingled with compassion, God made Moses’ brother, Aaron, the spokesman, but said his instructions would still be given directly to Moses.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>Moses took his wife and sons and set out for Egypt, telling his father-in-law only that he wanted to go back to Egypt to visit his kinsmen there (Ex 4:18). The biblical account says he put his wife and sons on the same donkey to journey back to Egypt (v 20). The fact that all three rode the same animal indicates that both children were quite young and had not been born in the early years of Moses’ marriage. At a lodging place along the way a strange thing happened. The Lord met him and sought to kill him (v 24), apparently because Moses had failed to circumcise the baby before leaving Midian. When Zipporah realized that Moses’ life was in danger, she performed the rite herself and said to her husband, “What a blood-smeared bridegroom you are to me!” (v 25, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whatever else may have been involved in this unusual encounter with God, it was a solemn reminder that the one who was to be the leader of the covenant people must not himself neglect any part of the covenant (Gn 17:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God told Aaron (who was still in Egypt) to go to the mountain where Moses had encountered God at the burning bush and meet his brother there. Moses told Aaron everything that had happened, and together they went to Egypt, gathered the elders together, and informed them of these matters. When Moses and Aaron performed the signs in the presence of the people, they believed these leaders had been sent by God to deliver them from their affliction (Ex 4:30-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheThird40YearsFromEgypttoCanaan\">The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<h5>The Encounter with Pharaoh<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after his return to Egypt, Moses, accompanied by Aaron, went to Pharaoh and repeated the demands of the Lord, “Let my people go, for they must go out into the wilderness to hold a religious festival in my honor” (Ex 5:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Pharaoh rejected the demand with the observation that he had never heard of this God of Moses. When one realizes that Egyptian kings considered themselves to be gods, the affront to Pharaoh becomes even more acute. Not only did he reject Moses’ demands, but he intensified the burdens of the Hebrews. Their work had up until then required them to make brick using straw provided for them, but now Pharaoh said they would have to gather their own straw and still produce the same number of bricks. The Hebrews turned in anguish and anger to Moses and blamed him for making them offensive in the sight of Pharaoh. Even Moses could not understand the turn of events and complained bitterly to God. God reassured Moses that he would deliver the Hebrews from their bondage, and moreover, he would bring them into the land he had promised Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He then instructed Moses to return to Pharaoh and repeat the demand to release the Hebrews upon threat of severe reprisal if the demand were ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Ushered again into Pharaoh’s presence, Moses repeated his request for release of the Israelites. He attempted to impress Pharaoh by turning his rod into a serpent, but the Egyptian wise men, through their secret arts, were able to duplicate the miracle, so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened and he would not listen to Moses. In rapid succession Moses brought nine plagues upon the land of Egypt to show the omnipotence of God to force the compliance of Pharaoh. These included a plague in which the water of the Nile turned to blood, a plague of frogs, one of gnats, then of flies, a plague on the livestock, boils on the people, plagues of hail, locusts, and complete darkness. During the plagues of the frogs, flies, hail, locusts, and darkness, Pharaoh was distraught and would temporarily relent and agree to Moses’ demands, but as soon as the plague was lifted, his heart hardened and he would retract his promise. The outcome of the first nine plagues was terrible devastation of the land of Egypt, but the Israelites were not released. There was yet one more plague in store, the most terrible of all.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Passover<\/h5>\n<p>God told Moses that there remained one more plague in store for the Egyptians: “All the firstborn sons will die in every family in Egypt, from the oldest son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the oldest son of his lowliest slave. Even the firstborn of the animals will die” (Ex 11:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). Furthermore, he assured Moses that the plague would not touch a single household of the Hebrews, “Then you will know that the <span>Lord<\/span> makes a distinction between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (v 7, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed the people through Moses and Aaron to make their preparations for leaving the land in haste. They were to go to the Egyptians and ask them for their jewels of silver and gold (Ex 11:2-3), a request to which the Egyptians agreed, perhaps out of fear of the Hebrews and in the belief that the gifts would bring about an end of the terrors that had struck the land. The Hebrews were also instructed to prepare a lamb for each family—small families could share—for the last meal to be eaten in the land of Egypt (a rite that became the pattern for the Jewish observance of the Passover for many centuries). Blood of the lamb was to be put on the doorposts and lintels of the houses in which the Passover meal was being eaten that night. The Hebrews were promised that wherever the blood was on the door, no harm would come to that household. They were also instructed to prepare unleavened bread. At midnight the death angel of the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh himself to the lowest captive in a dungeon; not a single house of the Egyptians escaped tragedy. When Pharaoh saw what had happened, he ordered Moses and the people to leave the land at once (12:31-32). The biblical record says that about 600,000 Hebrew men left Egypt. Together with women and children, the total would have been in excess of 2 million people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Exodus from Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The exodus is the central event of the OT and marks the birth of Israel as a nation. The Jewish people still look back to that event as the great redemptive act of God in history on behalf of his people, much as Christians look upon the cross as the great redemptive act of their faith.<\/p>\n\n<p>The exact route taken by the Hebrews out of Egypt cannot be determined today, though many possibilities have been proposed. They did not take the shortest, most direct route to Canaan (which would have been about a 10 days’ journey along the Mediterranean coastline), but set out in the direction of Mt Sinai, where Moses had earlier met God at the burning bush. As a sign that Moses had been sent to deliver the people, God told Moses he would bring them to that same spot, where they would worship God (Ex 3:12). The Hebrews did not forget the request of Joseph to carry his bones with them when they returned to their own land (Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19).<\/p>\n<p>As the people journeyed, they were preceded by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. The cloud represented the presence of God with his people and guided them along the route they should travel.<\/p>\n<p>Back in Egypt, Pharaoh was having second thoughts about letting the Hebrews leave the land and decided to pursue them with his army and bring them back. When the Hebrews saw the approaching cloud of dust and realized that the Egyptian army was pursuing them, they were terrified. The sea lay ahead of them and the Egyptians were behind; there seemed to be no way of escape. The people turned on Moses, blaming him for bringing them out of Egypt. God again assured them that they did not need to be afraid or do anything to defend themselves. He promised to fight the battle for them and give them victory (Ex 14:14).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord parted the water of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally but erroneously referred to as the Red Sea) by a strong east wind and allowed the Israelites to pass through the sea on dry ground to the other side. The Egyptians rushed after the Israelites, following them into the dry bed of the sea. But before they reached the other side, the waters rushed back together, destroying the Egyptian army in the midst of the sea and leaving the Israelites safe on the other side. The people celebrated their great deliverance in song (Ex 15) and then continued their journey. The narrative that follows describes the struggle of the Israelites to survive in the desert—problems of food and water, internal dissension, murmurings against Moses, and battles with enemies. Through all their experiences, Moses towers as the unifying force and great spiritual leader.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of having seen God’s great act of deliverance so recently, the faith of the Israelites was not strong. Three days later they came to a place where the water was not fit to drink, and they began complaining against Moses. The Lord showed Moses how to purify the water, and the people’s needs were satisfied (Ex 15:22-25). When they reached the wilderness of Sin, they complained again, this time because of lack of food. God met their need by supplying manna, a breadlike substance that would serve as their food until they came to Canaan (16:1-21). Later, camped at Rephidim, the people complained again, this time for lack of water. Once again God met their needs by supplying water from the rock at Horeb (17:1-7). The Amalekites attacked them while they were still camped at Rephidim, but God gave a great victory to the Israelites (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the people reached Sinai and camped there. Jethro came to visit, bringing Moses’ wife and sons. Zipporah had apparently decided to return with her children to stay with her father rather than to go on to Egypt with Moses. It was a joyful reunion, and Jethro made a burnt offering and sacrifices to God (an act that has evoked the suggestion that Jethro was a true worshiper of God, though nothing is known of his links to the Hebrew faith). When Jethro observed Moses trying to settle all the disputes and problems of the Hebrews unaided, he proposed that Moses delegate responsibility for some of the lesser matters to able men chosen from among the people. Moses accepted the suggestion, and shortly afterward Jethro returned to his own land. He did not remain at Sinai to participate in the ratification of the covenant (Ex 18:13-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Giving of the Law at Sinai<\/h5>\n<p>God had kept his promises to Moses. He had delivered the Hebrews from their Egyptian bondage and brought them to the very place where he had commissioned Moses to be their leader. He was now ready to enter into a covenant relationship with Israel. Amid a spectacular and terrifying scene of lightning, thunder, thick clouds, fire, smoke, and earthquake, God descended to the top of Sinai and called Moses to come up the mountain, where he remained 40 days to receive the law that would become the basis of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God was revealed as the God who demands exclusive allegiance in all areas of life and, at the same time, as the God who desires personal fellowship with his people.<\/p>\n<h5>Apostasy of the People<\/h5>\n<p>While Moses tarried on Mt Sinai, the people below became impatient and skeptical about his return, so they went to Aaron and asked him to make idols for them to worship. They contributed the gold earrings they were wearing. “Then Aaron took the gold, melted it down, and molded and tooled it into the shape of a calf. The people exclaimed, ‘O Israel, these are the gods who brought you out of Egypt!’ ” (Ex 32:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). The next day they joined in the worship of the idol with sacrifices and revelry. God told Moses what was taking place below and angrily declared that he was going to destroy the people but would make a great nation of Moses and his descendants. Moses immediately interceded on behalf of the people, and God’s wrath abated. Moses descended the mountain, carrying the two tablets of stone on which the law had been written, but when he entered the camp and saw what was taking place, he could not restrain his anger. He threw the stone tablets to the ground, ground the golden calf to powder, mixed it with water, and forced the people to drink it. He turned angrily to Aaron and demanded an explanation for the great sin that had been committed. Aaron lamely tried to shift the blame by minimizing his own role: “I threw them [the gold] into the fire—and out came this calf!” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses called for volunteers to carry out God’s judgment on the people for the great sin they had committed. Men of the tribe of Levi responded and executed about 3,000 men. Later they were commended and rewarded (Dt 33:9-10). Moses again interceded for the people, requesting that he be destroyed with the rest if God could not forgive them. God relented and promised Moses that the angel of the Lord would go with them still (Ex 32:34).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses made a special request that he might be allowed to see the glory of the Lord. God instructed Moses to hew out two more tablets of stone like the ones he had destroyed and to return to the top of the mountain the next day. There the Lord passed before him and proclaimed his name: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, the merciful and gracious God. I am slow to anger and rich in unfailing love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses remained on the mountain another 40 days, where he received renewed warnings against idolatry and further instructions from the Lord, together with another copy of the Ten Commandments on tablets of stone. When Moses came down from the mountain, he was not aware that the skin of his face shone as a result of talking with God. At first the people were afraid to come near him, but he called them together and repeated all the Lord had said to him on the mountain. Afterward, he covered his face with a veil, which he removed only when he went into the presence of the Lord. Paul said the purpose of the veil was to prevent the people from seeing the heavenly light gradually fade from Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Tabernacle and Establishment of the Priesthood<\/h5>\n<p>When Moses went up to the mountain the first time to receive the law from God, he was instructed to collect materials to be used in the construction of the tabernacle or tent. Gold, silver, bronze, blue and purple and scarlet yarn, fine twined linen, goats’ hair, tanned rams’ skins, goatskins, and acacia wood would be needed, along with oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, onyx stones, and stones for setting (Ex 25:3-7). The pattern for construction was also given to him, together with the ritual to be used for the consecration of the priests. A man named Bezalel was put in charge of the construction of the tabernacle, assisted by Oholiab (31:1-6). The tabernacle was portable like a tent so that it could be taken down and moved from place to place as the Hebrews continued their journey toward Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to giving Moses directions for the tabernacle, God also instructed him concerning the sacrifices that were to be brought: the burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guilt offering (Lv 1–7). The solemn ceremony for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests and for inaugurating the worship practices were to be performed by Moses (chs 8–9).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after this solemn inauguration of the religious ritual actually took place, Nadab and Abihu, two of Aaron’s four sons, offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. A fire came out from the Lord and destroyed them. Moses forbade Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar to express grief because of the sinfulness of the act (Lv 10:1-7). The nature of their sin is difficult to determine, but it surely involved a violation of God’s holiness. Therefore, it is appropriate that a large part of the remainder of the book of Leviticus gives regulations that stress the holy living that God expected from his people.<\/p>\n<h5>From Sinai to Kadesh<\/h5>\n<p>A year had elapsed from the time the Israelites left Egypt until the census was taken (Nm 9:1). God reminded the people that it was time to observe the Passover, which they did, and a month later they set out from Sinai and came to the wilderness of Paran. Along the way they complained about the unvarying diet of manna and they longed for the fish, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic they had eaten in Egypt (11:4-6). In anger God sent quail in abundance, but even while the people were devouring the meat, God sent a great plague that killed many Israelites. The complaining attitude of the people was shared even by Miriam and Aaron. They began to speak against the Cushite woman Moses had married (12:1-2). It is not certain whether the Cushite was an Ethiopian or whether this was another way of referring to Zipporah. If Moses did marry a second time, no mention is made of it elsewhere in the OT. Moses made no reply to the accusations of his brother and sister. It was not necessary, for God intervened in defense of his servant. He smote Miriam with leprosy for her part in speaking against Moses, and when Aaron saw what had happened to Miriam, he acknowledged that they both had sinned. Miriam’s leprosy was removed in response to Moses’ fervent intercession.<\/p>\n\n<p>While the people were encamped at Kadesh (also called Kadesh-barnea—Nm 32:8) in the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent 12 men into Canaan, one from each tribe, to spy out the land in preparation for the Israelite entry. After 40 days the spies returned and, though they acknowledged that the land was fertile and inviting, 10 of them were afraid of the Canaanite inhabitants and advised against going into the land. Only Joshua and Caleb were willing to go ahead and occupy the territory. The entire congregation joined the protest against going in and determined to choose a new leader and return to Egypt rather than risk death by the sword in Canaan. They threatened to stone Moses and Aaron. At that moment God intervened and would have destroyed all the people on the spot except for the intervention of Moses (13:1–14:19). He declared that, if God did not bring the people into Canaan, the nations round about would conclude that the God of the Israelites was unable to bring them into the land. Once again God acquiesced to Moses’ request to pardon the people but said that none of them 20 years and older who had complained against him would be allowed to enter the land. All the people would wander in the wilderness for 40 years until that generation died, and then their children would be allowed to enter Canaan (14:29-33). When they heard the Lord’s sentence upon them, the people quickly decided to lift the sentence of judgment by entering the land at once, but God was not with them, and they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<h5>Forty Years in the Wilderness<\/h5>\n<p>Very little is known about events during the 40 years of wilderness wanderings. In spite of the judgment that had already come upon them, the people did not seem to change their ways. A man named Korah led another rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron. God would not listen to the pleas of Moses and Aaron on behalf of these dissidents (Nm 16:22-24), but told the congregation to separate itself from the tents of Korah and his conspirators. While the people watched, the ground split open and swallowed up the rebellious factions together with their households and all their possessions. Though the rest of the Israelites witnessed the fate of the rebels, it did not deter them from again turning on Moses and Aaron. At this, God told Moses to remove himself from the murmuring congregation in order that he could take vengeance. Though Moses offered atonement for the people’s sins, 14,700 died by plague before the punishment was ended. To demonstrate further to the people that Moses was his chosen leader, the Lord instructed Moses to take rods, one for each tribe, and to deposit them in the tent of meeting. God would cause the rod of the man chosen by him to sprout, and so silence the murmurings of the people. The rod belonging to Aaron sprouted and budded and bloomed, but the people only complained more.<\/p>\n<p>As the people neared the end of their years of wilderness wanderings, Miriam died in Kadesh and was buried there (Nm 20:1). Soon after, the people began to complain once more for lack of water. God instructed Moses to speak to a rock that would bring forth water to satisfy the needs of the people. Instead of speaking to the rock, Moses struck it twice with his rod. The water came forth, but God rebuked Moses and Aaron: “Because you did not trust me enough to demonstrate my holiness to the people of Israel, you will not lead them into the land I am giving them!” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). The nature of the sin is not clear, but Moses and Aaron were apparently taking to themselves honor that belonged to God alone. Because of the sin, they were denied the privilege of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. The punishment may seem too severe for the sin, but it shows that the privileged role of leadership given to Moses and Aaron carried with it an unusual measure of responsibility.<\/p>\n<p>The people then journeyed from Kadesh to Mt Hor on the border of the land of Edom, where Aaron died. Moses took his priestly garments from him and gave them to Eleazar, his son, thereby transferring the priestly office (Nm 20:28).<\/p>\n<p>As the people came closer to their destination, resistance on the part of the native population increased. There was a skirmish with the king of Arad and his forces at Hormah, resulting in a victory for Israel (Nm 21:1-3). As they journeyed around Edom, some of the Israelites began speaking against God and Moses because there was no food or water and they were tired of eating manna. This time the Lord sent poisonous snakes among the people, and many of them died of the venomous bites. Those who had not yet been bitten came to Moses, acknowledged their sin, and asked that the serpents be removed from their midst. God instructed Moses to make a serpent of bronze and set it on a pole. If a person bitten by a serpent looked up at the bronze serpent, he or she would live.<\/p>\n<p>As the Israelites approached the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, they sent messengers asking permission to pass peaceably through his land. Instead of granting the request, Sihon gathered his army together and fought against Israel. He was killed in the battle, and his land and cities were taken and occupied by the Hebrews (Nm 21:21-25).<\/p>\n<h5>Arrival at the Jordan River<\/h5>\n<p>After their victory over Sihon, the Israelites set out again and encamped in the plains of Moab on the east side of the Jordan River facing Jericho, in full view of the Promised Land. The Moabites were terrified by the presence of these people because they had heard what happened to the Amorites. Their king, Balak, hired a magician named Balaam to curse the Israelites. Three times Balaam attempted to curse them, but each time God turned his words into a blessing (Nm 22–24). Though unable to curse the Israelites, Balaam was responsible for an even greater calamity. He advised the Moabites to entice the Israelites to sacrifice to their gods and bow down to them (Nm 25:1-3; 31:16; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). While the people were worshiping the Moabite deity, Baal of Peor, God’s anger was kindled against them, and he sent a plague that killed 24,000 of them (Nm 25:9). It was Israel’s first encounter with the seductive allurement of licentious idolatry and an ominous foreview of what would happen after they settled down in Canaan. Their continued attraction to idolatry would be their final undoing.<\/p>\n<p>After the plague, God instructed Moses and Eleazar to take another census of the people like the one almost 40 years earlier. A whole generation of Israelites had died in the wilderness, but they had been replaced by an almost equal number, so that now there were 601,730 men 20 years and older who were able to go to war (Nm 26:51). Not a man remained of those who had been counted in the first census, except Caleb and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses to lay hands on Joshua and commission him as the new leader in the sight of Eleazar the priest and all the congregation (Nm 27:12-23). In addition, the Lord gave Moses instructions concerning feasts and offerings and vows (chs 28–30). God ordered Moses, as his last act as leader, to avenge the Israelites on the Midianites. In that battle the armies of Israel gained a great victory over the Midianites, killing their kings, their men, and also Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave instructions to Moses concerning the boundaries that would mark the Promised Land and named the men who would divide the land among the tribes (Nm 34). He also ordered that 48 cities be given to the Levites, the priestly tribe, as their portion. Six of these were designated as cities of refuge where murderers could flee so that they would not be killed by those seeking vengeance without having an opportunity to stand before the congregation for judgment (ch 35).<\/p>\n<h5>Moses’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy has often been called Moses’ valedictory speech to the people, for in it Moses is not merely the chief speaker but the only speaker. With the congregation of his people gathered before him, he rehearsed all that God had done for them since leaving Sinai, and he reminded them of their failure to enter the Promised Land 38 years earlier (Dt 2:14). He recalled his plea that God would let him cross the Jordan and see the land that was to be the home of the people, but God responded that Moses would only be allowed to view the land from the top of Pisgah. Moses then exhorted the people to obey the statutes and ordinances that had been given to them in order to experience God’s blessings in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>As the day of Moses’ death approached, the Lord ordered Moses and Joshua to present themselves at the tent of meeting in order for Joshua to be commissioned as the new leader (Dt 31:14-23). Before his death, Moses pronounced a blessing upon all the Israelites (ch 33). Having completed these tasks, Moses went up from the plains of Moab to Mt Nebo, and to the top of Pisgah. From there God showed him the land promised long ago to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the land that was soon to be the home of the wandering Israelite tribes. Again God told him that he would not be allowed to cross over the Jordan. Moses died there and God buried him somewhere in the valley in the land of Moab opposite Beth-peor (34:6). Moses was 120 years old when he died, and the Israelites mourned his death for 30 days. The finest tribute to Moses is found in the closing words of the book of Deuteronomy, “There has never been another prophet like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MosesintheNewTestament\">Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>All Jews and Christians in apostolic times considered Moses the author of the Pentateuch. Such expressions as “the law of Moses” (Lk 2:22), “Moses commanded” (Mt 19:7), “Moses said” (Mk 7:10) “and Moses wrote” (12:19) shows that his name was synonymous with the OT books attributed to him. He is mentioned in the NT more than any other OT figure, a total of 79 times. His role as lawgiver is emphasized more than any other aspect of his life (Mt 8:4; Mk 7:10; Jn 1:17; Acts 15:1). He appears at the transfiguration of Jesus as the representative of OT law, along with Elijah as the representative of OT prophets (Mt 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ role as prophet is also mentioned in the NT. As a prophet, he spoke of the coming Messiah and his sufferings (Lk 24:25-27; Acts 3:22). The NT also draws from the life and experiences of Moses to show patterns of life under the new covenant. The nativity story of Jesus parallels the Mosaic story of the infant deliverer being rescued from the evil designs of an earthly despot (Mt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount parallels the giving of the law at Sinai (Mt 5–7) and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of the will of God. Contrast between the old law and the new relationship with God is especially marked in the book of Galatians. The comparison of Moses with Christ is an important emphasis of the book of Hebrews (Heb 3:5-6; 9:11-22). John contrasted the law that was given through Moses with the grace and truth that came through Jesus Christ (Jn 1:17). He also contrasted the manna in the wilderness to Jesus as “the bread of life” (6:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Other references to Moses or to events associated with him include his birth (Acts 7:20; Heb 11:23), the burning bush (Lk 20:37), the magicians of Egypt (2 Tm 3:8), the Passover (Heb 11:28), the exodus (3:16), crossing of the sea (1 Cor 10:2), the covenant sacrifice at Sinai (Mt 26:28), the manna (1 Cor 10:3), the glory on Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:7-18), water from the rock (1 Cor 10:4), the bronze serpent (Jn 3:14), and the song of Moses (Rv 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Plagues upon Egypt; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOSES Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation. The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:1...","summary_en":"MOSES Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation. The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:1...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59880,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87506,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115132,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142758,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","title_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenant with Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17; 4:3, 17; Gal 3:6, 11; Heb 10:37-38).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, kings sometimes granted land or other gifts to loyal subjects. The covenant of Genesis 15 includes a royal grant (15:18-21) in which God, the king, gave land to Abraham, his subject, as a possession and an inheritance. At the end of that day, Abraham knew that his future—and that of his descendants—was firmly in the hands of the covenant God. Later, the grant would be transferred to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>God later ratified his covenant with Abraham (17:1-22), giving him circumcision as its sign (17:10) and condition (17:9). The almighty God once again took the initiative (17:1-2) in granting Abraham an extraordinary privilege. The covenant was not a relationship between equals, yet both partners in the covenant assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abraham and his descendants, while requiring faithfulness from Abraham (17:1, 9-14). The blessing Abraham received as God’s covenant partner was embodied in the new name that God gave him (17:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham also applied to his descendants (13:15-16; 15:3-5; 17:6-10). It pointed to blessing in the relatively near future when his descendants would possess the land (15:12-16). Much later, Abraham’s faith became a blessing to all through his descendant, Jesus Christ, through whom all the families of the earth can share in God’s blessing on Abraham (12:3; see Rom 4:11-25; Gal 3:8-9, 16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-14; 21:1-2; 22:15-18; Exod 2:24; Deut 1:8; Neh 9:7-8; Ps 105:7-45; Luke 3:7-9; Acts 3:24-26; 7:2-8; Rom 4:11-25; 9:7-8; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-9, 29; Heb 6:13-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","summary_en":"God’s Covenant with Abraham The Lord had already established a relationship with Abraham (Gen 12:1-9) before he made a formal covenant with him (ch Gen 15). God took all the initiative: He approached Abraham and spoke to him in a vision. God presented the impossible promise that the old man would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abraham believed God (15:6), and his faith proved to be an act of righteousness (see Hab 2:4; Rom 1:17;...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":6662,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":3609,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Banishment Banish","title_en":"Banishment Banish","content_ro":"<h3>BANISH, BANISHMENT<\/h3>\n<p>Exclusion of a person from a country or group as a form of punishment.<\/p>\n<p>“Banishment” or a similar word is used in the Bible to describe God’s judgment on Adam and Eve (Gn 3:23-24) and on Cain (4:9-14), Absalom’s exile from his father David (2 Sm 13:37-39; 14:13-14), and Israel’s exile from the Promised Land (Dt 30:1; Is 11:12; Jer 16:15; Ez 4:13). During the exile, it was included in a list of punishments for those who disobeyed God or the Persian king Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:26).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law specified that an Israelite should be “cut off” from the people of God for various offenses, such as failure to circumcise a male child (Gn 17:12, 14), eating leavened bread during Passover (Ex 12:15), making an unholy animal sacrifice (Lv 17:1-4), eating blood (v 10), sinning deliberately (Nm 15:30-31), or failing to undergo ceremonial cleansing after contact with a dead body (19:11-20). The term “cut off” probably meant exclusion from the social and religious life of the community (cf. Jn 9:18-23, 34). After the exile, when the whole nation of Israel had been “banished,” disinheritance and permanent excommunication from God’s people were made official punishments (Ezr 10:7-8). The Romans, like other conquerors before them, practiced deportation in various forms. Controversy among the Jews led to the banishment of Jews from Rome under Emperor Claudius (Acts 18:2). The author of Revelation was banished to the island of Patmos during Roman persecution (Rv 1:9). More severe forms of banishment included permanent exclusion from an area, loss of citizenship, and confiscation of all goods and property.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Diaspora of the Jews.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BANISH, BANISHMENT<\/h3>\n<p>Exclusion of a person from a country or group as a form of punishment.<\/p>\n<p>“Banishment” or a similar word is used in the Bible to describe God’s judgment on Adam and Eve (Gn 3:23-24) and on Cain (4:9-14), Absalom’s exile from his father David (2 Sm 13:37-39; 14:13-14), and Israel’s exile from the Promised Land (Dt 30:1; Is 11:12; Jer 16:15; Ez 4:13). During the exile, it was included in a list of punishments for those who disobeyed God or the Persian king Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:26).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law specified that an Israelite should be “cut off” from the people of God for various offenses, such as failure to circumcise a male child (Gn 17:12, 14), eating leavened bread during Passover (Ex 12:15), making an unholy animal sacrifice (Lv 17:1-4), eating blood (v 10), sinning deliberately (Nm 15:30-31), or failing to undergo ceremonial cleansing after contact with a dead body (19:11-20). The term “cut off” probably meant exclusion from the social and religious life of the community (cf. Jn 9:18-23, 34). After the exile, when the whole nation of Israel had been “banished,” disinheritance and permanent excommunication from God’s people were made official punishments (Ezr 10:7-8). The Romans, like other conquerors before them, practiced deportation in various forms. Controversy among the Jews led to the banishment of Jews from Rome under Emperor Claudius (Acts 18:2). The author of Revelation was banished to the island of Patmos during Roman persecution (Rv 1:9). More severe forms of banishment included permanent exclusion from an area, loss of citizenship, and confiscation of all goods and property.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Diaspora of the Jews.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BANISH, BANISHMENT Exclusion of a person from a country or group as a form of punishment. “Banishment” or a similar word is used in the Bible to describe God’s judgment on Adam and Eve (Gn 3:23-24) and on Cain (4:9-14), Absalom’s exile from his father David (2 Sm 13:37-39; 14:13-14), and Israel’s exile from the Promised Land (Dt 30:1; Is 11:12; Jer 16:15; Ez 4:13). During the exile, it was included in a list of punishments for those who disobeyed God or the Persian king Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:26)....","summary_en":"BANISH, BANISHMENT Exclusion of a person from a country or group as a form of punishment. “Banishment” or a similar word is used in the Bible to describe God’s judgment on Adam and Eve (Gn 3:23-24) and on Cain (4:9-14), Absalom’s exile from his father David (2 Sm 13:37-39; 14:13-14), and Israel’s exile from the Promised Land (Dt 30:1; Is 11:12; Jer 16:15; Ez 4:13). During the exile, it was included in a list of punishments for those who disobeyed God or the Persian king Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:26)....","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6665,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7862,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Covenant","title_en":"Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the OT is developed from Noah to Abraham and reaches its first climax in the covenant formed between God and Israel at Mt Sinai. After King David’s time, the history of the covenant becomes a less prominent theme.<\/p>\n<p>At a low point in covenant history the Bible introduces the prophet Jeremiah’s prophecy of a “new covenant” in Israel’s future. Christians believe that Jeremiah’s prophecy eventually found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ. It is not accidental that the two volumes of the Christian Bible have been called the Old Covenant and New Covenant (the word commonly translated “testament” means “covenant”).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<p>• The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>• The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMeaningofCovenant\">The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The essence of covenant is to be found in a particular kind of relationship between persons. Mutual obligations characterize that kind of relationship. Thus a covenant relationship is not merely a mutual acquaintance but a commitment to responsibility and action. A key word in Scripture to describe that commitment is “faithfulness,” acted out in a context of abiding friendship.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the word “covenant” was used in an ordinary human sense as well as in a theological sense. An understanding of human covenants provides a starting point for understanding the covenant between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HumanCovenants\">Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>A variety of human relationships, from profoundly personal to distantly political, may be described as covenantal. The deep brotherly love that David and Jonathan shared led to a formal covenant between them (1 Sm 18:3). Their covenant of friendship was more than a token of esteem; it bound them to demonstrate mutual loyalty and loving-kindness in certain tangible ways. Jonathan’s covenant faithfulness was typified on an occasion when David was out of favor with the king; Jonathan braved his father’s wrath to speak favorably for his friend. Subsequently, he warned David secretly to flee into hiding (1 Sm 19–20).<\/p>\n<p>To appreciate the many OT laws on marriage and divorce, one must understand that marriage itself was a covenant relationship (Mal 2:14). The solemn promises exchanged by a man and woman became their covenant obligations. Faithfulness to those promises brought marital blessing (cf. Ps 128; Prv 18:22); violation brought a curse.<\/p>\n<p>An individual could, at least figuratively, make a covenant or vow with himself or herself (something like a New Year’s resolution). Job, arguing his integrity before God, referred to a covenant he had made with his eyes to keep him from looking at women licentiously (Jb 31:1).<\/p>\n<p>Covenants could also have a national or international character. The elders of Israel made a national covenant with King David in Hebron (2 Sm 5:3). Probably it contained explicit promises both from the elders on behalf of the people to submit themselves to the king’s authority and from David to rule the nation justly and according to the law of God (Dt 17:15-20). The covenant relationship described mutual obligations between a senior partner (the king) and junior partners (the Israelites). In international relationships OT covenants were similar to modern treaties or alliances. King Solomon entered into such a covenant with Hiram, king of Tyre; that covenant, like many modern international treaties, was a trade agreement between the two nations (1 Kgs 5:12).<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is thus an interpersonal framework of trust, responsibilities, and benefits, with broad application to almost every human relationship from personal friendship to international trade agreements. In Scripture covenant is also the most comprehensive concept covering an individual’s relationship to God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Divine-HumanCovenants\">Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>The same basic characteristics of a strictly human covenant are present in a divine covenant: (1) a relationship between two parties (God and a human being or nation), and (2) mutual obligations between the covenant partners. To the OT believer, religion meant covenant. OT religion was faithfulness to the covenant relationship between God and his chosen people; religious responsibilities for both the faith and practice of Israel were covenant responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a divine-human covenant in the OT was not static. Although the fundamental character of covenant remains the same throughout the Bible, the specific nature and form of the covenant changed and developed in the course of ancient Israel’s history. A brief survey of covenant history will further clarify its dimensions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BeginningsoftheCovenantTradition\">Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<h5>Adam<\/h5>\n<p>Adam and Eve were placed in the Garden. God was their Creator; they were his creatures. The meaning of their lives was to be found in relationship with each other and with God, the giver of the Garden. The fall, however, brought a disruption of the divine relationship, and they were expelled from the Garden.<\/p>\n<p>The fall substantially influenced the nature of subsequent religious covenants. The separation of humankind from God clarifies the nature of the human predicament. Created for a relationship with the Creator, sinning humans are excluded from that relationship and cannot, on their own accord, reestablish it. From that circumstance emerges a distinctive feature of divine-human covenants, namely, that God alone can initiate the relationship of covenant.<\/p>\n<h5>Noah<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit mention of covenant in Scripture refers to the initiative taken by God to bind himself again to human beings in a covenant, despite human faithlessness. When God warned Noah to build an ark in order to escape the impending Flood, he also promised to establish a covenant with him (Gn 6:18). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger, but his grace was shown in his dealings with Noah. The promised covenant provided that God would maintain a relationship with one family, even though other divine-human relationships were being formally severed. Significantly, God’s covenant promise to Noah came in a context of demand: God ordered Noah to build an ark (v 14). Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to a divine command.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant was elaborated only after the Flood, when Noah had made an offering to God (Gn 8:20-22). The covenant with Noah was in fact a universal covenant with humankind and all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world. The sign of that covenant was the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant with Noah affords some perspective for understanding the “covenant God.” Although human beings may deserve destruction because of their wickedness, God withholds that destruction. The covenant of Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being; nevertheless, it left open the possibility of a more intimate covenant. Human beings, in spite of their evil, are allowed for a time to live in God’s world; during those years, they may seek a deeper relationship with that world’s Creator.<\/p>\n<h5>Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit reference to God’s covenant with Abraham is in Genesis 15. When the Lord called the 75-year-old Abram (as he was first called) to leave his home city of Ur and set out on a journey, a relationship already existed between God and Abram. In that relationship, which enabled God to command Abram’s obedience, God made certain promises to him: “I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing” (Gn 12:2, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Formal establishment of the covenant with Abram is described in Genesis 15 as a profound religious experience. The initiative lay entirely with God, who approached Abram in a vision and spoke with him. Abram raised a fundamental objection: how could he experience the blessing of God if it was to come to him through a son he did not have? His wife Sarai was past the childbearing age, and he himself was “as good as dead” (Rom 4:19). God assured the old man that he would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abram’s belief at that point introduced the theme of righteousness central to the covenant concept: Abram “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>, and he reckoned it to him as righteousness” (Gn 15:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). At the end of that day, Abram knew that his own future and the future of his descendants were firmly in the hands of the covenant God. “On that day the <span>Lord<\/span> made a covenant with Abram, saying, ‘To your descendants I give this land’ ” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The covenant is more fully expressed in Genesis 17, which probably records a renewal of God’s covenant with Abram. The initiative once again lay with God (Gn 17:1). God addressed the 99-year-old Abram in words that made clear that the covenant was not a relationship between equal partners. God was the Almighty; Abram was a human being to whom an extraordinary privilege had been granted.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the details of the covenant in Genesis 17 show that both partners assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abram and his descendants while requiring certain commitments from Abram. The blessing Abram would receive as a covenant partner became clear from the new name God gave him. “I am changing your name. It will no longer be Abram; now you will be known as Abraham, for you will be the father of many nations” (Gn 17:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). God would give to Abraham, through his descendants, the land of Canaan as an everlasting gift and would be the personal God of Abraham and his family in perpetuity (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s giving required a response of obedience from Abraham: “Live a blameless life” (Gn 17:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Those simple words indicate the essence of covenant relationship: to relate to God is to live in his presence; since God is holy, one who knows him is expected to live a life of integrity and blamelessness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant also had a more formal aspect. Abraham and the male members of his household were to undergo the rite of circumcision as a symbol of covenant commitment. Abraham was an old man when he was circumcised (Gn 17:24), though male children born into the covenant family were to be circumcised when they were eight days old (v 12). Circumcision was not in itself a ritual peculiar to the Hebrews; it was practiced in most societies in the ancient Near East (the Philistines were one exception). The distinctiveness lay in what the act symbolized: among other things, a continuing and faithful relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham was characterized by both present and future realities. The covenant established a continuing relationship between Abraham and his Creator. Yet its thrust pointed to future blessing—in the children yet to be born, the “chosen people,” and in the land that eventually his descendants would call their own.<\/p>\n<p>Another dimension of the covenant lay still further in the future: “All the families of the earth will be blessed through you” (Gn 12:3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Early in the OT, the idea of election (God’s unconditional preference; cf. 2 Thes 2:13) is present. God chose to enter into a covenant relationship with a particular man and his particular descendants. Yet God always elects a person to serve: Adam, to cultivate the Garden; Noah, to build an ark; Abraham, to leave his home for another land and to live blamelessly before God (cf. Eph 2:8-10). Further, the “particularity” of Abraham’s election contained within it a universality: through his descendants the blessing of God would be offered to all.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the future aspects of Abraham’s covenant reflect two stages. From Abraham’s perspective, in the relatively near future his descendants would possess a land given them by God. But in the more distant future was the prospect of a universal blessing, the culmination of God’s work in the world. The initial fulfillment of that distant future is perceived in the NT, but the more immediate fulfillment of God’s promise was the Sinai covenant at the time of Moses.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSinaiCovenant\">The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The covenant established between God and Israel at Mt Sinai is the focal point of the covenant tradition in the OT. It was anticipated in the covenant of Abraham and lay behind the covenant of David and the proclamation of the prophets. It was central to OT religion, laying down the foundations of Judaism that continue into the modern world. The Sinai covenant was the formal institution of a relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In order to appreciate the impact of the Sinai covenant, one must understand its historical context. It was preceded by the exodus of the Hebrew people from Egypt under the leadership of Moses. The exodus was an extraordinary act of liberation in which God intervened in the normal course of history to free his people from slavery in Egypt. The exodus is interpreted in the OT as a divine act comparable to Creation, the act through which God “created” the nation of Israel. Examination of the two versions of the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11; Dt 5:12-15) shows that the exodus from Egypt directly parallels the creation of the world as a basis for Sabbath observance. Although Israel was created in the exodus, the nation had neither a constitution nor land. The covenant provided the nascent state of Israel with a constitution, making it a theocratic state (a state ruled by God).<\/p>\n<p>The basic account of the Sinai covenant is contained in Exodus 19 and 20. The initiative came from God, who gave instructions through Moses to prepare for the covenant; God spoke the words that contained the covenant offer. There was no doubt that the God of Israel was the senior partner in the relationship made formal at Sinai. The God who had revealed himself through his acts in the exodus then revealed himself in words. Those two aspects—the God who acts and speaks—are central to OT theology. And although the covenant contained law, it was preceded by the exodus, an act of divine grace.<\/p>\n<p>God’s offer of covenant carried with it a divine promise: “You will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). The promise was one of extraordinary privilege; an entire nation was called upon to represent all other nations before the God of the universe. But the priestly office, though it carried privilege, was also a demanding office. A priest had to be pure and had to know the God whose presence he was required to enter. Thus Israel, the priestly nation, received a law that would provide direction in living, in loving God, and in serving all people. The law given with the covenant expressed the requirements for God’s covenant people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Covenant Law<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant law had two principal parts. First, the Ten Commandments expressed God’s requirements of Israel in a concise form (Ex 20:2-17). The commandments specified the covenant people’s relationship both to God and to other human beings. Although the tendency in the present day is to view the Ten Commandments as a system of ethics or morality, they had a different role in ancient Israel. The covenant law was the foundation or constitution of a new nation, a special “nation of priests.” The head of the nation-state was God. Hence, in ancient Israel the status of the Ten Commandments was approximately that of the code of criminal law in a modern nation-state. To break one of those laws was to commit a crime against God, the head of the state. Yet the laws had a positive purpose. They set down a way of life that would result in a full and rich communion with God and community with others.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the covenant law was a detailed law code covering the activities of everyday life. Examples of such laws are found in Exodus 21–23. These laws were compiled and recorded in the “Book of the Covenant” (Ex 24:7). Although many laws were contained in this book, it was impossible to codify every aspect of human behavior. The diversity of the examples given indicates that for the covenant member no area of human life was beyond the influence of the covenant. Persons who entered into a relationship with God entered into a relationship that impinged on every possible aspect of their lives.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Renewal<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant at Sinai was made with a particular group of people under the leadership of Moses but was binding on future generations. Consequently, the covenant was renewed from time to time. Covenant renewals are recorded in the time of Joshua (Jos 8:30-35; 24:1-28) and, much later, during the reign of King Josiah (2 Kgs 23:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The most important passage in the Bible for understanding covenant renewal and the nature of covenant is the book of Deuteronomy. The entire book describes a particular covenant renewal ceremony that occurred at a critical juncture in Israel’s early history. The Sinai covenant was renewed just before Moses’ death, before the transition of leadership to Joshua, and before a major military campaign to possess the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant since the time of Abraham had contained a promise of land. Immediately before they entered that land (c. 1250 <span>BC<\/span>), the covenant vows were renewed with a new generation of Israelites, most of whom had not stood at the foot of Mt Sinai some 40 years earlier. Although covenant renewal is the central theme of Deuteronomy, the writer focused primarily on Moses’ sermon rather than on a detailed account of the renewal ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ceremony were simply a repetition of what happened at the original ratification of the covenant. The Ten Commandments were repeated (Dt 5:6-21), and the laws of the Book of the Covenant were expounded in greater detail (Dt 12–26). Two points emerging in Deuteronomy are particularly significant for an understanding of covenant: a clear statement of covenant love and a detailed statement of the blessings and curses that accompanied the making and renewing of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCovenantwithDavid\">The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>The covenant tradition underwent modification during the time of King David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>). The Sinai covenant had been established between God and Israel, with Moses acting as mediator. In David’s time an additional element was added: God entered into a covenant with David as king. That royal covenant was intimated to David through the prophet Nathan (2 Sm 7:8-16), indicating once again the divine initiative. It was to be an everlasting covenant with David’s royal lineage (23:5).<\/p>\n\n<p>Christians generally interpret the covenant with David as a messianic covenant. For several centuries the dynasty established by David ruled a united Israel, then ruled the remaining southern kingdom of Judah. But in 586 <span>BC<\/span> Judah was conquered by the Babylonians. At that point a descendant of David was no longer ruling an independent kingdom of God’s chosen people. The everlasting nature of the covenant with David was brought out, however, not in the pages of ancient history but in the expectation of a Messiah who would be born of David’s descendants. Matthew and Luke both pointed to Jesus’ Davidic descent (Mt 1:1; Lk 3:31). The NT thus extends the covenant acts of God into the new age in the person of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNewCovenantPredictedintheOldTestament\">The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although David’s covenant with God was eternal, in a sense the covenant established with Israel on Mt Sinai was temporal. The Sinai covenant included conditional clauses, stated in the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy. Israel’s disobedience of the covenant law would at worst bring exile from the Promised Land, a central covenant theme from Abraham to Moses and beyond.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew prophets often perceived the danger of an end to the covenant as a result of Israel’s sins. Some of the prophets, especially Hosea and Jeremiah, also perceived a deeper truth; namely, that the covenant was rooted in divine love and that therefore even the curse of God could not be final.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea dramatically expressed that truth through the “living parable” of his marriage (Hos 1–3). He married Gomer at God’s command, but later, as a result of her unfaithfulness, the marital covenant was dissolved by divorce. Although Gomer’s adulterous acts compelled Hosea to divorce her, he did not cease to love her. God later commanded Hosea to go back to Gomer (Hos 3:1). Despite her unfaithfulness, the prophet was to take her again into the covenant relationship of marriage. That acted-out parable depicted God’s actions with Israel. Israel’s sin would inevitably culminate in a divorce from God, but Hosea perceived a new marriage. In the new covenant between God and Israel, Israel would be graciously accepted back into a relationship with God (2:14-18).<\/p>\n<p>The new covenant is given powerful expression in the writings of the prophet Jeremiah, who lived through the end of the seventh and beginning of the sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In his lifetime Jeremiah saw the kingdom of Judah defeated in war. The nation lost its independence and became a vassal of the Babylonian Empire. In an external sense, that defeat in 586 <span>BC<\/span> marked the end of the Sinai covenant. Israel could no longer call the Promised Land its own. Yet Jeremiah perceived a truth beyond the contemporary political realities. God’s work in the world, like his love for the world, was not over.<\/p>\n<p>Thus Jeremiah spoke of a new covenant that God would bring into effect: “The days are coming, says the <span>Lord<\/span>, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah” (Jer 31:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The new covenant would be marked by an act of God within human hearts, a radical spiritual transformation (Jer 31:34). At the Last Supper Jesus declared to his disciples that “this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20, <span>rsv<\/span>). To the writer of Hebrews, the new covenant was central to a full understanding of the ministry of Jesus Christ (Heb 8:8-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is a concept central to the message and the history of the OT. The covenant theme continues into the NT as a way of interpreting the Christian gospel. Meaning in human life is to be found in a covenant relationship with the living God. Yet sinful human beings cannot work their way into such a relationship; God alone can initiate it. According to the NT, God’s act in giving his son, Jesus, to die opened up the covenant relationship to all human beings. The forgiveness made available by Jesus’ “blood of the new covenant” makes it possible for any individual to enter into a covenant relationship with God. Entry into such a relationship, today as in Abraham’s time, hinges upon faith (Gal 3:6-14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alliance; Covenant, The New; Law, Biblical Concept of; Oath; Vows.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the OT is developed from Noah to Abraham and reaches its first climax in the covenant formed between God and Israel at Mt Sinai. After King David’s time, the history of the covenant becomes a less prominent theme.<\/p>\n<p>At a low point in covenant history the Bible introduces the prophet Jeremiah’s prophecy of a “new covenant” in Israel’s future. Christians believe that Jeremiah’s prophecy eventually found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ. It is not accidental that the two volumes of the Christian Bible have been called the Old Covenant and New Covenant (the word commonly translated “testament” means “covenant”).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<p>• The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>• The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMeaningofCovenant\">The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The essence of covenant is to be found in a particular kind of relationship between persons. Mutual obligations characterize that kind of relationship. Thus a covenant relationship is not merely a mutual acquaintance but a commitment to responsibility and action. A key word in Scripture to describe that commitment is “faithfulness,” acted out in a context of abiding friendship.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the word “covenant” was used in an ordinary human sense as well as in a theological sense. An understanding of human covenants provides a starting point for understanding the covenant between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HumanCovenants\">Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>A variety of human relationships, from profoundly personal to distantly political, may be described as covenantal. The deep brotherly love that David and Jonathan shared led to a formal covenant between them (1 Sm 18:3). Their covenant of friendship was more than a token of esteem; it bound them to demonstrate mutual loyalty and loving-kindness in certain tangible ways. Jonathan’s covenant faithfulness was typified on an occasion when David was out of favor with the king; Jonathan braved his father’s wrath to speak favorably for his friend. Subsequently, he warned David secretly to flee into hiding (1 Sm 19–20).<\/p>\n<p>To appreciate the many OT laws on marriage and divorce, one must understand that marriage itself was a covenant relationship (Mal 2:14). The solemn promises exchanged by a man and woman became their covenant obligations. Faithfulness to those promises brought marital blessing (cf. Ps 128; Prv 18:22); violation brought a curse.<\/p>\n<p>An individual could, at least figuratively, make a covenant or vow with himself or herself (something like a New Year’s resolution). Job, arguing his integrity before God, referred to a covenant he had made with his eyes to keep him from looking at women licentiously (Jb 31:1).<\/p>\n<p>Covenants could also have a national or international character. The elders of Israel made a national covenant with King David in Hebron (2 Sm 5:3). Probably it contained explicit promises both from the elders on behalf of the people to submit themselves to the king’s authority and from David to rule the nation justly and according to the law of God (Dt 17:15-20). The covenant relationship described mutual obligations between a senior partner (the king) and junior partners (the Israelites). In international relationships OT covenants were similar to modern treaties or alliances. King Solomon entered into such a covenant with Hiram, king of Tyre; that covenant, like many modern international treaties, was a trade agreement between the two nations (1 Kgs 5:12).<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is thus an interpersonal framework of trust, responsibilities, and benefits, with broad application to almost every human relationship from personal friendship to international trade agreements. In Scripture covenant is also the most comprehensive concept covering an individual’s relationship to God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Divine-HumanCovenants\">Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>The same basic characteristics of a strictly human covenant are present in a divine covenant: (1) a relationship between two parties (God and a human being or nation), and (2) mutual obligations between the covenant partners. To the OT believer, religion meant covenant. OT religion was faithfulness to the covenant relationship between God and his chosen people; religious responsibilities for both the faith and practice of Israel were covenant responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a divine-human covenant in the OT was not static. Although the fundamental character of covenant remains the same throughout the Bible, the specific nature and form of the covenant changed and developed in the course of ancient Israel’s history. A brief survey of covenant history will further clarify its dimensions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BeginningsoftheCovenantTradition\">Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<h5>Adam<\/h5>\n<p>Adam and Eve were placed in the Garden. God was their Creator; they were his creatures. The meaning of their lives was to be found in relationship with each other and with God, the giver of the Garden. The fall, however, brought a disruption of the divine relationship, and they were expelled from the Garden.<\/p>\n<p>The fall substantially influenced the nature of subsequent religious covenants. The separation of humankind from God clarifies the nature of the human predicament. Created for a relationship with the Creator, sinning humans are excluded from that relationship and cannot, on their own accord, reestablish it. From that circumstance emerges a distinctive feature of divine-human covenants, namely, that God alone can initiate the relationship of covenant.<\/p>\n<h5>Noah<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit mention of covenant in Scripture refers to the initiative taken by God to bind himself again to human beings in a covenant, despite human faithlessness. When God warned Noah to build an ark in order to escape the impending Flood, he also promised to establish a covenant with him (Gn 6:18). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger, but his grace was shown in his dealings with Noah. The promised covenant provided that God would maintain a relationship with one family, even though other divine-human relationships were being formally severed. Significantly, God’s covenant promise to Noah came in a context of demand: God ordered Noah to build an ark (v 14). Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to a divine command.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant was elaborated only after the Flood, when Noah had made an offering to God (Gn 8:20-22). The covenant with Noah was in fact a universal covenant with humankind and all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world. The sign of that covenant was the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant with Noah affords some perspective for understanding the “covenant God.” Although human beings may deserve destruction because of their wickedness, God withholds that destruction. The covenant of Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being; nevertheless, it left open the possibility of a more intimate covenant. Human beings, in spite of their evil, are allowed for a time to live in God’s world; during those years, they may seek a deeper relationship with that world’s Creator.<\/p>\n<h5>Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit reference to God’s covenant with Abraham is in Genesis 15. When the Lord called the 75-year-old Abram (as he was first called) to leave his home city of Ur and set out on a journey, a relationship already existed between God and Abram. In that relationship, which enabled God to command Abram’s obedience, God made certain promises to him: “I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing” (Gn 12:2, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Formal establishment of the covenant with Abram is described in Genesis 15 as a profound religious experience. The initiative lay entirely with God, who approached Abram in a vision and spoke with him. Abram raised a fundamental objection: how could he experience the blessing of God if it was to come to him through a son he did not have? His wife Sarai was past the childbearing age, and he himself was “as good as dead” (Rom 4:19). God assured the old man that he would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abram’s belief at that point introduced the theme of righteousness central to the covenant concept: Abram “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>, and he reckoned it to him as righteousness” (Gn 15:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). At the end of that day, Abram knew that his own future and the future of his descendants were firmly in the hands of the covenant God. “On that day the <span>Lord<\/span> made a covenant with Abram, saying, ‘To your descendants I give this land’ ” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The covenant is more fully expressed in Genesis 17, which probably records a renewal of God’s covenant with Abram. The initiative once again lay with God (Gn 17:1). God addressed the 99-year-old Abram in words that made clear that the covenant was not a relationship between equal partners. God was the Almighty; Abram was a human being to whom an extraordinary privilege had been granted.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the details of the covenant in Genesis 17 show that both partners assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abram and his descendants while requiring certain commitments from Abram. The blessing Abram would receive as a covenant partner became clear from the new name God gave him. “I am changing your name. It will no longer be Abram; now you will be known as Abraham, for you will be the father of many nations” (Gn 17:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). God would give to Abraham, through his descendants, the land of Canaan as an everlasting gift and would be the personal God of Abraham and his family in perpetuity (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s giving required a response of obedience from Abraham: “Live a blameless life” (Gn 17:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Those simple words indicate the essence of covenant relationship: to relate to God is to live in his presence; since God is holy, one who knows him is expected to live a life of integrity and blamelessness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant also had a more formal aspect. Abraham and the male members of his household were to undergo the rite of circumcision as a symbol of covenant commitment. Abraham was an old man when he was circumcised (Gn 17:24), though male children born into the covenant family were to be circumcised when they were eight days old (v 12). Circumcision was not in itself a ritual peculiar to the Hebrews; it was practiced in most societies in the ancient Near East (the Philistines were one exception). The distinctiveness lay in what the act symbolized: among other things, a continuing and faithful relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham was characterized by both present and future realities. The covenant established a continuing relationship between Abraham and his Creator. Yet its thrust pointed to future blessing—in the children yet to be born, the “chosen people,” and in the land that eventually his descendants would call their own.<\/p>\n<p>Another dimension of the covenant lay still further in the future: “All the families of the earth will be blessed through you” (Gn 12:3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Early in the OT, the idea of election (God’s unconditional preference; cf. 2 Thes 2:13) is present. God chose to enter into a covenant relationship with a particular man and his particular descendants. Yet God always elects a person to serve: Adam, to cultivate the Garden; Noah, to build an ark; Abraham, to leave his home for another land and to live blamelessly before God (cf. Eph 2:8-10). Further, the “particularity” of Abraham’s election contained within it a universality: through his descendants the blessing of God would be offered to all.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the future aspects of Abraham’s covenant reflect two stages. From Abraham’s perspective, in the relatively near future his descendants would possess a land given them by God. But in the more distant future was the prospect of a universal blessing, the culmination of God’s work in the world. The initial fulfillment of that distant future is perceived in the NT, but the more immediate fulfillment of God’s promise was the Sinai covenant at the time of Moses.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSinaiCovenant\">The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The covenant established between God and Israel at Mt Sinai is the focal point of the covenant tradition in the OT. It was anticipated in the covenant of Abraham and lay behind the covenant of David and the proclamation of the prophets. It was central to OT religion, laying down the foundations of Judaism that continue into the modern world. The Sinai covenant was the formal institution of a relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In order to appreciate the impact of the Sinai covenant, one must understand its historical context. It was preceded by the exodus of the Hebrew people from Egypt under the leadership of Moses. The exodus was an extraordinary act of liberation in which God intervened in the normal course of history to free his people from slavery in Egypt. The exodus is interpreted in the OT as a divine act comparable to Creation, the act through which God “created” the nation of Israel. Examination of the two versions of the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11; Dt 5:12-15) shows that the exodus from Egypt directly parallels the creation of the world as a basis for Sabbath observance. Although Israel was created in the exodus, the nation had neither a constitution nor land. The covenant provided the nascent state of Israel with a constitution, making it a theocratic state (a state ruled by God).<\/p>\n<p>The basic account of the Sinai covenant is contained in Exodus 19 and 20. The initiative came from God, who gave instructions through Moses to prepare for the covenant; God spoke the words that contained the covenant offer. There was no doubt that the God of Israel was the senior partner in the relationship made formal at Sinai. The God who had revealed himself through his acts in the exodus then revealed himself in words. Those two aspects—the God who acts and speaks—are central to OT theology. And although the covenant contained law, it was preceded by the exodus, an act of divine grace.<\/p>\n<p>God’s offer of covenant carried with it a divine promise: “You will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). The promise was one of extraordinary privilege; an entire nation was called upon to represent all other nations before the God of the universe. But the priestly office, though it carried privilege, was also a demanding office. A priest had to be pure and had to know the God whose presence he was required to enter. Thus Israel, the priestly nation, received a law that would provide direction in living, in loving God, and in serving all people. The law given with the covenant expressed the requirements for God’s covenant people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Covenant Law<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant law had two principal parts. First, the Ten Commandments expressed God’s requirements of Israel in a concise form (Ex 20:2-17). The commandments specified the covenant people’s relationship both to God and to other human beings. Although the tendency in the present day is to view the Ten Commandments as a system of ethics or morality, they had a different role in ancient Israel. The covenant law was the foundation or constitution of a new nation, a special “nation of priests.” The head of the nation-state was God. Hence, in ancient Israel the status of the Ten Commandments was approximately that of the code of criminal law in a modern nation-state. To break one of those laws was to commit a crime against God, the head of the state. Yet the laws had a positive purpose. They set down a way of life that would result in a full and rich communion with God and community with others.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the covenant law was a detailed law code covering the activities of everyday life. Examples of such laws are found in Exodus 21–23. These laws were compiled and recorded in the “Book of the Covenant” (Ex 24:7). Although many laws were contained in this book, it was impossible to codify every aspect of human behavior. The diversity of the examples given indicates that for the covenant member no area of human life was beyond the influence of the covenant. Persons who entered into a relationship with God entered into a relationship that impinged on every possible aspect of their lives.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Renewal<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant at Sinai was made with a particular group of people under the leadership of Moses but was binding on future generations. Consequently, the covenant was renewed from time to time. Covenant renewals are recorded in the time of Joshua (Jos 8:30-35; 24:1-28) and, much later, during the reign of King Josiah (2 Kgs 23:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The most important passage in the Bible for understanding covenant renewal and the nature of covenant is the book of Deuteronomy. The entire book describes a particular covenant renewal ceremony that occurred at a critical juncture in Israel’s early history. The Sinai covenant was renewed just before Moses’ death, before the transition of leadership to Joshua, and before a major military campaign to possess the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant since the time of Abraham had contained a promise of land. Immediately before they entered that land (c. 1250 <span>BC<\/span>), the covenant vows were renewed with a new generation of Israelites, most of whom had not stood at the foot of Mt Sinai some 40 years earlier. Although covenant renewal is the central theme of Deuteronomy, the writer focused primarily on Moses’ sermon rather than on a detailed account of the renewal ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ceremony were simply a repetition of what happened at the original ratification of the covenant. The Ten Commandments were repeated (Dt 5:6-21), and the laws of the Book of the Covenant were expounded in greater detail (Dt 12–26). Two points emerging in Deuteronomy are particularly significant for an understanding of covenant: a clear statement of covenant love and a detailed statement of the blessings and curses that accompanied the making and renewing of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCovenantwithDavid\">The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>The covenant tradition underwent modification during the time of King David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>). The Sinai covenant had been established between God and Israel, with Moses acting as mediator. In David’s time an additional element was added: God entered into a covenant with David as king. That royal covenant was intimated to David through the prophet Nathan (2 Sm 7:8-16), indicating once again the divine initiative. It was to be an everlasting covenant with David’s royal lineage (23:5).<\/p>\n\n<p>Christians generally interpret the covenant with David as a messianic covenant. For several centuries the dynasty established by David ruled a united Israel, then ruled the remaining southern kingdom of Judah. But in 586 <span>BC<\/span> Judah was conquered by the Babylonians. At that point a descendant of David was no longer ruling an independent kingdom of God’s chosen people. The everlasting nature of the covenant with David was brought out, however, not in the pages of ancient history but in the expectation of a Messiah who would be born of David’s descendants. Matthew and Luke both pointed to Jesus’ Davidic descent (Mt 1:1; Lk 3:31). The NT thus extends the covenant acts of God into the new age in the person of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNewCovenantPredictedintheOldTestament\">The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although David’s covenant with God was eternal, in a sense the covenant established with Israel on Mt Sinai was temporal. The Sinai covenant included conditional clauses, stated in the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy. Israel’s disobedience of the covenant law would at worst bring exile from the Promised Land, a central covenant theme from Abraham to Moses and beyond.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew prophets often perceived the danger of an end to the covenant as a result of Israel’s sins. Some of the prophets, especially Hosea and Jeremiah, also perceived a deeper truth; namely, that the covenant was rooted in divine love and that therefore even the curse of God could not be final.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea dramatically expressed that truth through the “living parable” of his marriage (Hos 1–3). He married Gomer at God’s command, but later, as a result of her unfaithfulness, the marital covenant was dissolved by divorce. Although Gomer’s adulterous acts compelled Hosea to divorce her, he did not cease to love her. God later commanded Hosea to go back to Gomer (Hos 3:1). Despite her unfaithfulness, the prophet was to take her again into the covenant relationship of marriage. That acted-out parable depicted God’s actions with Israel. Israel’s sin would inevitably culminate in a divorce from God, but Hosea perceived a new marriage. In the new covenant between God and Israel, Israel would be graciously accepted back into a relationship with God (2:14-18).<\/p>\n<p>The new covenant is given powerful expression in the writings of the prophet Jeremiah, who lived through the end of the seventh and beginning of the sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In his lifetime Jeremiah saw the kingdom of Judah defeated in war. The nation lost its independence and became a vassal of the Babylonian Empire. In an external sense, that defeat in 586 <span>BC<\/span> marked the end of the Sinai covenant. Israel could no longer call the Promised Land its own. Yet Jeremiah perceived a truth beyond the contemporary political realities. God’s work in the world, like his love for the world, was not over.<\/p>\n<p>Thus Jeremiah spoke of a new covenant that God would bring into effect: “The days are coming, says the <span>Lord<\/span>, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah” (Jer 31:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The new covenant would be marked by an act of God within human hearts, a radical spiritual transformation (Jer 31:34). At the Last Supper Jesus declared to his disciples that “this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20, <span>rsv<\/span>). To the writer of Hebrews, the new covenant was central to a full understanding of the ministry of Jesus Christ (Heb 8:8-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is a concept central to the message and the history of the OT. The covenant theme continues into the NT as a way of interpreting the Christian gospel. Meaning in human life is to be found in a covenant relationship with the living God. Yet sinful human beings cannot work their way into such a relationship; God alone can initiate it. According to the NT, God’s act in giving his son, Jesus, to die opened up the covenant relationship to all human beings. The forgiveness made available by Jesus’ “blood of the new covenant” makes it possible for any individual to enter into a covenant relationship with God. Entry into such a relationship, today as in Abraham’s time, hinges upon faith (Gal 3:6-14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alliance; Covenant, The New; Law, Biblical Concept of; Oath; Vows.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COVENANT Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings. The covenant theme in the OT is developed from...","summary_en":"COVENANT Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings. The covenant theme in the OT is developed from...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66499,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94125,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121751,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149377,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":6677,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11463,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Exodus","title_en":"Book of Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\n<p>Theologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\n<p>Various other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\n<p>Although such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>If one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 <span>BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 <span>BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Some events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Not until about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 <span>BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Hatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 <span>BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>The God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the <span>Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>That promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>A further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\n<p>As an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>While their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p>Assured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n<p> The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\n<p>But once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the <span>Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\n<p>The God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\n<p>All of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\n<p>The Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\n<p>The judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\n<p>After the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Once more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\n<p>Now that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\n<p>Theologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\n<p>Various other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\n<p>Although such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>If one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 <span>BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 <span>BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Some events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Not until about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 <span>BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Hatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 <span>BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>The God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the <span>Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>That promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>A further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\n<p>As an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>While their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p>Assured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n<p> The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\n<p>But once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the <span>Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\n<p>The God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\n<p>All of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\n<p>The Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\n<p>The judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\n<p>After the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Once more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\n<p>Now that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","summary_en":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43086,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:14<\/strong> <em>will be cut off:<\/em> This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:14<\/strong> <em>will be cut off:<\/em> This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:14 will be cut off: This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).","summary_en":"17:14 will be cut off: This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70712,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:14<\/strong> <em>will be cut off:<\/em> This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:14<\/strong> <em>will be cut off:<\/em> This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:14 will be cut off: This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).","summary_en":"17:14 will be cut off: This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98338,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:14<\/strong> <em>will be cut off:<\/em> This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:14<\/strong> <em>will be cut off:<\/em> This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:14 will be cut off: This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).","summary_en":"17:14 will be cut off: This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125964,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:14<\/strong> <em>will be cut off:<\/em> This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:14<\/strong> <em>will be cut off:<\/em> This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:14 will be cut off: This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).","summary_en":"17:14 will be cut off: This punishment seems to have several applications. A person could be exiled from society or put to death by the community; most often it warned that a person might die prematurely as God cut him off from the land of the living (see Exod 31:14; Lev 7:20-27; 17:3-4; 20:17-18; 23:28-29; Num 15:30-31; see also Ps 31:22; Ezek 21:4; Rom 9:3; 11:22). Failure to be circumcised was a serious violation (see Exod 4:24-26; cp. Gal 5:2-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59917,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87543,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115169,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142795,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":40543,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40575,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","summary_en":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40602,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40802,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68169,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68201,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","summary_en":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68228,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68428,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95795,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95827,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","summary_en":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95854,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96054,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123421,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123453,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","summary_en":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123480,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123680,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17442,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Inheritance","title_en":"Inheritance","content_ro":"<h3>INHERITANCE<\/h3>\n<p>Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LegalandHistoricalAspect\">Legal and Historical Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchs<\/h5>\n<p>We learn something of early-second-millennium <span>BC<\/span> practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. Yet exceptions abound. Ishmael (Gn 16:15; 17:15-21), Esau (25:23), and Reuben (49:3-4) did not receive the birthright. Another item of special interest is Abraham’s suggestion that, in the absence of a son, his servant Eliezer might be regarded as the heir (15:2-5); scholars have found confirmation of this practice in Hurrian legal documents of the second millennium.<\/p>\n<h5>The Hebrew Nation<\/h5>\n<p>According to Deuteronomy 21:15-17, Hebrew firstborns were legally entitled to a double portion of the inheritance. Israelite law also made provision for widows through the practice of levirate marriage (Dt 25:5; see Gn 38:8; Ru 4:5).<\/p>\n<p>According to Numbers 27:1-11, the daughters of Zelophehad argued that they should receive the inheritance since their father had died without sons. Consequently, God decreed that if a man died without sons, the inheritance should be transferred to his daughter; if he had no daughter, to his brothers; if he had no brothers, to his nearest relatives. This particular incident also illustrates the importance of preserving tribal possessions: the daughters of Zelophehad were not allowed to marry outside the tribe of Manasseh, for this would mean transferral of the property to another tribe (Nm 36).<\/p>\n<p>How highly the Israelites valued their family’s inherited possessions may be gathered from Leviticus 25:25-28. If an individual sold his land for financial reasons, provision must be made for a relative to redeem it; if he had no near relative, he could still purchase it back at a later time, and even if he could not afford to do so, the land automatically reverted to him in the Year of Jubilee, when all debts were canceled (note also Lv 27:14-25).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Apart from the reference to levirate marriage in Matthew 22:23-33 (Mk 12:18-27; Lk 20:27-40), the NT has little to say about principles of property transferral during Roman times.<\/p>\n<p>In the parable of the prodigal son, the younger son in the family requested his share of the inheritance (Lk 15:12). One should also note that the elder son, who with false piety looked down on his brother’s behavior, had not protested when his brother asked for the inheritance; on the contrary, the elder brother too, without complaining, received his share—presumably a double portion.<\/p>\n<p>In another significant passage (Gal 4:1-2) Paul, seeking to illustrate a theological point, refers to secular practices. An heir, he tells us, is subject to guardians and managers during his childhood, up to the time he actually inherits. The point Paul wants to establish is clear enough, but the illustration does not coincide with what we know of Roman law and unfortunately scholars have been unable to identify the precise social custom in view. It may be that Paul was making reference, in general rather than strict legal terms, to some practice with which he and the Galatians were familiar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalAspect\">Theological Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>Canaan as Israel’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>The conviction that God gave Palestine to the Israelites for their inheritance serves as a bridge between the historical and the theological data. The historical element lies in the obvious fact that the Promised Land, a physical entity, was certainly occupied by the Hebrews and distributed among their tribes. Theologically, however, the Scriptures speak of this occupation as a divine gift; in effect, even the method of distribution was based on the concept that the land belongs to God (Lv 25:23; see Ex 15:17; Jos 22:27; Ez 38:16; Jl 1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The theme goes back to Genesis 12:1-3. God, in choosing Abraham, instructed him to move to a new country and promised to make him a great and blessed nation (Heb 11:8). The significance of the land in this Abrahamic promise is made more explicit later, when we are told that God promised to give Canaan to Abraham’s descendants after four centuries of Egyptian bondage (Gn 15:12-21; see Acts 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>Since Canaan was occupied by wicked inhabitants, the land was to be taken by force; to inherit the land therefore really means <em>to take possession<\/em> of it. Israel must trust God, whose land it is, to give them the victory (Jos 1:1-9; 21:43-45; Jgs 7:2; Ps 44:1-3; Acts 13:19). Once they conquered the land, it was apportioned among the tribes according to their size (following the instructions in Nm 26:52-54). God further commanded the people to divide the land by lot (vv 55-56). Thus, from the initial promise to Abraham, to the actual apportionment of the land and even with reference to the future (Is 60:21; Ez 45:1-8; 47:13–48:29), the people were made fully aware that their inheritance lay in the hands of a sovereign Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Believer’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT we find the concept of inheritance transferred from the purely physical to the spiritual. The tribe of Levi, which constituted the priestly clan, received no inheritance, because “the Lord is their inheritance” (Dt 18:1-2; see Nm 18:8-24). The Levites, in other words, received no land apportionment, but in their service to God they could begin to enjoy the fuller blessings to which the land inheritance pointed.<\/p>\n<p>That this truth could not be restricted to Levites is hinted at in Exodus 19:6, where the whole nation is called “a kingdom of priests” (see 1 Pt 2:9). Psalm 16 makes it clear that no one understood more clearly than David what those words entailed. Even if he were deprived of Israel’s physical inheritance, he had received by lot a more beautiful heritage, the Lord himself, in whose presence he found full joy and everlasting pleasures (Ps 16:5-6, 11; see also Pss 73:25-26; 142:5; Is 58:14; Lam 3:24).<\/p>\n<p>In later Judaism, during and after the intertestamental period, the figure was extended considerably. For example, the rabbis began to speak of the law as the inheritance of the faithful. Further, they might give the idea a negative turn, as when the wicked are said to inherit hell (cf. Jb 27:13). Neither of these figures is found in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>We also read in Jewish literature statements about inheriting the age to come, the kingdom, eternal life; these ideas occur frequently in the NT (Mt 19:29; 25:34; Lk 10:25; 18:18; 1 Cor 6:9-10; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; Ti 3:7; Jas 2:5). Such an inheritance, however, belongs only to those who are sanctified by God’s word (Acts 20:32; 26:18; Col 1:12; note also Jn 17:17; Col 3:23-24). These future blessings do not exclude the physical (Mt 5:5; note Ps 37:11, 29; Is 60:21; Rom 4:13; 2 Pt 3:13), but they certainly exclude human frailty, for God’s inheritance is imperishable (1 Cor 15:50). In short, our heritage is nothing less than full salvation (Heb 1:14; 11:7), which God carefully guards for us in heaven (1 Pt 1:4).<\/p>\n<p>Doubtless, the most significant feature in the NT is its emphasis that, as a result of the work of Christ, his people begin even <em>now<\/em> to receive the promised inheritance. The Gospel of John frequently stresses the present reality of eternal life, as does the Letter to the Hebrews (cf. 6:12-17 with 9:15 and 11:13, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>Paul treats this whole matter thoroughly in Galatians 3:7–4:7. In response to the Judaizers, who claim that the Abrahamic inheritance is restricted to those who become Jews through circumcision, Paul argues vigorously that Abraham’s true children are those who believe, whether Jew or Gentile (3:7; see Acts 26:16-18; Eph 3:6). They become heirs of God’s promise, for they receive the Spirit (Gal 3:14). The principle of inheritance is promise, not the Law (v 18). Those who believe are brought into union with Christ (vv 27-29); but then they are not merely Abraham’s children but God’s (v 26), for Christ is the Son of God and God has determined to send the Spirit of his Son to believers so that they too may call God <em>Father<\/em> (Gal 4:4-7; see also Rom 8:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, Christ himself as the Son is the true heir (Mt 21:38; Mk 12:7; Lk 20:14); he has inherited a name above every name (Phil 2:9; Heb 1:4) and has been appointed heir of all things (Heb 1:2; see Ps 2:7-8; Mt 28:18). But by his grace, all who become his through faith are counted joint heirs with him (Rom 8:17).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>With a bold shift in the metaphor, the Scriptures speak of believers as God’s inheritance. In the beautiful “Song of Moses” the author speaks of God as the Israelites’ Father (Dt 32:6), who has taken special interest in their inheritance (v 8). Then we are told why God cares: “For the <span>Lord<\/span>’s portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance” (Dt 32:9, <span>niv<\/span>). This theme becomes very prominent throughout the OT (e.g., Dt 9:26-29; 1 Kgs 8:51-53; Pss 28:9; 33:12; 74:2; Is 19:25; Jer 10:16; Zec 2:12). Elsewhere, Israel is spoken of as God’s special possession (e.g., Ex 19:5; Dt 7:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians 1:14 “the redemption of the possession” refers to the final salvation of believers, who are God’s treasure. Further, “we have obtained an inheritance” (Eph 1:11) may well be translated, “we have been made an inheritance,” that is, been “chosen as God’s portion,” a view supported by verse 18. No more fundamental idea than this can be found in Scripture, and its essence is expressed by the words of the One who sits on the throne: “He who conquers shall have this heritage, and I will be his God and he shall be my son” (Rv 21:7, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Lv 26:11-12; 2 Sm 7:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adoption; Birthright; Firstborn; Heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>INHERITANCE<\/h3>\n<p>Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LegalandHistoricalAspect\">Legal and Historical Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchs<\/h5>\n<p>We learn something of early-second-millennium <span>BC<\/span> practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. Yet exceptions abound. Ishmael (Gn 16:15; 17:15-21), Esau (25:23), and Reuben (49:3-4) did not receive the birthright. Another item of special interest is Abraham’s suggestion that, in the absence of a son, his servant Eliezer might be regarded as the heir (15:2-5); scholars have found confirmation of this practice in Hurrian legal documents of the second millennium.<\/p>\n<h5>The Hebrew Nation<\/h5>\n<p>According to Deuteronomy 21:15-17, Hebrew firstborns were legally entitled to a double portion of the inheritance. Israelite law also made provision for widows through the practice of levirate marriage (Dt 25:5; see Gn 38:8; Ru 4:5).<\/p>\n<p>According to Numbers 27:1-11, the daughters of Zelophehad argued that they should receive the inheritance since their father had died without sons. Consequently, God decreed that if a man died without sons, the inheritance should be transferred to his daughter; if he had no daughter, to his brothers; if he had no brothers, to his nearest relatives. This particular incident also illustrates the importance of preserving tribal possessions: the daughters of Zelophehad were not allowed to marry outside the tribe of Manasseh, for this would mean transferral of the property to another tribe (Nm 36).<\/p>\n<p>How highly the Israelites valued their family’s inherited possessions may be gathered from Leviticus 25:25-28. If an individual sold his land for financial reasons, provision must be made for a relative to redeem it; if he had no near relative, he could still purchase it back at a later time, and even if he could not afford to do so, the land automatically reverted to him in the Year of Jubilee, when all debts were canceled (note also Lv 27:14-25).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Apart from the reference to levirate marriage in Matthew 22:23-33 (Mk 12:18-27; Lk 20:27-40), the NT has little to say about principles of property transferral during Roman times.<\/p>\n<p>In the parable of the prodigal son, the younger son in the family requested his share of the inheritance (Lk 15:12). One should also note that the elder son, who with false piety looked down on his brother’s behavior, had not protested when his brother asked for the inheritance; on the contrary, the elder brother too, without complaining, received his share—presumably a double portion.<\/p>\n<p>In another significant passage (Gal 4:1-2) Paul, seeking to illustrate a theological point, refers to secular practices. An heir, he tells us, is subject to guardians and managers during his childhood, up to the time he actually inherits. The point Paul wants to establish is clear enough, but the illustration does not coincide with what we know of Roman law and unfortunately scholars have been unable to identify the precise social custom in view. It may be that Paul was making reference, in general rather than strict legal terms, to some practice with which he and the Galatians were familiar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalAspect\">Theological Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>Canaan as Israel’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>The conviction that God gave Palestine to the Israelites for their inheritance serves as a bridge between the historical and the theological data. The historical element lies in the obvious fact that the Promised Land, a physical entity, was certainly occupied by the Hebrews and distributed among their tribes. Theologically, however, the Scriptures speak of this occupation as a divine gift; in effect, even the method of distribution was based on the concept that the land belongs to God (Lv 25:23; see Ex 15:17; Jos 22:27; Ez 38:16; Jl 1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The theme goes back to Genesis 12:1-3. God, in choosing Abraham, instructed him to move to a new country and promised to make him a great and blessed nation (Heb 11:8). The significance of the land in this Abrahamic promise is made more explicit later, when we are told that God promised to give Canaan to Abraham’s descendants after four centuries of Egyptian bondage (Gn 15:12-21; see Acts 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>Since Canaan was occupied by wicked inhabitants, the land was to be taken by force; to inherit the land therefore really means <em>to take possession<\/em> of it. Israel must trust God, whose land it is, to give them the victory (Jos 1:1-9; 21:43-45; Jgs 7:2; Ps 44:1-3; Acts 13:19). Once they conquered the land, it was apportioned among the tribes according to their size (following the instructions in Nm 26:52-54). God further commanded the people to divide the land by lot (vv 55-56). Thus, from the initial promise to Abraham, to the actual apportionment of the land and even with reference to the future (Is 60:21; Ez 45:1-8; 47:13–48:29), the people were made fully aware that their inheritance lay in the hands of a sovereign Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Believer’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT we find the concept of inheritance transferred from the purely physical to the spiritual. The tribe of Levi, which constituted the priestly clan, received no inheritance, because “the Lord is their inheritance” (Dt 18:1-2; see Nm 18:8-24). The Levites, in other words, received no land apportionment, but in their service to God they could begin to enjoy the fuller blessings to which the land inheritance pointed.<\/p>\n<p>That this truth could not be restricted to Levites is hinted at in Exodus 19:6, where the whole nation is called “a kingdom of priests” (see 1 Pt 2:9). Psalm 16 makes it clear that no one understood more clearly than David what those words entailed. Even if he were deprived of Israel’s physical inheritance, he had received by lot a more beautiful heritage, the Lord himself, in whose presence he found full joy and everlasting pleasures (Ps 16:5-6, 11; see also Pss 73:25-26; 142:5; Is 58:14; Lam 3:24).<\/p>\n<p>In later Judaism, during and after the intertestamental period, the figure was extended considerably. For example, the rabbis began to speak of the law as the inheritance of the faithful. Further, they might give the idea a negative turn, as when the wicked are said to inherit hell (cf. Jb 27:13). Neither of these figures is found in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>We also read in Jewish literature statements about inheriting the age to come, the kingdom, eternal life; these ideas occur frequently in the NT (Mt 19:29; 25:34; Lk 10:25; 18:18; 1 Cor 6:9-10; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; Ti 3:7; Jas 2:5). Such an inheritance, however, belongs only to those who are sanctified by God’s word (Acts 20:32; 26:18; Col 1:12; note also Jn 17:17; Col 3:23-24). These future blessings do not exclude the physical (Mt 5:5; note Ps 37:11, 29; Is 60:21; Rom 4:13; 2 Pt 3:13), but they certainly exclude human frailty, for God’s inheritance is imperishable (1 Cor 15:50). In short, our heritage is nothing less than full salvation (Heb 1:14; 11:7), which God carefully guards for us in heaven (1 Pt 1:4).<\/p>\n<p>Doubtless, the most significant feature in the NT is its emphasis that, as a result of the work of Christ, his people begin even <em>now<\/em> to receive the promised inheritance. The Gospel of John frequently stresses the present reality of eternal life, as does the Letter to the Hebrews (cf. 6:12-17 with 9:15 and 11:13, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>Paul treats this whole matter thoroughly in Galatians 3:7–4:7. In response to the Judaizers, who claim that the Abrahamic inheritance is restricted to those who become Jews through circumcision, Paul argues vigorously that Abraham’s true children are those who believe, whether Jew or Gentile (3:7; see Acts 26:16-18; Eph 3:6). They become heirs of God’s promise, for they receive the Spirit (Gal 3:14). The principle of inheritance is promise, not the Law (v 18). Those who believe are brought into union with Christ (vv 27-29); but then they are not merely Abraham’s children but God’s (v 26), for Christ is the Son of God and God has determined to send the Spirit of his Son to believers so that they too may call God <em>Father<\/em> (Gal 4:4-7; see also Rom 8:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, Christ himself as the Son is the true heir (Mt 21:38; Mk 12:7; Lk 20:14); he has inherited a name above every name (Phil 2:9; Heb 1:4) and has been appointed heir of all things (Heb 1:2; see Ps 2:7-8; Mt 28:18). But by his grace, all who become his through faith are counted joint heirs with him (Rom 8:17).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>With a bold shift in the metaphor, the Scriptures speak of believers as God’s inheritance. In the beautiful “Song of Moses” the author speaks of God as the Israelites’ Father (Dt 32:6), who has taken special interest in their inheritance (v 8). Then we are told why God cares: “For the <span>Lord<\/span>’s portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance” (Dt 32:9, <span>niv<\/span>). This theme becomes very prominent throughout the OT (e.g., Dt 9:26-29; 1 Kgs 8:51-53; Pss 28:9; 33:12; 74:2; Is 19:25; Jer 10:16; Zec 2:12). Elsewhere, Israel is spoken of as God’s special possession (e.g., Ex 19:5; Dt 7:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians 1:14 “the redemption of the possession” refers to the final salvation of believers, who are God’s treasure. Further, “we have obtained an inheritance” (Eph 1:11) may well be translated, “we have been made an inheritance,” that is, been “chosen as God’s portion,” a view supported by verse 18. No more fundamental idea than this can be found in Scripture, and its essence is expressed by the words of the One who sits on the throne: “He who conquers shall have this heritage, and I will be his God and he shall be my son” (Rv 21:7, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Lv 26:11-12; 2 Sm 7:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adoption; Birthright; Firstborn; Heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"INHERITANCE Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times. Legal and Historical Aspect The Patriarchs We learn something of early-second-millennium BC practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. ...","summary_en":"INHERITANCE Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times. Legal and Historical Aspect The Patriarchs We learn something of early-second-millennium BC practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. ...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25678,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Midianite Midian","title_en":"Midianite Midian","content_ro":"<h3>MIDIAN, MIDIANITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements.<\/p>\n<p>Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28).<\/p>\n<p>Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraham married as an old man (Gn 25:1-2; cf. 23:1-2; 24:67; 1 Chr 1:32). By calling Midian and his full brothers “the sons of Keturah” (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:32-33), the Bible carefully distinguishes them from Isaac, the son of Sarah, who was the one through whom God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled (Gn 12:1-3; 17:15-21). In fact, Abraham and the Israelites regarded these other sons as having no more inheritance rights than a concubine’s sons (Gn 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Expelled from Abraham’s family, for Isaac’s sake, they became seminomadic peoples of the deserts east and south of Palestine (Gn 25:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandofMidian\">The Land of Midian<\/p>\n<p>Of uncertain location, Midian was probably far south of Edom on the eastern side of what is today called the Gulf of Aqaba. The Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy (second century <span>AD<\/span>) mentions a city named Modiana on the coast and a Madiana 26 miles (41.8 kilometers) inland (modern el-Bed’) in this region, an identification supported by the Jewish historian Josephus (first century <span>AD<\/span>) and the Christian church historian Eusebius (early fourth century).<\/p>\n\n<p>In early OT times Midian seems to have been the land on the edge of the deserts bordering Gilead, Moab, and Edom south even into eastern Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>In Joseph’s day, some Midianite clans must have lived in the northern Transjordanian desert adjacent to Gilead or Bashan because they were part of an Ishmaelite caravan traveling the trade route from Damascus across Gilead past Dothan to Egypt (Gn 37:17, 25-28, 36).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses fled from Pharaoh, he settled in Midian and eventually married Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest (Ex 2:15-22). Moses asked his Midianite relative Hobab to act as a guide from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:19); Hobab was familiar with the wilderness of Paran (Nm 10:11-12, 29-31), even though his own land and relatives were elsewhere (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Balaam episode and its bloody aftermath (Nm 22:31), a substantial group of Midianites appears to have been living on the eastern frontier of Moab. The Moabite king Balak, who was subject to the Amorite king named Sihon (21:26-30; Jer 48:45), discussed the Israelite threat with the elders of Midian, and a joint delegation was sent to Balaam (Nm 22:2-7). At Acacia in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 25:1), an Israelite met and married a Midianite princess (Nm 25:6-18; 31:8). The Midianite kings were considered puppet kings of King Sihon (Jos 13:21). All the indications are that Midianite clans lived nearby, on the borders of Moab. Since Moab is north of Edom, the reference to an Edomite victory over Midian (Gn 36:35) might indicate a northern encroachment by the Midianites on Edomite territory.<\/p>\n<p>The Midianite invasion that Gideon repulsed had all the appearances of an invasion from the east. It would therefore seem that while “the land of Midian” is a term that may refer to a territory south of Edom, Midianites were living over a much wider area—on marginal land—east of Moab and Edom and south of Edom into east Sinai and northwest Arabia.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIDIAN, MIDIANITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements.<\/p>\n<p>Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28).<\/p>\n<p>Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraham married as an old man (Gn 25:1-2; cf. 23:1-2; 24:67; 1 Chr 1:32). By calling Midian and his full brothers “the sons of Keturah” (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:32-33), the Bible carefully distinguishes them from Isaac, the son of Sarah, who was the one through whom God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled (Gn 12:1-3; 17:15-21). In fact, Abraham and the Israelites regarded these other sons as having no more inheritance rights than a concubine’s sons (Gn 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Expelled from Abraham’s family, for Isaac’s sake, they became seminomadic peoples of the deserts east and south of Palestine (Gn 25:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandofMidian\">The Land of Midian<\/p>\n<p>Of uncertain location, Midian was probably far south of Edom on the eastern side of what is today called the Gulf of Aqaba. The Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy (second century <span>AD<\/span>) mentions a city named Modiana on the coast and a Madiana 26 miles (41.8 kilometers) inland (modern el-Bed’) in this region, an identification supported by the Jewish historian Josephus (first century <span>AD<\/span>) and the Christian church historian Eusebius (early fourth century).<\/p>\n\n<p>In early OT times Midian seems to have been the land on the edge of the deserts bordering Gilead, Moab, and Edom south even into eastern Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>In Joseph’s day, some Midianite clans must have lived in the northern Transjordanian desert adjacent to Gilead or Bashan because they were part of an Ishmaelite caravan traveling the trade route from Damascus across Gilead past Dothan to Egypt (Gn 37:17, 25-28, 36).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses fled from Pharaoh, he settled in Midian and eventually married Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest (Ex 2:15-22). Moses asked his Midianite relative Hobab to act as a guide from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:19); Hobab was familiar with the wilderness of Paran (Nm 10:11-12, 29-31), even though his own land and relatives were elsewhere (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Balaam episode and its bloody aftermath (Nm 22:31), a substantial group of Midianites appears to have been living on the eastern frontier of Moab. The Moabite king Balak, who was subject to the Amorite king named Sihon (21:26-30; Jer 48:45), discussed the Israelite threat with the elders of Midian, and a joint delegation was sent to Balaam (Nm 22:2-7). At Acacia in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 25:1), an Israelite met and married a Midianite princess (Nm 25:6-18; 31:8). The Midianite kings were considered puppet kings of King Sihon (Jos 13:21). All the indications are that Midianite clans lived nearby, on the borders of Moab. Since Moab is north of Edom, the reference to an Edomite victory over Midian (Gn 36:35) might indicate a northern encroachment by the Midianites on Edomite territory.<\/p>\n<p>The Midianite invasion that Gideon repulsed had all the appearances of an invasion from the east. It would therefore seem that while “the land of Midian” is a term that may refer to a territory south of Edom, Midianites were living over a much wider area—on marginal land—east of Moab and Edom and south of Edom into east Sinai and northwest Arabia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIDIAN, MIDIANITE Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements. Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28). Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraha...","summary_en":"MIDIAN, MIDIANITE Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements. Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28). Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraha...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26937,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Significance of Names","title_en":"Significance of Names","content_ro":"<h3>NAMES, Significance of<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names:<\/p>\n<p>1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births gave Jacob (Gn 25:26) and also Samuel (1 Sm 1:20) their names. In Samuel’s case it is interesting to note that his name, meaning “heard by God,” records not the offering of prayer but the hearing and answering of it. Something of the deeper and more far-reaching implications of naming is seen in the fact that while the names Jacob and Samuel arise from birth circumstances, they also reveal in advance the person the child will become: Jacob the sneaky opportunist (cf. Gn 27:36), Samuel the man of prayer (1 Sm 7:5-9; 8:6, 21; 12:19-23).<\/p>\n<li>2. To express parental reactions to the birth. Isaac means “laughter” (cf. Gn 17:17; 18:12; 21:3-6). Nabal (1 Sm 25:25), which means “fool,” must have been the essence of a mother’s prayer—“Let him not be a fool”—though sadly he was! Abimelech (Jgs 8:31) means “My father is king” and may express a secret ambition of Gideon’s, at variance with his public testimony (Jgs 8:22-23).<\/li>\n<li>3. To secure the solidarity of the family. This may explain the proposal to call the baby Zechariah in Luke 1:59.<\/li>\n<li>4. To reveal the nature of the person, his function, or some other significant thing about him. The preeminent example of this is Jesus (Mt 1:21), named for his saving vocation. Isaiah seems to have seen his own name as significant of his message “the Lord saves” (see Is 8:18 <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/li>\n<li>5. To communicate God’s message. Isaiah (see Is 7:3) called his first son Shear-jashub (“a remnant shall return”) in order to embody the double-sided thrust of his message: as a result of faithlessness, the people will be reduced to a mere remnant (“only a remnant shall return”); as a result of God’s faithfulness, his people will be preserved in life (“a remnant shall indeed return”). He called his second boy Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3), (“speed-prey-haste-spoil”), indicating the certainty of the imminent onset of a victorious foe.<\/li>\n<li>6. To establish religious affiliation. All the names in the Bible with the endings <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-iah<\/span> (alternatively <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-jah<\/span>) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span> (e.g., Jeremiah, Nathanael) are in fact statements with “the Lord” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-yah<\/span><em>)<\/em> or “God” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span><em>)<\/em> as subject. For example, Adonijah (2 Sm 3:4) means “the Lord is Sovereign”; Nathanael (Jn 1:47) means “God gave.” Such names were often chosen in times of religious decline in order to affirm the true faith of the parents.<\/li>\n<li>7. To affirm authority over another. In the ancient Near East, the naming of an object or person implied power and authority over what was named (Gn 2:19-20). Thus, a person not knowing another’s name could do neither harm nor good to that person (Ex 33:12, 17). In the ancient world a name described the person or his work in some way. When the individual or his situation changed, so did the name, as with Abram (Abraham) and Jacob (Israel). Pharaoh, as master of the patriarch Joseph, changed Joseph’s name when his status altered, calling him Zaphenath-paneah (Gn 41:45). When Eliakim was made king of Judah, the pharaoh changed the Jewish king’s name to Jehoiakim (2 Kgs 23:34). In captivity, Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were forced to change their names to Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego by order of the eunuch (Dn 1:6-7).<\/li>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist was named by an angel who represented God, and similarly Jesus was given his name by an angel. The naming of those children symbolized God’s authority over John the Baptist and his special relationship as Father to Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewNames\">New Names<\/p>\n<p>The ability of the name to reveal the nature or status of the person who bears it is well illustrated in the biblical practice of giving new names, as when Sarai became Sarah (Gn 17:15). Three motivations are possible:<\/p>\n<p>1. The new name replaces the old in order to signify the bestowal of powers not hitherto possessed. In this case the new name is equivalent to the experience of regeneration. The childless Abram becomes the “father of a multitude of nations,” Abraham (Gn 17:5).<\/p>\n<li>2. The new name may indicate a new character and status with God, as when Jacob the trickster became Israel the man of power with God (Gn 32:27; Hos 12:3-4); thus also, Simon became Peter (Jn 1:42).<\/li>\n<li>3. The new name may cement a new loyalty in the place of an old. Daniel the captive was given the name Belteshazzar, incorporating the name Bel, one of the gods of Babylon—presumably to turn him from the God of his fathers to that of his captors (Dn 1:7).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAMES, Significance of<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names:<\/p>\n<p>1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births gave Jacob (Gn 25:26) and also Samuel (1 Sm 1:20) their names. In Samuel’s case it is interesting to note that his name, meaning “heard by God,” records not the offering of prayer but the hearing and answering of it. Something of the deeper and more far-reaching implications of naming is seen in the fact that while the names Jacob and Samuel arise from birth circumstances, they also reveal in advance the person the child will become: Jacob the sneaky opportunist (cf. Gn 27:36), Samuel the man of prayer (1 Sm 7:5-9; 8:6, 21; 12:19-23).<\/p>\n<li>2. To express parental reactions to the birth. Isaac means “laughter” (cf. Gn 17:17; 18:12; 21:3-6). Nabal (1 Sm 25:25), which means “fool,” must have been the essence of a mother’s prayer—“Let him not be a fool”—though sadly he was! Abimelech (Jgs 8:31) means “My father is king” and may express a secret ambition of Gideon’s, at variance with his public testimony (Jgs 8:22-23).<\/li>\n<li>3. To secure the solidarity of the family. This may explain the proposal to call the baby Zechariah in Luke 1:59.<\/li>\n<li>4. To reveal the nature of the person, his function, or some other significant thing about him. The preeminent example of this is Jesus (Mt 1:21), named for his saving vocation. Isaiah seems to have seen his own name as significant of his message “the Lord saves” (see Is 8:18 <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/li>\n<li>5. To communicate God’s message. Isaiah (see Is 7:3) called his first son Shear-jashub (“a remnant shall return”) in order to embody the double-sided thrust of his message: as a result of faithlessness, the people will be reduced to a mere remnant (“only a remnant shall return”); as a result of God’s faithfulness, his people will be preserved in life (“a remnant shall indeed return”). He called his second boy Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3), (“speed-prey-haste-spoil”), indicating the certainty of the imminent onset of a victorious foe.<\/li>\n<li>6. To establish religious affiliation. All the names in the Bible with the endings <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-iah<\/span> (alternatively <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-jah<\/span>) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span> (e.g., Jeremiah, Nathanael) are in fact statements with “the Lord” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-yah<\/span><em>)<\/em> or “God” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span><em>)<\/em> as subject. For example, Adonijah (2 Sm 3:4) means “the Lord is Sovereign”; Nathanael (Jn 1:47) means “God gave.” Such names were often chosen in times of religious decline in order to affirm the true faith of the parents.<\/li>\n<li>7. To affirm authority over another. In the ancient Near East, the naming of an object or person implied power and authority over what was named (Gn 2:19-20). Thus, a person not knowing another’s name could do neither harm nor good to that person (Ex 33:12, 17). In the ancient world a name described the person or his work in some way. When the individual or his situation changed, so did the name, as with Abram (Abraham) and Jacob (Israel). Pharaoh, as master of the patriarch Joseph, changed Joseph’s name when his status altered, calling him Zaphenath-paneah (Gn 41:45). When Eliakim was made king of Judah, the pharaoh changed the Jewish king’s name to Jehoiakim (2 Kgs 23:34). In captivity, Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were forced to change their names to Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego by order of the eunuch (Dn 1:6-7).<\/li>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist was named by an angel who represented God, and similarly Jesus was given his name by an angel. The naming of those children symbolized God’s authority over John the Baptist and his special relationship as Father to Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewNames\">New Names<\/p>\n<p>The ability of the name to reveal the nature or status of the person who bears it is well illustrated in the biblical practice of giving new names, as when Sarai became Sarah (Gn 17:15). Three motivations are possible:<\/p>\n<p>1. The new name replaces the old in order to signify the bestowal of powers not hitherto possessed. In this case the new name is equivalent to the experience of regeneration. The childless Abram becomes the “father of a multitude of nations,” Abraham (Gn 17:5).<\/p>\n<li>2. The new name may indicate a new character and status with God, as when Jacob the trickster became Israel the man of power with God (Gn 32:27; Hos 12:3-4); thus also, Simon became Peter (Jn 1:42).<\/li>\n<li>3. The new name may cement a new loyalty in the place of an old. Daniel the captive was given the name Belteshazzar, incorporating the name Bel, one of the gods of Babylon—presumably to turn him from the God of his fathers to that of his captors (Dn 1:7).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAMES, Significance of In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names: 1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births...","summary_en":"NAMES, Significance of In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names: 1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33917,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>SARAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12).<\/li>\n<p>Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would make of him a great nation (12:2) and that the land of Canaan would be given to his seed (v 7), Sarah was still barren.<\/p>\n<p>After 10 years had passed (cf. Gn 12:4; 16:16) and Sarah continued without children, she gave her Egyptian slave, Hagar, to Abraham as a concubine. Hagar conceived and bore a son, Ishmael (16:3-4). God promised that a nation would come from Ishmael (17:20) but indicated that he was not to be the child of the promise. Sarah herself was to be the mother of this child, even though she laughed when the birth was predicted. The fulfillment of this prediction took place with the birth of Isaac (21:2-3), when Sarah was 90 years old, 25 years after the original promise of a seed to Abraham (17:17; 21:5).<\/p>\n<p>When famine forced Abraham and Sarah to journey down into Egypt shortly after their entrance into Canaan, Sarah was represented to the Egyptians as Abraham’s sister. This resulted in Sarah’s being taken into the harem of Pharaoh because of her great beauty (Gn 12:11-15), and Abraham’s being well treated and rewarded by the Egyptians instead of being killed. God intervened to protect the marriage of Abraham and Sarah by plaguing the house of Pharaoh to force Sarah’s release. A similar tactic was followed by Abraham and Sarah on another occasion in Gerar (ch 20), where she was taken into the household of Abimelech the king of Gerar. Again God protected Sarah, preserved her as the mother of the promised seed, and prevented any suspicion or doubt concerning who was the father of Isaac. Significantly, Isaac was born not long after this incident (21:1-5), his birth having been promised about a year earlier (17:21; 18:10-14). Sarah died at the age of 127 and was buried in the cave at Machpelah, which Abraham had purchased from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23).<\/p>\n<p>Apart from the book of Genesis, Sarah is referred to in the OT only in Isaiah 51:2. Reference is made to her in the NT in Romans 4:19, 9:9, Hebrews 11:11, 1 Peter 3:6, and Galatians 4:21-31, although in the Galatians text she is not mentioned by name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Barrenness.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Serah, Asher’s daughter, in Numbers 26:46. <em>See<\/em> Serah.<\/li>\n<li>3. The heroine of the book of Tobit. Her prayer of anguish was heard by God, who sent the angel Raphael as a matchmaker to arrange her marriage to Tobias (Tb 6:9ff.). She had been tormented by a demon, who had caused the death of her previous seven husbands but was exorcised by Tobias using a recipe of fish heart and liver that was given to him by the angel Raphael (8:2). After the death of Tobit and his wife, Anna, in Nineveh, Tobias and Sarah, and their children returned to Sarah’s family in Ecbatana (14:12ff.).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SARAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12).<\/li>\n<p>Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would make of him a great nation (12:2) and that the land of Canaan would be given to his seed (v 7), Sarah was still barren.<\/p>\n<p>After 10 years had passed (cf. Gn 12:4; 16:16) and Sarah continued without children, she gave her Egyptian slave, Hagar, to Abraham as a concubine. Hagar conceived and bore a son, Ishmael (16:3-4). God promised that a nation would come from Ishmael (17:20) but indicated that he was not to be the child of the promise. Sarah herself was to be the mother of this child, even though she laughed when the birth was predicted. The fulfillment of this prediction took place with the birth of Isaac (21:2-3), when Sarah was 90 years old, 25 years after the original promise of a seed to Abraham (17:17; 21:5).<\/p>\n<p>When famine forced Abraham and Sarah to journey down into Egypt shortly after their entrance into Canaan, Sarah was represented to the Egyptians as Abraham’s sister. This resulted in Sarah’s being taken into the harem of Pharaoh because of her great beauty (Gn 12:11-15), and Abraham’s being well treated and rewarded by the Egyptians instead of being killed. God intervened to protect the marriage of Abraham and Sarah by plaguing the house of Pharaoh to force Sarah’s release. A similar tactic was followed by Abraham and Sarah on another occasion in Gerar (ch 20), where she was taken into the household of Abimelech the king of Gerar. Again God protected Sarah, preserved her as the mother of the promised seed, and prevented any suspicion or doubt concerning who was the father of Isaac. Significantly, Isaac was born not long after this incident (21:1-5), his birth having been promised about a year earlier (17:21; 18:10-14). Sarah died at the age of 127 and was buried in the cave at Machpelah, which Abraham had purchased from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23).<\/p>\n<p>Apart from the book of Genesis, Sarah is referred to in the OT only in Isaiah 51:2. Reference is made to her in the NT in Romans 4:19, 9:9, Hebrews 11:11, 1 Peter 3:6, and Galatians 4:21-31, although in the Galatians text she is not mentioned by name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Barrenness.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Serah, Asher’s daughter, in Numbers 26:46. <em>See<\/em> Serah.<\/li>\n<li>3. The heroine of the book of Tobit. Her prayer of anguish was heard by God, who sent the angel Raphael as a matchmaker to arrange her marriage to Tobias (Tb 6:9ff.). She had been tormented by a demon, who had caused the death of her previous seven husbands but was exorcised by Tobias using a recipe of fish heart and liver that was given to him by the angel Raphael (8:2). After the death of Tobit and his wife, Anna, in Nineveh, Tobias and Sarah, and their children returned to Sarah’s family in Ecbatana (14:12ff.).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SARAH 1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12). Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would m...","summary_en":"SARAH 1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12). Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would m...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43087,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:15","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:15-16<\/strong> <em>Sarah:<\/em> The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:15-16<\/strong> <em>Sarah:<\/em> The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:15-16 Sarah: The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.","summary_en":"17:15-16 Sarah: The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70713,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:15","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:15-16<\/strong> <em>Sarah:<\/em> The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:15-16<\/strong> <em>Sarah:<\/em> The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:15-16 Sarah: The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.","summary_en":"17:15-16 Sarah: The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98339,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:15","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:15-16<\/strong> <em>Sarah:<\/em> The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:15-16<\/strong> <em>Sarah:<\/em> The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:15-16 Sarah: The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.","summary_en":"17:15-16 Sarah: The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125965,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:15","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:15-16<\/strong> <em>Sarah:<\/em> The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:15-16<\/strong> <em>Sarah:<\/em> The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:15-16 Sarah: The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.","summary_en":"17:15-16 Sarah: The new name, fitting for one who would be the mother of kings, was a milestone in Sarah’s calling and brought attention to the promise.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59999,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62248,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word","title_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word","content_ro":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","summary_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87625,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89874,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word","title_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word","content_ro":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","summary_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115251,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117500,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word","title_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word","content_ro":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","summary_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142877,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145126,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word","title_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word","content_ro":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","summary_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":23182,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Life","title_en":"Life","content_ro":"<h3>LIFE<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical perspective, life flows from the living Father through the Son (his agent in creation and redemption) into a world thirsting for “real” life (see Jn 6:57).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLivingFather\">The Living Father<\/p>\n<p>God the Father is above all else “the living God” (Jer 10:10; Jn 5:26). God, the source of all life (1 Tm 6:13), “inbreathed” humans at creation and sustains them continually (Jb 34:14-15). God alone gives life (Gn 17:16) and takes it away (Gn 3:22-24; 6:3; Ps 104:29; Lk 12:20).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of life is movement; man is a “lively,” animated body (Mt 27:50; Lk 8:55). Animals also have this animating “breath-soul” (Hebrew of Gn 1:24; 6:17). Thus, all nature is instilled with life deriving from God (Acts 17:24-28). Life is therefore sacred, but unfortunately it is as transient as grass, clouds, dew, shadow (1 Chr 29:15; Jb 7:6, 9; Jas 4:13-16; 1 Pt 1:24). Long life is desired (Gn 35:29); any life is preferable to death and of infinite value (Eccl 9:4-6; Mt 6:25; 16:26), for Sheol houses a ghostly “nonliving life,” bereft of feeling, hope, or divine help (Ps 88:3-12). One’s life can be enhanced by loving and serving God (Dt 30:15-20; 1 Pt 3:8-12), by experiencing God’s deliverance (Is 38:16), and by receiving divine blessings (Mt 5:3-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChristasLife\">Christ as Life<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word for “life” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">zoe<\/span><em>.<\/em> In classical Greek this word was used for life in general. There are a few examples of this meaning in the New Testament (see Acts 17:25; Jas 4:14: Rv 16:3), but in all other instances the word was used to designate the divine, eternal life—the life of God (Eph 4:18). This life resided in Christ, and he made it available to all who believe in him. Human beings are born with the natural life—called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">psuche<\/span> in Greek (translated “soul,” “personality,” or “life”); they do not possess the eternal life. This life can be received only by believing in the one who possesses the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">zoe<\/span><em>-life,<\/em> namely, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The overflowing, vibrant quality of life made available in Christ was evident in the authority of his speech and the power of his touch (Mt 9:18; Mk 1:27, 41-42; 5:27-29). He is “the author of life” (Acts 3:15), who provides the way into life (Mt 7:14; 25:46; Mk 8:35-37; 9:42-47). And he raised the dead with his life-giving power. His own resurrection made him “a life-giving spirit,” with the power of “an indestructible life” (Rom 8:2; 1 Cor 15:45; Heb 7:16). Thus, Jesus Christ is “our life” (Col 3:4)—in union with whom we find “newness of life” (Rom 6:4) and are newly created, living henceforth not for ourselves but for him (2 Cor 5:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>John, especially, dwells on the theme that Christ is the source of this new life (Jn 3:14-16; 5:21) for the children of God (1:12; 3:3, 5). This life is enjoyed already by those who know God and Christ (5:24; 17:3; 1 Jn 5:11-12), for they have already passed from death into eternal life (Jn 10:28; 11:26). Such life is abundant (10:10), enlightened (8:12), free and satisfied (10:9), victorious (Rom 6:6-14), full of peace and joy (Rom 5:1-11), inexhaustibly refreshed (Jn 4:13-14; 7:37-38) and immortal (Jn 5:24; 1 Cor 15:51-57).<\/p>\n<p>All this is possible because from the beginning “all that came to be was alive with his life” (Jn 1:4, <span>neb<\/span>). Thus, the life within the Father flows into the world through the Son, who also “has life in himself” and gives it to whom he will (5:26). He is “the resurrection and the life” (11:25; 14:6) and demonstrates it by restoring life to paralyzed limbs, raising the dead, and conquering death (5:5-9; 11:43; ch 20). People remain in death only because they will not “come” and “have life” (5:40; cf. 1 Jn 3:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eternal Life.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LIFE<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical perspective, life flows from the living Father through the Son (his agent in creation and redemption) into a world thirsting for “real” life (see Jn 6:57).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLivingFather\">The Living Father<\/p>\n<p>God the Father is above all else “the living God” (Jer 10:10; Jn 5:26). God, the source of all life (1 Tm 6:13), “inbreathed” humans at creation and sustains them continually (Jb 34:14-15). God alone gives life (Gn 17:16) and takes it away (Gn 3:22-24; 6:3; Ps 104:29; Lk 12:20).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of life is movement; man is a “lively,” animated body (Mt 27:50; Lk 8:55). Animals also have this animating “breath-soul” (Hebrew of Gn 1:24; 6:17). Thus, all nature is instilled with life deriving from God (Acts 17:24-28). Life is therefore sacred, but unfortunately it is as transient as grass, clouds, dew, shadow (1 Chr 29:15; Jb 7:6, 9; Jas 4:13-16; 1 Pt 1:24). Long life is desired (Gn 35:29); any life is preferable to death and of infinite value (Eccl 9:4-6; Mt 6:25; 16:26), for Sheol houses a ghostly “nonliving life,” bereft of feeling, hope, or divine help (Ps 88:3-12). One’s life can be enhanced by loving and serving God (Dt 30:15-20; 1 Pt 3:8-12), by experiencing God’s deliverance (Is 38:16), and by receiving divine blessings (Mt 5:3-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChristasLife\">Christ as Life<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word for “life” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">zoe<\/span><em>.<\/em> In classical Greek this word was used for life in general. There are a few examples of this meaning in the New Testament (see Acts 17:25; Jas 4:14: Rv 16:3), but in all other instances the word was used to designate the divine, eternal life—the life of God (Eph 4:18). This life resided in Christ, and he made it available to all who believe in him. Human beings are born with the natural life—called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">psuche<\/span> in Greek (translated “soul,” “personality,” or “life”); they do not possess the eternal life. This life can be received only by believing in the one who possesses the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">zoe<\/span><em>-life,<\/em> namely, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The overflowing, vibrant quality of life made available in Christ was evident in the authority of his speech and the power of his touch (Mt 9:18; Mk 1:27, 41-42; 5:27-29). He is “the author of life” (Acts 3:15), who provides the way into life (Mt 7:14; 25:46; Mk 8:35-37; 9:42-47). And he raised the dead with his life-giving power. His own resurrection made him “a life-giving spirit,” with the power of “an indestructible life” (Rom 8:2; 1 Cor 15:45; Heb 7:16). Thus, Jesus Christ is “our life” (Col 3:4)—in union with whom we find “newness of life” (Rom 6:4) and are newly created, living henceforth not for ourselves but for him (2 Cor 5:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>John, especially, dwells on the theme that Christ is the source of this new life (Jn 3:14-16; 5:21) for the children of God (1:12; 3:3, 5). This life is enjoyed already by those who know God and Christ (5:24; 17:3; 1 Jn 5:11-12), for they have already passed from death into eternal life (Jn 10:28; 11:26). Such life is abundant (10:10), enlightened (8:12), free and satisfied (10:9), victorious (Rom 6:6-14), full of peace and joy (Rom 5:1-11), inexhaustibly refreshed (Jn 4:13-14; 7:37-38) and immortal (Jn 5:24; 1 Cor 15:51-57).<\/p>\n<p>All this is possible because from the beginning “all that came to be was alive with his life” (Jn 1:4, <span>neb<\/span>). Thus, the life within the Father flows into the world through the Son, who also “has life in himself” and gives it to whom he will (5:26). He is “the resurrection and the life” (11:25; 14:6) and demonstrates it by restoring life to paralyzed limbs, raising the dead, and conquering death (5:5-9; 11:43; ch 20). People remain in death only because they will not “come” and “have life” (5:40; cf. 1 Jn 3:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eternal Life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LIFE In biblical perspective, life flows from the living Father through the Son (his agent in creation and redemption) into a world thirsting for “real” life (see Jn 6:57). The Living Father God the Father is above all else “the living God” (Jer 10:10; Jn 5:26). God, the source of all life (1 Tm 6:13), “inbreathed” humans at creation and sustains them continually (Jb 34:14-15). God alone gives life (Gn 17:16) and takes it away (Gn 3:22-24; 6:3; Ps 104:29; Lk 12:20). The sign of life is moveme...","summary_en":"LIFE In biblical perspective, life flows from the living Father through the Son (his agent in creation and redemption) into a world thirsting for “real” life (see Jn 6:57). The Living Father God the Father is above all else “the living God” (Jer 10:10; Jn 5:26). God, the source of all life (1 Tm 6:13), “inbreathed” humans at creation and sustains them continually (Jb 34:14-15). God alone gives life (Gn 17:16) and takes it away (Gn 3:22-24; 6:3; Ps 104:29; Lk 12:20). The sign of life is moveme...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59842,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87468,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115094,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142720,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":40545,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40573,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","summary_en":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40803,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68171,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68199,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","summary_en":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68429,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95797,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95825,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","summary_en":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96055,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123423,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123451,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","summary_en":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123681,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Abraham<\/h3>\n<p>“By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known.<\/p>\n<p>God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Terah left Ur with Abram, Abram’s wife Sarai, and Lot, whose father, Haran, had died. On his way to Canaan, Terah settled in the city of Haran (11:31). God had called Abram to a new land while he was still in Ur (Acts 7:2-4). God told Abram, “Leave your native country, your relatives, and your father’s family, and go to the land that I will show you” (Gen 12:1). God blessed Abram by making a covenant with him that included promises of great blessing, numerous descendants, and a new land (12:1-3). These promises later saved Israel from destruction when they repeatedly failed to keep their covenant with God (see Lev 26:40-45).<\/p>\n<p>Abram left Haran at age seventy-five. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, a Canaanite city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. God appeared to Abram near the oak of Moreh, likely a Canaanite shrine. Abram built altars there and near Bethel (Gen 12:6-8), proclaiming the one true God at these centers of false worship. Abram later moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, again building an altar to worship God (13:18).<\/p>\n<p>When God again promised blessings to Abram in a vision (15:1), Abram exclaimed that he was still childless because Sarai was barren (11:30) and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). This obscure statement is clarified by the Nuzi documents, discovered at the site of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Nuzi. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of means could adopt an heir, often a slave who would be responsible for their burial and mourning. However, a natural son born after the slave-heir’s adoption would supplant him. Apparently Abram had adopted Eliezer in this manner, but God promised that Abram’s own son would be his heir (15:4).<\/p>\n<p>The hallmark of Abram’s life was that he believed the Lord, and the Lord considered him righteous because of his faith (Gen 15:6; see Rom 4:3; Gal 3:6; Jas 2:23). Abram was declared righteous not because he was sinless. On several occasions he failed to do what was right—twice he lied about Sarai out of fear, and he took the provision of a son into his own hands with Hagar rather than continuing to wait for God to act (Gen 16:1-5). But he consistently returned to faith as the fundamental principle of his life before God.<\/p>\n<p>Abram was eighty-six years old when Ishmael was born to Sarai’s servant Hagar. When Abram was ninety-nine, the Lord appeared to him and reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and of blessing (Gen 17), adding circumcision as the mark of the covenant relationship (17:9-14). God also changed Abram’s and Sarai’s names to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham laughed at the promise of another son (17:17). Shortly afterward, the Lord appeared again to Abraham (18:1-15) and again announced the promised son. This time, Sarah was caught laughing in disbelief (18:10-15). Abraham was one hundred years old and his wife was ninety when the Lord did “exactly what he had promised” (21:1). The long-promised son was born and was fittingly named Isaac (“he laughs!”).<\/p>\n<p>The supreme test of Abraham’s faith came when God commanded him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham obeyed faithfully, trusting that God would not thwart his own purposes (see Heb 11:17-19). Just as the knife was about to fall, the angel of God stopped Abraham and provided a ram for him to sacrifice in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith was complete (22:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>Christians understand the sacrifice of Isaac as prefiguring God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. God has fulfilled his covenant with Abraham through Jesus Christ, through whom the blessing of salvation is extended to all who have faith (Rom 4:16-17), making believers Abraham’s spiritual descendants (Gal 3:29). Abraham’s life shows that God is faithful and worthy of belief and obedience. The full import of God’s promise was realized when the gospel was preached to all nations and people from all families of the earth responded in faith (see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham was called God’s friend (2 Chr 20:7; Jas 2:23). All who live by faith are challenged to live as he did, daily venturing into the unknown with trust in God’s guidance and sustenance. Abraham is one of many great “witnesses” to a life of faith (Heb 12:1; see Heb 11), inspiring believers to persevere in faith because we know God is faithful.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:26–25:11; 26:2-5; Exod 3:15-16; 6:3; 32:13; Josh 24:2-3; 1 Chr 1:27-34; 2 Chr 20:7; Isa 29:22; 41:8; 51:1-2; Ezek 33:24; Matt 1:1-2; 3:9; 8:11; 22:31-33; Luke 16:19-31; John 8:31-58; Acts 7:2-8; Rom 4:1-23; 9:5-9; 11:16-17; Gal 3:6-29; Heb 6:13-15; 11:8-12, 17-19; Jas 2:21-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","summary_en":"Abraham “By faith . . . Abraham obeyed when God called him to leave home and go to another land. . . . He went without knowing where he was going. . . . By faith . . . Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice when God was testing him” (Heb 11:8, 17). These key events in Abraham’s life illustrate the faithful obedience for which he is best known. God called Abram from the city of Ur to become the patriarch of God’s people. Abram’s family relationships are recorded in Genesis 11:26-32. Terah had th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":282,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abraham","title_en":"Abraham","content_ro":"<h3>ABRAHAM<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut separation from pagan roots. The new name, interpreted by the biblical text as meaning “father of a multitude,” was also a statement of God’s promise to Abraham that he would have many descendants, as well as a significant test of his faith in God—since he was 99 years old at the time and his childless wife was 90 (Gn 11:30; 17:1-4, 17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AbrahamsLife\">Abraham’s Life<\/p>\n<p>The story of Abram begins in Genesis 11, where his family relationships are recorded (Gn 11:26-32). Terah, Abram’s father, was named after the moon deity worshiped at Ur. Terah had three sons, Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Haran, the father of Lot, died before the family left Ur. Terah took Lot, Abram, and Abram’s wife, Sarai, from Ur to go to Canaan but settled at the city of Haran (v 31). It is stated in Acts 7:2-4 that Abraham heard the call of God to leave for a new land while he was still in Ur.<\/p>\n<p>A note of major importance to the course of Abram’s life is found in Genesis 11:30: “Sarai was not able to have any children” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The problem of Sarai’s barrenness provided the basis for great crises of faith, promise, and fulfillment in the lives of Abram and Sarai.<\/p>\n\n<p>After Terah’s death, God told Abram, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you.” This command was the basis of a “covenant,” in which God promised to make Abram the founder of a new nation in that new land (Gn 12:1-3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Abram, trusting God’s promise, left Haran at the age of 74. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, an important Canaanite royal city between Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal. Near the oak of Moreh, a Canaanite shrine, God appeared to him (12:7). Abram built an altar at Shechem, then moved to the vicinity of Bethel and again built an altar to the Lord (12:8). The expression “to call on the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>rsv<\/span>) means more than just to pray. Rather, Abram made a proclamation, declaring the reality of God to the Canaanites in their centers of false worship. Later Abram moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, where again he built an altar to worship God. Another blessing given in a vision (15:1) led Abram to exclaim that he was still childless and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). Discovery of the Nuzi documents has helped to clarify that otherwise obscure statement. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of station and substance would adopt an heir. Often a slave, the heir would be responsible for the burial and mourning of his adoptive parents. If a son should be born after the adoption of a slave-heir, the natural son would of course supplant him. Thus God’s response to Abram’s question is directly to the point: “No, your servant will not be your heir, for you will have a son of your own to inherit everything I am giving you” (Gn 15:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). God then made a covenant with Abram insuring an heir, a nation, and the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abram was 86 years old when Ishmael was born. When Abram was 99, the Lord appeared to the aged patriarch and again reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and blessing (Gn 17). Circumcision was added as the seal of covenantal relationship (17:9-14), and at that point the names Abram and Sarai were changed to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham’s response to the promise of another son was to laugh: “Then Abraham bowed down to the ground, but he laughed to himself in disbelief. ‘How could I become a father at the age of one hundred?’ he wondered. ‘Besides, Sarah is ninety; how could she have a baby?’ ” (Gn 17:17, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 18 and 19 recount the total destruction of two cities of the Jordan plain, Sodom and Gomorrah. Chapter 18 begins with three individuals seeking comfort in the heat of the day. Abraham offered refreshment and a meal to his guests. They turned out to be no ordinary travelers, however, but the Angel of the Lord along with two other angels (18:1-2; 19:1). There is reason to believe that the Angel of the Lord was God himself (18:17, 33). Another announcement of a promised son made Sarah laugh in unbelief and then deny having laughed (18:12-15).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 21 to 23 form the climax of the story of Abraham. At long last, when Abraham was 100 years old and his wife 90, “the <span>Lord<\/span> did exactly what he had promised” (Gn 21:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). The joy of the aged couple on the birth of their long-promised son could not be contained. Both Abraham and Sarah had laughed in unbelief in the days of promise; now they laughed in joy as God had “the last laugh.” The baby, born at the time God promised, was named Isaac (“he laughs!”). Sarah said, “God has brought me laughter! All who hear about this will laugh with me” (Gn 21:6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The laughter over Isaac’s birth subsided entirely in the test of Abraham’s faith described in chapter 22, God’s command to sacrifice Isaac. Only when one has experienced vicariously with Abraham the long 25 years of God’s promise of a son can one imagine the trauma of such a supreme test. Just as the knife was about to fall, and only then, did the angel of God break the silence of heaven with the call, “Abraham!” (22:11). The name of promise, “father of a multitude,” took on its most significant meaning when Abraham’s son was spared and the test was explained: “I know that you truly fear God. You have not withheld even your beloved son from me” (Gn 22:12, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Those words were coupled with a promise implicit in the discovery of a ram caught in the thicket. The Lord provided an alternative sacrifice, a substitute. The place was named “the Lord will provide.” Christian believers generally see the whole episode as looking ahead to God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Patriarchs, Period of the; Israel, History of; “Abraham’s Bosom”; Sarah #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ABRAHAM<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut separation from pagan roots. The new name, interpreted by the biblical text as meaning “father of a multitude,” was also a statement of God’s promise to Abraham that he would have many descendants, as well as a significant test of his faith in God—since he was 99 years old at the time and his childless wife was 90 (Gn 11:30; 17:1-4, 17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AbrahamsLife\">Abraham’s Life<\/p>\n<p>The story of Abram begins in Genesis 11, where his family relationships are recorded (Gn 11:26-32). Terah, Abram’s father, was named after the moon deity worshiped at Ur. Terah had three sons, Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Haran, the father of Lot, died before the family left Ur. Terah took Lot, Abram, and Abram’s wife, Sarai, from Ur to go to Canaan but settled at the city of Haran (v 31). It is stated in Acts 7:2-4 that Abraham heard the call of God to leave for a new land while he was still in Ur.<\/p>\n<p>A note of major importance to the course of Abram’s life is found in Genesis 11:30: “Sarai was not able to have any children” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The problem of Sarai’s barrenness provided the basis for great crises of faith, promise, and fulfillment in the lives of Abram and Sarai.<\/p>\n\n<p>After Terah’s death, God told Abram, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you.” This command was the basis of a “covenant,” in which God promised to make Abram the founder of a new nation in that new land (Gn 12:1-3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Abram, trusting God’s promise, left Haran at the age of 74. Entering Canaan, he went first to Shechem, an important Canaanite royal city between Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal. Near the oak of Moreh, a Canaanite shrine, God appeared to him (12:7). Abram built an altar at Shechem, then moved to the vicinity of Bethel and again built an altar to the Lord (12:8). The expression “to call on the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>rsv<\/span>) means more than just to pray. Rather, Abram made a proclamation, declaring the reality of God to the Canaanites in their centers of false worship. Later Abram moved to Hebron by the oaks of Mamre, where again he built an altar to worship God. Another blessing given in a vision (15:1) led Abram to exclaim that he was still childless and that Eliezer of Damascus was his heir (15:2). Discovery of the Nuzi documents has helped to clarify that otherwise obscure statement. According to Hurrian custom, a childless couple of station and substance would adopt an heir. Often a slave, the heir would be responsible for the burial and mourning of his adoptive parents. If a son should be born after the adoption of a slave-heir, the natural son would of course supplant him. Thus God’s response to Abram’s question is directly to the point: “No, your servant will not be your heir, for you will have a son of your own to inherit everything I am giving you” (Gn 15:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). God then made a covenant with Abram insuring an heir, a nation, and the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>Abram was 86 years old when Ishmael was born. When Abram was 99, the Lord appeared to the aged patriarch and again reaffirmed his covenant promise of a son and blessing (Gn 17). Circumcision was added as the seal of covenantal relationship (17:9-14), and at that point the names Abram and Sarai were changed to Abraham and Sarah (17:5, 15). Abraham’s response to the promise of another son was to laugh: “Then Abraham bowed down to the ground, but he laughed to himself in disbelief. ‘How could I become a father at the age of one hundred?’ he wondered. ‘Besides, Sarah is ninety; how could she have a baby?’ ” (Gn 17:17, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 18 and 19 recount the total destruction of two cities of the Jordan plain, Sodom and Gomorrah. Chapter 18 begins with three individuals seeking comfort in the heat of the day. Abraham offered refreshment and a meal to his guests. They turned out to be no ordinary travelers, however, but the Angel of the Lord along with two other angels (18:1-2; 19:1). There is reason to believe that the Angel of the Lord was God himself (18:17, 33). Another announcement of a promised son made Sarah laugh in unbelief and then deny having laughed (18:12-15).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 21 to 23 form the climax of the story of Abraham. At long last, when Abraham was 100 years old and his wife 90, “the <span>Lord<\/span> did exactly what he had promised” (Gn 21:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). The joy of the aged couple on the birth of their long-promised son could not be contained. Both Abraham and Sarah had laughed in unbelief in the days of promise; now they laughed in joy as God had “the last laugh.” The baby, born at the time God promised, was named Isaac (“he laughs!”). Sarah said, “God has brought me laughter! All who hear about this will laugh with me” (Gn 21:6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The laughter over Isaac’s birth subsided entirely in the test of Abraham’s faith described in chapter 22, God’s command to sacrifice Isaac. Only when one has experienced vicariously with Abraham the long 25 years of God’s promise of a son can one imagine the trauma of such a supreme test. Just as the knife was about to fall, and only then, did the angel of God break the silence of heaven with the call, “Abraham!” (22:11). The name of promise, “father of a multitude,” took on its most significant meaning when Abraham’s son was spared and the test was explained: “I know that you truly fear God. You have not withheld even your beloved son from me” (Gn 22:12, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Those words were coupled with a promise implicit in the discovery of a ram caught in the thicket. The Lord provided an alternative sacrifice, a substitute. The place was named “the Lord will provide.” Christian believers generally see the whole episode as looking ahead to God’s provision of his only Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for the sins of the world.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Patriarchs, Period of the; Israel, History of; “Abraham’s Bosom”; Sarah #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ABRAHAM One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people. Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut s...","summary_en":"ABRAHAM One of the Bible’s most significant personalities, whom God called from the city of Ur to become patriarch of God’s own people. Abraham’s name was originally Abram, meaning “[the] father is exalted.” When he was given that name by his parents, they were probably participants in the moon cult of Ur, so the father deity suggested in his old name could have been the moon god or another pagan deity. God changed Abram’s name to Abraham (Gn 17:5), partly, no doubt, to indicate a clear-cut s...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17697,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>ISAAC<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yitshaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Isaak<\/span><em>.<\/em> If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child (Gn 17:17; 18:12) and then suddenly becoming parents, as God had promised.<\/p>\n<p>Isaac’s pedigree is also interesting, for Sarah was not only the wife of Abraham but also his half sister (Gn 20:12), and this fact alone may have interfered with conception in their earlier years. Because of this relationship, Isaac belonged to both sides of Terah’s family. According to prevailing custom, the son of the legal wife took precedence over the male offspring of concubines, so that Isaac had priority of inheritance over Ishmael. The gifts that Abraham subsequently gave to the sons of his concubines (25:6) were without prejudice to the inheritance of Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>Following God’s instructions (Gn 17:10-14), Isaac was circumcised on the eighth day as a member of the covenant community. The next ceremony came when he was old enough for weaning, probably around three years old. In eastern countries where this procedure is still observed, the child’s transition from milk to solid protein and carbohydrates is normally celebrated in the context of a feast. During the celebration the mother chews a mouthful of solid food and then pushes it into the baby’s mouth with her tongue. The infant is often so shocked by this treatment that it promptly expels the food, whereupon the mother repeats the process. For an observer the procedure can be hilarious, and Ishmael may have been laughing at such a spectacle when he incurred Sarah’s wrath (21:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>During the years of Isaac’s adolescence, Abraham was living in Philistine territory (Gn 21:34). The supreme test of the father’s faith and obedience came in this period. Having watched this son of God’s promise grow up into a healthy young man, Abraham is asked by God to offer him as a sacrifice. Isaac was familiar with sacrificial rituals and helped with the preparations, though probably not without some misgivings, for he was also familiar with the patriarchal traditions that gave the head of the family power of life or death over everyone and everything in the family. If he voiced any protest as he lay bound on the sacrificial altar, it is not recorded. When Abraham’s faith did not waver, God intervened at the crucial moment and provided another offering in the form of a ram. Because of his obedience, God promised Abraham great blessing, blessing in which Isaac also participated (Gn 22; 25:11). It was this act of faith and obedience that Paul honored centuries later by calling Abraham the forefather of the Christian church (Rom 4).<\/p>\n<p>After Sarah’s death (Gn 23), Abraham set about securing a bride for Isaac, as it was the custom for parents to arrange marriages for their children. Rather than have Isaac marry a local pagan woman, Abraham sent his household steward to Nahor in Mesopotamia to seek a bride for his son from among his relatives. In an account that emphasizes faith, perseverance, and divine blessing, Genesis 24 describes how the servant met Rebekah and betrothed her to Isaac even before he had met the rest of her family. Bethuel, her father, and Laban, her brother, assented to this arrangement, and she left with the family’s blessing to take up her new responsibilities in Palestine as Isaac’s wife.<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham died at a ripe old age, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah (Gn 25:8-9). Isaac was now patriarch of the family. He pleaded with God that his wife, Rebekah, might bear children, and as a result, she bore twin sons, Esau (“the hairy one”) and Jacob (“supplanter”). Esau became a hunter, and Isaac favored him, while Jacob was more of a settler and agriculturalist and was favored by his mother. Jacob was also crafty and took advantage of Esau’s extreme hunger one day, bargaining with his older brother to exchange his birthright for some lentil stew. Possession of the birthright secured for Jacob a double portion of the inheritance (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>When famine gripped the land, God instructed Isaac not to visit Egypt (Gn 26:2), but to stay in Palestine, where he would enjoy great prosperity. When the men of the area asked about Rebekah, Isaac became fearful and said she was his sister. When the deception was uncovered, Abimelech the king rebuked Isaac and forbade anyone to interfere with him. Isaac prospered so greatly that Abimelech finally asked him to relocate, so he moved to Beersheba, where there was sufficient water for his flocks, and his fortune increased.<\/p>\n<p>Although Esau was Isaac’s favorite son, he displeased his father by marrying two Hittite women. When Isaac felt that the end of his life was approaching, he wanted to bless his firstborn in the traditional patriarchal manner (Gn 27). Rebekah overheard his instructions to Esau, and she encouraged Jacob to deceive the blind old man by disguising himself as Esau and taking his brother’s blessing. The deception succeeded, and Isaac gave Jacob the blessing of the firstborn. When Esau appeared to receive his blessing he was too late, and he was very bitter against Jacob because of what had happened. Rebekah sent Jacob away to her brother Laban in Mesopotamia, to escape Esau’s anger and also to obtain a wife. Esau did receive a blessing from Isaac, but a lesser one. Two decades later a rich and prosperous Jacob returned with his family. He made peace with Esau before Isaac died, and the brothers buried Isaac in Hebron (Gn 35:27-29).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac is given less prominence in the patriarchal narratives than Abraham or Jacob, but his importance for covenantal faith was recognized in such NT passages as Acts 7:8, Romans 9:7, Galatians 4:21-31, and Hebrews 11:9-20.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAAC<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yitshaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Isaak<\/span><em>.<\/em> If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child (Gn 17:17; 18:12) and then suddenly becoming parents, as God had promised.<\/p>\n<p>Isaac’s pedigree is also interesting, for Sarah was not only the wife of Abraham but also his half sister (Gn 20:12), and this fact alone may have interfered with conception in their earlier years. Because of this relationship, Isaac belonged to both sides of Terah’s family. According to prevailing custom, the son of the legal wife took precedence over the male offspring of concubines, so that Isaac had priority of inheritance over Ishmael. The gifts that Abraham subsequently gave to the sons of his concubines (25:6) were without prejudice to the inheritance of Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>Following God’s instructions (Gn 17:10-14), Isaac was circumcised on the eighth day as a member of the covenant community. The next ceremony came when he was old enough for weaning, probably around three years old. In eastern countries where this procedure is still observed, the child’s transition from milk to solid protein and carbohydrates is normally celebrated in the context of a feast. During the celebration the mother chews a mouthful of solid food and then pushes it into the baby’s mouth with her tongue. The infant is often so shocked by this treatment that it promptly expels the food, whereupon the mother repeats the process. For an observer the procedure can be hilarious, and Ishmael may have been laughing at such a spectacle when he incurred Sarah’s wrath (21:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>During the years of Isaac’s adolescence, Abraham was living in Philistine territory (Gn 21:34). The supreme test of the father’s faith and obedience came in this period. Having watched this son of God’s promise grow up into a healthy young man, Abraham is asked by God to offer him as a sacrifice. Isaac was familiar with sacrificial rituals and helped with the preparations, though probably not without some misgivings, for he was also familiar with the patriarchal traditions that gave the head of the family power of life or death over everyone and everything in the family. If he voiced any protest as he lay bound on the sacrificial altar, it is not recorded. When Abraham’s faith did not waver, God intervened at the crucial moment and provided another offering in the form of a ram. Because of his obedience, God promised Abraham great blessing, blessing in which Isaac also participated (Gn 22; 25:11). It was this act of faith and obedience that Paul honored centuries later by calling Abraham the forefather of the Christian church (Rom 4).<\/p>\n<p>After Sarah’s death (Gn 23), Abraham set about securing a bride for Isaac, as it was the custom for parents to arrange marriages for their children. Rather than have Isaac marry a local pagan woman, Abraham sent his household steward to Nahor in Mesopotamia to seek a bride for his son from among his relatives. In an account that emphasizes faith, perseverance, and divine blessing, Genesis 24 describes how the servant met Rebekah and betrothed her to Isaac even before he had met the rest of her family. Bethuel, her father, and Laban, her brother, assented to this arrangement, and she left with the family’s blessing to take up her new responsibilities in Palestine as Isaac’s wife.<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham died at a ripe old age, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah (Gn 25:8-9). Isaac was now patriarch of the family. He pleaded with God that his wife, Rebekah, might bear children, and as a result, she bore twin sons, Esau (“the hairy one”) and Jacob (“supplanter”). Esau became a hunter, and Isaac favored him, while Jacob was more of a settler and agriculturalist and was favored by his mother. Jacob was also crafty and took advantage of Esau’s extreme hunger one day, bargaining with his older brother to exchange his birthright for some lentil stew. Possession of the birthright secured for Jacob a double portion of the inheritance (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>When famine gripped the land, God instructed Isaac not to visit Egypt (Gn 26:2), but to stay in Palestine, where he would enjoy great prosperity. When the men of the area asked about Rebekah, Isaac became fearful and said she was his sister. When the deception was uncovered, Abimelech the king rebuked Isaac and forbade anyone to interfere with him. Isaac prospered so greatly that Abimelech finally asked him to relocate, so he moved to Beersheba, where there was sufficient water for his flocks, and his fortune increased.<\/p>\n<p>Although Esau was Isaac’s favorite son, he displeased his father by marrying two Hittite women. When Isaac felt that the end of his life was approaching, he wanted to bless his firstborn in the traditional patriarchal manner (Gn 27). Rebekah overheard his instructions to Esau, and she encouraged Jacob to deceive the blind old man by disguising himself as Esau and taking his brother’s blessing. The deception succeeded, and Isaac gave Jacob the blessing of the firstborn. When Esau appeared to receive his blessing he was too late, and he was very bitter against Jacob because of what had happened. Rebekah sent Jacob away to her brother Laban in Mesopotamia, to escape Esau’s anger and also to obtain a wife. Esau did receive a blessing from Isaac, but a lesser one. Two decades later a rich and prosperous Jacob returned with his family. He made peace with Esau before Isaac died, and the brothers buried Isaac in Hebron (Gn 35:27-29).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac is given less prominence in the patriarchal narratives than Abraham or Jacob, but his importance for covenantal faith was recognized in such NT passages as Acts 7:8, Romans 9:7, Galatians 4:21-31, and Hebrews 11:9-20.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAAC Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel. The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew Yitshaq, in Greek Isaak. If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child...","summary_en":"ISAAC Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel. The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew Yitshaq, in Greek Isaak. If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17928,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","summary_en":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22646,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laughter","title_en":"Laughter","content_ro":"<h3>LAUGHTER<\/h3>\n<p>Expression of a variey of emotions. Laughter can express overjoyed happiness when circumstances change for the better, as for the Jews in returning from exile (Ps 126:2). Such joy is sincerely but facilely offered to Job by one of his comforters (Jb 8:21). Laughter can be good-humored and friendly, to encourage others (29:24). There is “a time to cry and a time to laugh” (Eccl 3:4), but the Preacher had his doubts: life is no laughing matter, and sorrow can be a better teacher (2:2; 7:3). Yet it is good to be able not to take certain things seriously. The well-prepared housewife “laughs with no fear of the future” (Prv 31:25). Job is promised that war and famine would be nothing to worry about (Jb 5:22; cf. Hb 1:9).<\/p>\n<p>Laughter can be a negative, derisive thing. We can laugh at people and laugh them to scorn. This element comes very much to the fore in the OT. Job and Jeremiah complain of being laughingstocks (Jb 12:4; Jer 20:7). The nation complains that their enemies laugh at their distress (Ps 80:6; cf. 2 Chr 30:10). Sometimes there is every justification. In Psalm 52:6 the righteous are promised the last laugh, at the expense of the wicked unbeliever who thinks that he can leave God out of his life. In Proverbs 1:26, personified Wisdom warns that she will laugh at the calamity of those who refuse to take her advice: it will serve them right. In this sense laughter is ascribed to God three times in the Psalter. He laughs at the nations plotting against his anointed King (Ps 2:4). He laughs at wicked people, knowing they are heading for disaster (37:13). He is invited to laugh at the psalmist’s enemies (59:8). This divine laughter is a way of expressing that the truth will eventually prevail.<\/p>\n<p>Laughter has a special place in the Abraham narratives. It is used in connection with the name of his son Isaac, which means “He laughs” or “May [God] smile [upon him].” Hebrew stories like to bring out the meaning of words, and so the human reaction to the birth of Isaac, the channel of God’s patriarchal promises, is described in terms of laughter. It is theologically important because it tends to be contrasted with faith. In Genesis 17:17 laughter is Abraham’s incredulous response to God’s unrealistic promise of a son, in view of Sarah’s elderliness. In Genesis 18:12 Sarah cannot smother her laughter as she eavesdrops—it seems so absurd that she will become pregnant in her 90s. But finally in Genesis 21:6, when the impossible becomes true, Sarah’s laughter is a mark of God-given joy.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAUGHTER<\/h3>\n<p>Expression of a variey of emotions. Laughter can express overjoyed happiness when circumstances change for the better, as for the Jews in returning from exile (Ps 126:2). Such joy is sincerely but facilely offered to Job by one of his comforters (Jb 8:21). Laughter can be good-humored and friendly, to encourage others (29:24). There is “a time to cry and a time to laugh” (Eccl 3:4), but the Preacher had his doubts: life is no laughing matter, and sorrow can be a better teacher (2:2; 7:3). Yet it is good to be able not to take certain things seriously. The well-prepared housewife “laughs with no fear of the future” (Prv 31:25). Job is promised that war and famine would be nothing to worry about (Jb 5:22; cf. Hb 1:9).<\/p>\n<p>Laughter can be a negative, derisive thing. We can laugh at people and laugh them to scorn. This element comes very much to the fore in the OT. Job and Jeremiah complain of being laughingstocks (Jb 12:4; Jer 20:7). The nation complains that their enemies laugh at their distress (Ps 80:6; cf. 2 Chr 30:10). Sometimes there is every justification. In Psalm 52:6 the righteous are promised the last laugh, at the expense of the wicked unbeliever who thinks that he can leave God out of his life. In Proverbs 1:26, personified Wisdom warns that she will laugh at the calamity of those who refuse to take her advice: it will serve them right. In this sense laughter is ascribed to God three times in the Psalter. He laughs at the nations plotting against his anointed King (Ps 2:4). He laughs at wicked people, knowing they are heading for disaster (37:13). He is invited to laugh at the psalmist’s enemies (59:8). This divine laughter is a way of expressing that the truth will eventually prevail.<\/p>\n<p>Laughter has a special place in the Abraham narratives. It is used in connection with the name of his son Isaac, which means “He laughs” or “May [God] smile [upon him].” Hebrew stories like to bring out the meaning of words, and so the human reaction to the birth of Isaac, the channel of God’s patriarchal promises, is described in terms of laughter. It is theologically important because it tends to be contrasted with faith. In Genesis 17:17 laughter is Abraham’s incredulous response to God’s unrealistic promise of a son, in view of Sarah’s elderliness. In Genesis 18:12 Sarah cannot smother her laughter as she eavesdrops—it seems so absurd that she will become pregnant in her 90s. But finally in Genesis 21:6, when the impossible becomes true, Sarah’s laughter is a mark of God-given joy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAUGHTER Expression of a variey of emotions. Laughter can express overjoyed happiness when circumstances change for the better, as for the Jews in returning from exile (Ps 126:2). Such joy is sincerely but facilely offered to Job by one of his comforters (Jb 8:21). Laughter can be good-humored and friendly, to encourage others (29:24). There is “a time to cry and a time to laugh” (Eccl 3:4), but the Preacher had his doubts: life is no laughing matter, and sorrow can be a better teacher (2:2; ...","summary_en":"LAUGHTER Expression of a variey of emotions. Laughter can express overjoyed happiness when circumstances change for the better, as for the Jews in returning from exile (Ps 126:2). Such joy is sincerely but facilely offered to Job by one of his comforters (Jb 8:21). Laughter can be good-humored and friendly, to encourage others (29:24). There is “a time to cry and a time to laugh” (Eccl 3:4), but the Preacher had his doubts: life is no laughing matter, and sorrow can be a better teacher (2:2; ...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26919,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Significance of Names","title_en":"Significance of Names","content_ro":"<h3>NAMES, Significance of<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names:<\/p>\n<p>1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births gave Jacob (Gn 25:26) and also Samuel (1 Sm 1:20) their names. In Samuel’s case it is interesting to note that his name, meaning “heard by God,” records not the offering of prayer but the hearing and answering of it. Something of the deeper and more far-reaching implications of naming is seen in the fact that while the names Jacob and Samuel arise from birth circumstances, they also reveal in advance the person the child will become: Jacob the sneaky opportunist (cf. Gn 27:36), Samuel the man of prayer (1 Sm 7:5-9; 8:6, 21; 12:19-23).<\/p>\n<li>2. To express parental reactions to the birth. Isaac means “laughter” (cf. Gn 17:17; 18:12; 21:3-6). Nabal (1 Sm 25:25), which means “fool,” must have been the essence of a mother’s prayer—“Let him not be a fool”—though sadly he was! Abimelech (Jgs 8:31) means “My father is king” and may express a secret ambition of Gideon’s, at variance with his public testimony (Jgs 8:22-23).<\/li>\n<li>3. To secure the solidarity of the family. This may explain the proposal to call the baby Zechariah in Luke 1:59.<\/li>\n<li>4. To reveal the nature of the person, his function, or some other significant thing about him. The preeminent example of this is Jesus (Mt 1:21), named for his saving vocation. Isaiah seems to have seen his own name as significant of his message “the Lord saves” (see Is 8:18 <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/li>\n<li>5. To communicate God’s message. Isaiah (see Is 7:3) called his first son Shear-jashub (“a remnant shall return”) in order to embody the double-sided thrust of his message: as a result of faithlessness, the people will be reduced to a mere remnant (“only a remnant shall return”); as a result of God’s faithfulness, his people will be preserved in life (“a remnant shall indeed return”). He called his second boy Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3), (“speed-prey-haste-spoil”), indicating the certainty of the imminent onset of a victorious foe.<\/li>\n<li>6. To establish religious affiliation. All the names in the Bible with the endings <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-iah<\/span> (alternatively <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-jah<\/span>) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span> (e.g., Jeremiah, Nathanael) are in fact statements with “the Lord” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-yah<\/span><em>)<\/em> or “God” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span><em>)<\/em> as subject. For example, Adonijah (2 Sm 3:4) means “the Lord is Sovereign”; Nathanael (Jn 1:47) means “God gave.” Such names were often chosen in times of religious decline in order to affirm the true faith of the parents.<\/li>\n<li>7. To affirm authority over another. In the ancient Near East, the naming of an object or person implied power and authority over what was named (Gn 2:19-20). Thus, a person not knowing another’s name could do neither harm nor good to that person (Ex 33:12, 17). In the ancient world a name described the person or his work in some way. When the individual or his situation changed, so did the name, as with Abram (Abraham) and Jacob (Israel). Pharaoh, as master of the patriarch Joseph, changed Joseph’s name when his status altered, calling him Zaphenath-paneah (Gn 41:45). When Eliakim was made king of Judah, the pharaoh changed the Jewish king’s name to Jehoiakim (2 Kgs 23:34). In captivity, Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were forced to change their names to Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego by order of the eunuch (Dn 1:6-7).<\/li>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist was named by an angel who represented God, and similarly Jesus was given his name by an angel. The naming of those children symbolized God’s authority over John the Baptist and his special relationship as Father to Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewNames\">New Names<\/p>\n<p>The ability of the name to reveal the nature or status of the person who bears it is well illustrated in the biblical practice of giving new names, as when Sarai became Sarah (Gn 17:15). Three motivations are possible:<\/p>\n<p>1. The new name replaces the old in order to signify the bestowal of powers not hitherto possessed. In this case the new name is equivalent to the experience of regeneration. The childless Abram becomes the “father of a multitude of nations,” Abraham (Gn 17:5).<\/p>\n<li>2. The new name may indicate a new character and status with God, as when Jacob the trickster became Israel the man of power with God (Gn 32:27; Hos 12:3-4); thus also, Simon became Peter (Jn 1:42).<\/li>\n<li>3. The new name may cement a new loyalty in the place of an old. Daniel the captive was given the name Belteshazzar, incorporating the name Bel, one of the gods of Babylon—presumably to turn him from the God of his fathers to that of his captors (Dn 1:7).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAMES, Significance of<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names:<\/p>\n<p>1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births gave Jacob (Gn 25:26) and also Samuel (1 Sm 1:20) their names. In Samuel’s case it is interesting to note that his name, meaning “heard by God,” records not the offering of prayer but the hearing and answering of it. Something of the deeper and more far-reaching implications of naming is seen in the fact that while the names Jacob and Samuel arise from birth circumstances, they also reveal in advance the person the child will become: Jacob the sneaky opportunist (cf. Gn 27:36), Samuel the man of prayer (1 Sm 7:5-9; 8:6, 21; 12:19-23).<\/p>\n<li>2. To express parental reactions to the birth. Isaac means “laughter” (cf. Gn 17:17; 18:12; 21:3-6). Nabal (1 Sm 25:25), which means “fool,” must have been the essence of a mother’s prayer—“Let him not be a fool”—though sadly he was! Abimelech (Jgs 8:31) means “My father is king” and may express a secret ambition of Gideon’s, at variance with his public testimony (Jgs 8:22-23).<\/li>\n<li>3. To secure the solidarity of the family. This may explain the proposal to call the baby Zechariah in Luke 1:59.<\/li>\n<li>4. To reveal the nature of the person, his function, or some other significant thing about him. The preeminent example of this is Jesus (Mt 1:21), named for his saving vocation. Isaiah seems to have seen his own name as significant of his message “the Lord saves” (see Is 8:18 <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/li>\n<li>5. To communicate God’s message. Isaiah (see Is 7:3) called his first son Shear-jashub (“a remnant shall return”) in order to embody the double-sided thrust of his message: as a result of faithlessness, the people will be reduced to a mere remnant (“only a remnant shall return”); as a result of God’s faithfulness, his people will be preserved in life (“a remnant shall indeed return”). He called his second boy Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3), (“speed-prey-haste-spoil”), indicating the certainty of the imminent onset of a victorious foe.<\/li>\n<li>6. To establish religious affiliation. All the names in the Bible with the endings <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-iah<\/span> (alternatively <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-jah<\/span>) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span> (e.g., Jeremiah, Nathanael) are in fact statements with “the Lord” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-yah<\/span><em>)<\/em> or “God” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span><em>)<\/em> as subject. For example, Adonijah (2 Sm 3:4) means “the Lord is Sovereign”; Nathanael (Jn 1:47) means “God gave.” Such names were often chosen in times of religious decline in order to affirm the true faith of the parents.<\/li>\n<li>7. To affirm authority over another. In the ancient Near East, the naming of an object or person implied power and authority over what was named (Gn 2:19-20). Thus, a person not knowing another’s name could do neither harm nor good to that person (Ex 33:12, 17). In the ancient world a name described the person or his work in some way. When the individual or his situation changed, so did the name, as with Abram (Abraham) and Jacob (Israel). Pharaoh, as master of the patriarch Joseph, changed Joseph’s name when his status altered, calling him Zaphenath-paneah (Gn 41:45). When Eliakim was made king of Judah, the pharaoh changed the Jewish king’s name to Jehoiakim (2 Kgs 23:34). In captivity, Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were forced to change their names to Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego by order of the eunuch (Dn 1:6-7).<\/li>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist was named by an angel who represented God, and similarly Jesus was given his name by an angel. The naming of those children symbolized God’s authority over John the Baptist and his special relationship as Father to Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewNames\">New Names<\/p>\n<p>The ability of the name to reveal the nature or status of the person who bears it is well illustrated in the biblical practice of giving new names, as when Sarai became Sarah (Gn 17:15). Three motivations are possible:<\/p>\n<p>1. The new name replaces the old in order to signify the bestowal of powers not hitherto possessed. In this case the new name is equivalent to the experience of regeneration. The childless Abram becomes the “father of a multitude of nations,” Abraham (Gn 17:5).<\/p>\n<li>2. The new name may indicate a new character and status with God, as when Jacob the trickster became Israel the man of power with God (Gn 32:27; Hos 12:3-4); thus also, Simon became Peter (Jn 1:42).<\/li>\n<li>3. The new name may cement a new loyalty in the place of an old. Daniel the captive was given the name Belteshazzar, incorporating the name Bel, one of the gods of Babylon—presumably to turn him from the God of his fathers to that of his captors (Dn 1:7).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAMES, Significance of In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names: 1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births...","summary_en":"NAMES, Significance of In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names: 1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33928,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>SARAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12).<\/li>\n<p>Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would make of him a great nation (12:2) and that the land of Canaan would be given to his seed (v 7), Sarah was still barren.<\/p>\n<p>After 10 years had passed (cf. Gn 12:4; 16:16) and Sarah continued without children, she gave her Egyptian slave, Hagar, to Abraham as a concubine. Hagar conceived and bore a son, Ishmael (16:3-4). God promised that a nation would come from Ishmael (17:20) but indicated that he was not to be the child of the promise. Sarah herself was to be the mother of this child, even though she laughed when the birth was predicted. The fulfillment of this prediction took place with the birth of Isaac (21:2-3), when Sarah was 90 years old, 25 years after the original promise of a seed to Abraham (17:17; 21:5).<\/p>\n<p>When famine forced Abraham and Sarah to journey down into Egypt shortly after their entrance into Canaan, Sarah was represented to the Egyptians as Abraham’s sister. This resulted in Sarah’s being taken into the harem of Pharaoh because of her great beauty (Gn 12:11-15), and Abraham’s being well treated and rewarded by the Egyptians instead of being killed. God intervened to protect the marriage of Abraham and Sarah by plaguing the house of Pharaoh to force Sarah’s release. A similar tactic was followed by Abraham and Sarah on another occasion in Gerar (ch 20), where she was taken into the household of Abimelech the king of Gerar. Again God protected Sarah, preserved her as the mother of the promised seed, and prevented any suspicion or doubt concerning who was the father of Isaac. Significantly, Isaac was born not long after this incident (21:1-5), his birth having been promised about a year earlier (17:21; 18:10-14). Sarah died at the age of 127 and was buried in the cave at Machpelah, which Abraham had purchased from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23).<\/p>\n<p>Apart from the book of Genesis, Sarah is referred to in the OT only in Isaiah 51:2. Reference is made to her in the NT in Romans 4:19, 9:9, Hebrews 11:11, 1 Peter 3:6, and Galatians 4:21-31, although in the Galatians text she is not mentioned by name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Barrenness.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Serah, Asher’s daughter, in Numbers 26:46. <em>See<\/em> Serah.<\/li>\n<li>3. The heroine of the book of Tobit. Her prayer of anguish was heard by God, who sent the angel Raphael as a matchmaker to arrange her marriage to Tobias (Tb 6:9ff.). She had been tormented by a demon, who had caused the death of her previous seven husbands but was exorcised by Tobias using a recipe of fish heart and liver that was given to him by the angel Raphael (8:2). After the death of Tobit and his wife, Anna, in Nineveh, Tobias and Sarah, and their children returned to Sarah’s family in Ecbatana (14:12ff.).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SARAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12).<\/li>\n<p>Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would make of him a great nation (12:2) and that the land of Canaan would be given to his seed (v 7), Sarah was still barren.<\/p>\n<p>After 10 years had passed (cf. Gn 12:4; 16:16) and Sarah continued without children, she gave her Egyptian slave, Hagar, to Abraham as a concubine. Hagar conceived and bore a son, Ishmael (16:3-4). God promised that a nation would come from Ishmael (17:20) but indicated that he was not to be the child of the promise. Sarah herself was to be the mother of this child, even though she laughed when the birth was predicted. The fulfillment of this prediction took place with the birth of Isaac (21:2-3), when Sarah was 90 years old, 25 years after the original promise of a seed to Abraham (17:17; 21:5).<\/p>\n<p>When famine forced Abraham and Sarah to journey down into Egypt shortly after their entrance into Canaan, Sarah was represented to the Egyptians as Abraham’s sister. This resulted in Sarah’s being taken into the harem of Pharaoh because of her great beauty (Gn 12:11-15), and Abraham’s being well treated and rewarded by the Egyptians instead of being killed. God intervened to protect the marriage of Abraham and Sarah by plaguing the house of Pharaoh to force Sarah’s release. A similar tactic was followed by Abraham and Sarah on another occasion in Gerar (ch 20), where she was taken into the household of Abimelech the king of Gerar. Again God protected Sarah, preserved her as the mother of the promised seed, and prevented any suspicion or doubt concerning who was the father of Isaac. Significantly, Isaac was born not long after this incident (21:1-5), his birth having been promised about a year earlier (17:21; 18:10-14). Sarah died at the age of 127 and was buried in the cave at Machpelah, which Abraham had purchased from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23).<\/p>\n<p>Apart from the book of Genesis, Sarah is referred to in the OT only in Isaiah 51:2. Reference is made to her in the NT in Romans 4:19, 9:9, Hebrews 11:11, 1 Peter 3:6, and Galatians 4:21-31, although in the Galatians text she is not mentioned by name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Barrenness.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Serah, Asher’s daughter, in Numbers 26:46. <em>See<\/em> Serah.<\/li>\n<li>3. The heroine of the book of Tobit. Her prayer of anguish was heard by God, who sent the angel Raphael as a matchmaker to arrange her marriage to Tobias (Tb 6:9ff.). She had been tormented by a demon, who had caused the death of her previous seven husbands but was exorcised by Tobias using a recipe of fish heart and liver that was given to him by the angel Raphael (8:2). After the death of Tobit and his wife, Anna, in Nineveh, Tobias and Sarah, and their children returned to Sarah’s family in Ecbatana (14:12ff.).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SARAH 1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12). Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would m...","summary_en":"SARAH 1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12). Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would m...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43088,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:17","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:17-18<\/strong> Abraham <em>laughed<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq<\/span>) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through <em>Ishmael<\/em>. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:17-18<\/strong> Abraham <em>laughed<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq<\/span>) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through <em>Ishmael<\/em>. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:17-18 Abraham laughed (Hebrew yitskhaq) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through Ishmael. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.","summary_en":"17:17-18 Abraham laughed (Hebrew yitskhaq) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through Ishmael. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70714,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:17","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:17-18<\/strong> Abraham <em>laughed<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq<\/span>) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through <em>Ishmael<\/em>. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:17-18<\/strong> Abraham <em>laughed<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq<\/span>) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through <em>Ishmael<\/em>. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:17-18 Abraham laughed (Hebrew yitskhaq) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through Ishmael. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.","summary_en":"17:17-18 Abraham laughed (Hebrew yitskhaq) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through Ishmael. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98340,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:17","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:17-18<\/strong> Abraham <em>laughed<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq<\/span>) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through <em>Ishmael<\/em>. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:17-18<\/strong> Abraham <em>laughed<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq<\/span>) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through <em>Ishmael<\/em>. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:17-18 Abraham laughed (Hebrew yitskhaq) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through Ishmael. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.","summary_en":"17:17-18 Abraham laughed (Hebrew yitskhaq) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through Ishmael. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125966,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:17","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:17-18<\/strong> Abraham <em>laughed<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq<\/span>) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through <em>Ishmael<\/em>. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:17-18<\/strong> Abraham <em>laughed<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq<\/span>) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through <em>Ishmael<\/em>. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:17-18 Abraham laughed (Hebrew yitskhaq) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through Ishmael. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.","summary_en":"17:17-18 Abraham laughed (Hebrew yitskhaq) because the promise seemed unbelievable; he had begun to believe that his line would come through Ishmael. But Abraham and Sarah would have a son of their own.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":40559,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68185,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95811,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123437,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17930,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","summary_en":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":40546,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40568,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","summary_en":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40628,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68172,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68194,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","summary_en":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68254,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95798,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95820,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","summary_en":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95880,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123424,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123446,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Sarah<\/h3>\n<p>Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah is one of several women in Scripture who were barren but miraculously bore a son (see also Gen 30:22-24; 1 Sam 1:9-20; 2 Kgs 4:14-17; Luke 1:5-25). After a series of promises from God, Sarah eventually conceived and gave birth to Isaac. Because Sarah was ninety years old when this happened (cp. Gen 17:17; 21:1-5), she testifies to God’s ability to do what is humanly impossible. Her name Sarai was changed to Sarah on one of the occasions when Isaac’s birth was promised (17:15-16). Sarah is honored for her faithfulness, even though she laughed at the prediction of Isaac’s birth (18:10-15), twenty-five years after God’s original promise to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at age 127 and was buried in the cave that Abraham purchased (Gen 23) at Machpelah. She is known as the mother of the nation of Israel (Isa 51:2), just as Abraham is its father. She is a key player in accounts of Abraham’s faith (see Rom 4:19). She represents the freedom that Christians have (as children of Sarah the free woman) through faith in Christ (see Gal 4:21-31). Peter cites her as an example of holy submission (1 Pet 3:5-6). The writer of Hebrews presents Sarah as an example of faith, for she believed in God’s ability to keep his promises (Heb 11:11-12). Her life demonstrates that God is indeed faithful, though his timing may not always match our expectations.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:29-31; 12:10-20; Gen 17:15-22; 18:9-15; 20:1-18; 21:1-13; 23:1-20; Isa 51:2; Rom 4:19; 9:6-9; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:11-12; 1 Pet 3:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","summary_en":"Sarah Sarah was Abraham’s wife and half sister (Gen 11:29; 20:12). She accompanied Abraham from Ur to Haran to Canaan (11:31; 12:5). On two occasions, in Egypt (12:10-20) and Gerar (20:1-18), Abraham asked Sarah to say that she was his sister rather than his wife because he was afraid that he would be killed as her husband. In both cases, despite Abraham’s lack of faith, God protected Sarah, thus preserving the chosen line through whom he promised to multiply the Israelite nation (12:2; 17:19...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123506,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43089,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:19<\/strong> The name <em>Isaac<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq,<\/span> “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:19<\/strong> The name <em>Isaac<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq,<\/span> “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:19 The name Isaac (Hebrew yitskhaq, “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).","summary_en":"17:19 The name Isaac (Hebrew yitskhaq, “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70715,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:19<\/strong> The name <em>Isaac<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq,<\/span> “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:19<\/strong> The name <em>Isaac<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq,<\/span> “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:19 The name Isaac (Hebrew yitskhaq, “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).","summary_en":"17:19 The name Isaac (Hebrew yitskhaq, “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98341,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:19<\/strong> The name <em>Isaac<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq,<\/span> “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:19<\/strong> The name <em>Isaac<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq,<\/span> “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:19 The name Isaac (Hebrew yitskhaq, “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).","summary_en":"17:19 The name Isaac (Hebrew yitskhaq, “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125967,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:19<\/strong> The name <em>Isaac<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq,<\/span> “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:19<\/strong> The name <em>Isaac<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yitskhaq,<\/span> “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:19 The name Isaac (Hebrew yitskhaq, “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).","summary_en":"17:19 The name Isaac (Hebrew yitskhaq, “he laughs”) would constantly recall Abraham’s disbelieving laughter when he heard the promise. It was also a reminder of God’s favor and his pleasure in the birth (cp. 21:6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59994,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87620,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115246,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142872,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":40547,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68173,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95799,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123425,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6645,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17932,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","summary_en":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27710,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Numerology*, Numbers","title_en":"and Numerology*, Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY*<\/h3>\n<p>Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern.<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mystical, pre-Christian Jewish groups, and later carried to extremes by the Kabbalists.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>• Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>• Numerology<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExpressionofNumbers\">Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew, and indeed any other Semitic language, has a simple but adequate system of numeration. The number one is an adjective. After that, the numerals are nouns, in parallel masculine and feminine forms, although the masculine is used with the feminine noun and vice versa. Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) exist alongside cardinal numbers (one, two, three), but as in most languages, the second set can be used instead of the first (“day two” instead of “second day”). From ten to nineteen, there is one composite form built like English “thirteen” (“three-ten”), but “twenty” is literally “tens” (the plural of “ten”). Thirty, forty, and so on are literally “threes,” “fours” (the plural of the words “three” and “four,” respectively) and so on, up to a hundred, which is a new word. There are also separate words for “thousand” and for “ten thousand,” as in Greek, Chinese, and many other languages. Larger numbers must be expressed by multiples of these (“ten thousand times ten thousand” and “thousands of thousands”), suggesting that large figures, rarely needed for small populations and tiny kingdoms, were expressed approximately. Hebrew has not only a singular and plural but also a dual form to express two of anything (two hundred, two thousand). Fractions (a half, a third, a tenth, etc.) could be expressed, and multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction were used. Indeed, instances of all four operations can be found in the Bible. The Hebrew mathematical system was basically part of the larger western Asian mathematical system, of which we know a great deal from Mesopotamia and Egypt. These countries, however, used a more highly developed mathematical system than Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaysofWritingNumerals\">Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, numbers are always written out in words, as on the famous Moabite Stone and the Siloam Inscription. But every nation in the ancient world could also express numbers by using figures or ciphers of various kinds (like our 1, 2, 3, . . .). Because of this danger of error, in later days numbers were normally written out in full, in words, where confusion, although still possible, was not nearly so likely. An additional way of writing numbers, known both to the Hebrews and the Greeks, was the use of consecutive letters of the alphabet instead of consecutive numerals (as if we used A for 1, B for 2, etc.). This system, in wide use by NT times, is the usual system in modern Hebrew and has the advantage that numerical combinations can be pronounced by inserting arbitrary vowels, thus making artificial words. For example, if the number of the beast (Rv 13:18), 666, is expressed in alphabetical letters, it can spell out the consonants of “Nero Caesar,” although other names are possible, especially if the variant reading 616 is used.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofLargeNumbers\">Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Even allowing for all these possibilities, there remain certain problems connected with large numbers, particularly in the OT. The most obvious is that of the ten long-lived patriarchs, whose ages are recorded in Genesis 5. Different figures (varying by whole centuries) are recorded for their ages in the Hebrew text, the Samaritan text, and the earliest Greek translation (known as the Septuagint), but all figures are very large. Some interpret these figures literally and point out that there is a steady reduction from the ages attained by these patriarchs to the more modest 120 years allotted to man in Noah’s time (Gn 6:3) and the 70 years accepted later as the human life span (Ps 90:10). This would correspond to the progressive spiritual deterioration of mankind after the fall, from the perfect state of Adam to the present condition. Whatever the explanation of the figures, there is no doubt that this is the theological intent of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The large number of Israelites who left Egypt is also problematic. If there were actually 600,000 fighting men (Nm 1:46), this would correspond to a whole nation of some 2 million or more. Possibly the word translated “thousand” means “clan units”; it would clearly be a much smaller total body, whatever its exact size. Of course, God could have maintained any number of people in the desert. The evidence of archaeology as to the population of Canaan both before and after the Israelite onslaught seems to support a lower number. The same principle might explain the large numbers given for the fighting men of the various Israelite tribes, and the huge totals for Israel and Judah’s military strength given at later times in the historical books of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>To the ordinary Bible reader, perhaps one of the biggest problems is the different numbers recorded in Chronicles and Kings, when the same incidents are being described. Manuscript errors, or confusion of numbers written by signs or single letters of the alphabet, may account for numerous individual inconsistencies, but not for wholesale differences, particularly as the figures in Chronicles are consistently much larger. These very large round numbers may have symbolic significance and may not be intended to be taken in their literal sense at all. Indeed, since the Jews had before them the book of Kings and the book of Chronicles at the same time, they can hardly have taken both sets of numbers literally themselves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CountingbyGenerations\">Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>One of the problems of the OT is that of the dating of events. Even with an exact number system, there is no absolute fixed point from which to reckon. Later Jews and Christians counted from the presumed date of the Creation. Not until after the time of David and Solomon are both internal reference between the comparative dates of kings of Judah and Israel and external reference to monarchs outside Israel used. This open-endedness accounts for the vague period of “forty years” used so often in the OT (e.g., the book of Judges) for any long but indeterminate period of time, almost certainly corresponding to a generation (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dor<\/span>). Counting by generations is specific in some places in the Bible and may be implicit in others. For instance, Abraham’s descendants are to return to Canaan “in the fourth generation” (Gn 15:16), and the genealogy of Christ is neatly constructed on a pattern of three groups of fourteen generations (Mt 1:17), rather than on periods of years. Wherever people use and recite genealogies, such counting by generations is natural. But Abraham’s descendants are said to have returned to Canaan approximately four centuries later (Gal 3:17), and therefore the word “generation” sometimes stands for 100 years. The Hebrew word for “generation” may mean 120 years (Gn 6:3). Usually, the ancient Hebrews used vague phrases like “in those days” or “after those days” or “the days are coming,” which expressed past, present, and future without any specific mention of number. In other words, the Bible writers were more concerned with theology than with mathematics.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApproximateUseofNumbers\">Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, Israel’s 40 years in the desert is a good example of the approximate use of numbers (Nm 14:33). In the NT, Jesus was in the wilderness 40 days during the temptation (Mt 4:2), and there were 40 days between his resurrection and ascension (Acts 1:3). Moses was 40 years old at his call (Acts 7:23), apparently lived 40 years in Midian (Ex 7:7), and spent 40 years leading Israel out of Egypt and through the desert (Dt 34:7), for he is said to be 120 years old at his death. However, two generations of 40 years is the normal maximum for a healthy man (Ps 90:10), and even this is often shortened to 70 years by the rigors of life. Seventy is also used at times in this approximate sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolicUseofNumbers\">Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In Scripture, seven symbolizes completeness or perfection. On the seventh day God rested from his labors and creation is finished (Gn 2:2). Pharaoh in his dream saw seven cattle coming from the Nile (41:2). Samson’s sacred Nazirite locks were braided in seven plaits (Jgs 16:13). Seven devils left Mary of Magdala, signifying the totality of her previous possession by Satan (Lk 8:2); “seven other devils” will enter the purified but vacant life of a person (Mt 12:45). However, on the positive side, there were the seven spirits of God (Rv 3:1). In the seventh year the Hebrew slave was to be freed (Ex 21:2), having completed his time of captivity and service. Every seventh year was a sabbatical year (Lv 25:4). Seven times seven reiterates the sense of completeness. In the Year of Jubilee (at the completion of 7 x 7 years = the 50th year), all land is freed and returns to the original owners (Lv 25:10). Pentecost, the Feast of Weeks, is seven times seven days after Passover. “Seventy,” which is literally “sevens” in Hebrew, strengthens the concept of perfection. There are 70 elders (Ex 24:1) in Israel. Israel was exiled to Babylon for 70 years (Jer 25:12) to complete its punishment. “Seventy times seven” (Mt 18:22) reiterates this still further. The Lord was not giving Peter a mathematical number of times that he should forgive another person, but rather was insisting on limitless forgiveness for a brother’s sin.<\/p>\n<p>“Three” may well share in this meaning of completion or perfection, although not so forcibly (2 Kgs 13:18). Many things happen “on the third day” (Hos 6:2). Jonah spent three days in the stomach of the fish (Mt 12:40), and the Lord rose again on the third day (1 Cor 15:4). David was offered a choice of divine punishments—three years, three months, three days (2 Sm 24:13). For the Christian, “three” takes on a far deeper significance as the number of Persons of the Trinity. The three Persons are clearly expressed, for instance, in the Great Commission (Mt 28:19) and in the Pauline benediction (2 Cor 13:13). Many echoes of this threefold expression are in the NT, and many anticipations of it in the OT, of which the thrice-repeated “Holy” in Isaiah 6:3 is the most famous.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars see four as another symbol of completeness (four winds of heaven, Dn 7:2; four horsemen, Rv 6:1-7; four living creatures around the throne of God, Rv 4:6). Five is certainly used in an indefinite sense as a small number (Is 19:18; 30:17). Nor do eight or nine seem to have any special significance, although, like other numbers, they may be used in a factual sense to describe any of God’s activities (nine plagues on Egypt, Ex 7–10). “Ten” does have significance because of the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1-17), but not any special symbolism earlier in the Bible. If anything, “ten” is elsewhere used in a vague way. Laban changes Jacob’s wages ten times (Gn 31:7); Daniel and his friends are ten times better than all other students (Dn 1:20); ten times over, the Jewish settlers will be warned of impending enemy attacks (Neh 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>Eleven appears to have no special biblical significance, but 12 certainly has. The clearest proof of this is the existence of the 12 tribes in Israel. In Revelation 7:4-8, where it is mathematically important that the number of tribes be limited to 12, the tribe of Dan is altogether omitted—probably on account of Dan’s sin of idolatry (Jgs 18:14-20). Ishmael’s descendants were also divided into 12 clans (Gn 17:20), so that the number 12 was apparently significant outside Israel as well. In the NT Christ chose 12 apostles (Mt 10:1-4). The link with the number of tribes is made specific when Christ tells the apostles that they will sit on 12 thrones, judging the 12 tribes (Mt 19:28). However, it is interesting that, after the election and appointment of Matthias (Acts 1:26), the Christian church apparently made no subsequent efforts to maintain the number of apostles. Like “seven times seven,” “twelve times twelve” increases the force of the number. When this is further multiplied by a thousand, the figure becomes the 144,000 redeemed (Rv 7:4), who were sealed “out of all the tribes of Israel.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExactStatistics\">Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>As distinct from the metaphorical use of numbers to denote completion, immensity, and the like, numbers in Hebrew were often used to give exact tallies or measurements. Such usage is known to us only from clay tablets and ostraca (broken pieces of potsherd engraved in ink, used as rough notebooks). However, ascertaining exactly what the text was in its earliest form and what that text means is difficult.<\/p>\n<p>An example is the number of the sons of Jeconiah among the inhabitants of Beth-shemesh. They were struck down by the Lord because of their failure to rejoice with the others when God’s ark returned to Israel from the Philistine country (1 Sm 6:19). The Greek text (LXX) reads “seventy”; the later Hebrew manuscripts add “fifty thousand.” But, as Beth-shemesh itself was only a small frontier town, and the “sons of Jeconiah” was presumably only one clan among several, the smaller number is obviously the original, and the large addition due to some later manuscript confusion.<\/p>\n<p>A good rule in trying to decide whether a number is statistical or impressionistic is to determine whether it is a small number, or an unusual number for which there is no obvious theological explanation. When the men of Ai killed some 36 Israelites at the first assault on the city (Jos 7:5), the smallness of the number is evidence that this is a vividly remembered factual detail. Similarly, in the case of the number of Abraham’s 318 men (Gn 14:14) or the catch of 153 fish after the resurrection (Jn 21:11), the numbers, though large, are not round numbers but unusual combinations, and are obviously meant in a literal or statistical sense. Irrelevant details like this have a habit of remaining in the memory, and are the best guarantee of the trustworthiness of the narrative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Numerology\">Numerology<\/p>\n<p>Numerology may be said to be an extended application of the metaphorical significance of numbers (7, 40, etc.) already discussed. In the Bible, this systematization of numbers always goes with a strong sense of the sovereignty of God, his control over human history, and a belief in his ongoing purpose and its triumphant conclusion.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps the first clear instance of numerology in the Bible is 1 Kings 6:1, where Solomon began to build the temple 480 years after the exodus, a period 5 times 10 times 12, or 4 times 120, the ideal life span of man in early days (Gn 6:3). First Chronicles 6:3-8 gives 12 generations of men (presumably 40 years each) to cover the same period, so “twelve generations” is probably the real basis for the computation, rather than any exact year-by-year tally. A tally would have been impossible in the days of the judges and unlikely before the monarchy. David was the first to establish an official scribe or recorder to keep daily annals in Israel (2 Sm 8:16-17), as was common in the great kingdoms from far earlier times. Such Israelite annals are later mentioned as sources of the books of the kings (2 Kgs 14:18). The number 480 is probably a rough approximation rather than exact and denotes the end of one of God’s epochs.<\/p>\n<p>When Jeremiah prophesies an exile of 70 years for Judah (Jer 25:11; 29:10), it is not only a historical prediction that was literally fulfilled but also a symbol of completeness; Judah’s punishment is complete (cf. Is 40:2). Isaiah (Is 23:15) had made a similar prophecy of a 70-year punishment for Tyre, and Ezekiel (Ez 29:11-13) prophesied a 40-year “exile” for Egypt. When these 70 years are regarded as sabbatical years, where the land must lie untilled to compensate for the 7 times 70 years of sin before, then true numerology begins (2 Chr 36:21). Here numerology is used only as an explanation of past and present, but it can also be used to explain the future, especially in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel (Dn 9:2) refers to the literal 70 years of the exile as foretold by Jeremiah. In Daniel 9:24, this has been extended to 70 weeks of years (490 years) applied to the distant future. Daniel 9:25 sees 69 of these (483 years) as elapsing before Messiah appears. Presumably, the last week of the 70 is therefore thought of as the time of his activity. However this may be interpreted in terms of actual dates, it must be harmonized with 9:26, where the Messiah is “cut off” after 62 weeks of years (434 years). The difficulty lies in establishing the starting point for this long period. This is an example of an elaborate numerology, embracing centuries of history, all ultimately based on the 70 years of Jeremiah. According to biblical principles, this can have both an “immediate” fulfillment in the return from exile, and a “prophetic” fulfillment in the far distant future in connection with the coming of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The other major example of extended numerology in Daniel is in connection with the “time, times, and half a time” (7:25). This must stand for three and a half “times,” that is, half of seven “times.” Thus, it refers either to three and a half years (half a “week” of years) or three and a half “weeks” of years (cf. “seven times” in 4:16, where “seven years” is clearly meant). Whatever may be its ultimate prophetic fulfillment in Christ, the “initial” or “partial” fulfillment is the roughly three and a half years of bitter persecution of God’s people by Antiochus Epiphanes (167–164 <span>BC<\/span>). This figure of three and a half years reappears in Revelation 11:2 (“forty-two months”), and 12:14 (“a time, and times, and half a time”), to describe the period of Rome’s persecution of the Christian church. The figure had possibly become a symbol of any bitter but limited persecution. The “two thousand three hundred evenings and mornings” of Daniel 8:14 may mean 1,150 days, which is approximately the same length of time.<\/p>\n<p>The three and a half years of Daniel 7:25 reappear in Revelation 11 in the form of “forty-two months,” the time when the heathen will trample down Jerusalem (Rv 11:2). The 1,290 days of Daniel 12:11 reappear here (in the slightly different form of 1,260 days) as the time that God’s two witnesses will prophesy (Rv 11:3). The 42 months reappear in Revelation 13:5 as the period that the wild beast will be allowed to blaspheme. While the “thousand years” of 20:6 is not derived from Daniel at all, the metaphorical use of “thousand” is familiar to the OT. The closest direct parallel is in Deuteronomy 7:9, where God’s covenant will be kept with a “thousand generations” to come.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY*<\/h3>\n<p>Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern.<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mystical, pre-Christian Jewish groups, and later carried to extremes by the Kabbalists.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>• Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>• Numerology<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExpressionofNumbers\">Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew, and indeed any other Semitic language, has a simple but adequate system of numeration. The number one is an adjective. After that, the numerals are nouns, in parallel masculine and feminine forms, although the masculine is used with the feminine noun and vice versa. Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) exist alongside cardinal numbers (one, two, three), but as in most languages, the second set can be used instead of the first (“day two” instead of “second day”). From ten to nineteen, there is one composite form built like English “thirteen” (“three-ten”), but “twenty” is literally “tens” (the plural of “ten”). Thirty, forty, and so on are literally “threes,” “fours” (the plural of the words “three” and “four,” respectively) and so on, up to a hundred, which is a new word. There are also separate words for “thousand” and for “ten thousand,” as in Greek, Chinese, and many other languages. Larger numbers must be expressed by multiples of these (“ten thousand times ten thousand” and “thousands of thousands”), suggesting that large figures, rarely needed for small populations and tiny kingdoms, were expressed approximately. Hebrew has not only a singular and plural but also a dual form to express two of anything (two hundred, two thousand). Fractions (a half, a third, a tenth, etc.) could be expressed, and multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction were used. Indeed, instances of all four operations can be found in the Bible. The Hebrew mathematical system was basically part of the larger western Asian mathematical system, of which we know a great deal from Mesopotamia and Egypt. These countries, however, used a more highly developed mathematical system than Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaysofWritingNumerals\">Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, numbers are always written out in words, as on the famous Moabite Stone and the Siloam Inscription. But every nation in the ancient world could also express numbers by using figures or ciphers of various kinds (like our 1, 2, 3, . . .). Because of this danger of error, in later days numbers were normally written out in full, in words, where confusion, although still possible, was not nearly so likely. An additional way of writing numbers, known both to the Hebrews and the Greeks, was the use of consecutive letters of the alphabet instead of consecutive numerals (as if we used A for 1, B for 2, etc.). This system, in wide use by NT times, is the usual system in modern Hebrew and has the advantage that numerical combinations can be pronounced by inserting arbitrary vowels, thus making artificial words. For example, if the number of the beast (Rv 13:18), 666, is expressed in alphabetical letters, it can spell out the consonants of “Nero Caesar,” although other names are possible, especially if the variant reading 616 is used.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofLargeNumbers\">Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Even allowing for all these possibilities, there remain certain problems connected with large numbers, particularly in the OT. The most obvious is that of the ten long-lived patriarchs, whose ages are recorded in Genesis 5. Different figures (varying by whole centuries) are recorded for their ages in the Hebrew text, the Samaritan text, and the earliest Greek translation (known as the Septuagint), but all figures are very large. Some interpret these figures literally and point out that there is a steady reduction from the ages attained by these patriarchs to the more modest 120 years allotted to man in Noah’s time (Gn 6:3) and the 70 years accepted later as the human life span (Ps 90:10). This would correspond to the progressive spiritual deterioration of mankind after the fall, from the perfect state of Adam to the present condition. Whatever the explanation of the figures, there is no doubt that this is the theological intent of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The large number of Israelites who left Egypt is also problematic. If there were actually 600,000 fighting men (Nm 1:46), this would correspond to a whole nation of some 2 million or more. Possibly the word translated “thousand” means “clan units”; it would clearly be a much smaller total body, whatever its exact size. Of course, God could have maintained any number of people in the desert. The evidence of archaeology as to the population of Canaan both before and after the Israelite onslaught seems to support a lower number. The same principle might explain the large numbers given for the fighting men of the various Israelite tribes, and the huge totals for Israel and Judah’s military strength given at later times in the historical books of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>To the ordinary Bible reader, perhaps one of the biggest problems is the different numbers recorded in Chronicles and Kings, when the same incidents are being described. Manuscript errors, or confusion of numbers written by signs or single letters of the alphabet, may account for numerous individual inconsistencies, but not for wholesale differences, particularly as the figures in Chronicles are consistently much larger. These very large round numbers may have symbolic significance and may not be intended to be taken in their literal sense at all. Indeed, since the Jews had before them the book of Kings and the book of Chronicles at the same time, they can hardly have taken both sets of numbers literally themselves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CountingbyGenerations\">Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>One of the problems of the OT is that of the dating of events. Even with an exact number system, there is no absolute fixed point from which to reckon. Later Jews and Christians counted from the presumed date of the Creation. Not until after the time of David and Solomon are both internal reference between the comparative dates of kings of Judah and Israel and external reference to monarchs outside Israel used. This open-endedness accounts for the vague period of “forty years” used so often in the OT (e.g., the book of Judges) for any long but indeterminate period of time, almost certainly corresponding to a generation (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dor<\/span>). Counting by generations is specific in some places in the Bible and may be implicit in others. For instance, Abraham’s descendants are to return to Canaan “in the fourth generation” (Gn 15:16), and the genealogy of Christ is neatly constructed on a pattern of three groups of fourteen generations (Mt 1:17), rather than on periods of years. Wherever people use and recite genealogies, such counting by generations is natural. But Abraham’s descendants are said to have returned to Canaan approximately four centuries later (Gal 3:17), and therefore the word “generation” sometimes stands for 100 years. The Hebrew word for “generation” may mean 120 years (Gn 6:3). Usually, the ancient Hebrews used vague phrases like “in those days” or “after those days” or “the days are coming,” which expressed past, present, and future without any specific mention of number. In other words, the Bible writers were more concerned with theology than with mathematics.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApproximateUseofNumbers\">Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, Israel’s 40 years in the desert is a good example of the approximate use of numbers (Nm 14:33). In the NT, Jesus was in the wilderness 40 days during the temptation (Mt 4:2), and there were 40 days between his resurrection and ascension (Acts 1:3). Moses was 40 years old at his call (Acts 7:23), apparently lived 40 years in Midian (Ex 7:7), and spent 40 years leading Israel out of Egypt and through the desert (Dt 34:7), for he is said to be 120 years old at his death. However, two generations of 40 years is the normal maximum for a healthy man (Ps 90:10), and even this is often shortened to 70 years by the rigors of life. Seventy is also used at times in this approximate sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolicUseofNumbers\">Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In Scripture, seven symbolizes completeness or perfection. On the seventh day God rested from his labors and creation is finished (Gn 2:2). Pharaoh in his dream saw seven cattle coming from the Nile (41:2). Samson’s sacred Nazirite locks were braided in seven plaits (Jgs 16:13). Seven devils left Mary of Magdala, signifying the totality of her previous possession by Satan (Lk 8:2); “seven other devils” will enter the purified but vacant life of a person (Mt 12:45). However, on the positive side, there were the seven spirits of God (Rv 3:1). In the seventh year the Hebrew slave was to be freed (Ex 21:2), having completed his time of captivity and service. Every seventh year was a sabbatical year (Lv 25:4). Seven times seven reiterates the sense of completeness. In the Year of Jubilee (at the completion of 7 x 7 years = the 50th year), all land is freed and returns to the original owners (Lv 25:10). Pentecost, the Feast of Weeks, is seven times seven days after Passover. “Seventy,” which is literally “sevens” in Hebrew, strengthens the concept of perfection. There are 70 elders (Ex 24:1) in Israel. Israel was exiled to Babylon for 70 years (Jer 25:12) to complete its punishment. “Seventy times seven” (Mt 18:22) reiterates this still further. The Lord was not giving Peter a mathematical number of times that he should forgive another person, but rather was insisting on limitless forgiveness for a brother’s sin.<\/p>\n<p>“Three” may well share in this meaning of completion or perfection, although not so forcibly (2 Kgs 13:18). Many things happen “on the third day” (Hos 6:2). Jonah spent three days in the stomach of the fish (Mt 12:40), and the Lord rose again on the third day (1 Cor 15:4). David was offered a choice of divine punishments—three years, three months, three days (2 Sm 24:13). For the Christian, “three” takes on a far deeper significance as the number of Persons of the Trinity. The three Persons are clearly expressed, for instance, in the Great Commission (Mt 28:19) and in the Pauline benediction (2 Cor 13:13). Many echoes of this threefold expression are in the NT, and many anticipations of it in the OT, of which the thrice-repeated “Holy” in Isaiah 6:3 is the most famous.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars see four as another symbol of completeness (four winds of heaven, Dn 7:2; four horsemen, Rv 6:1-7; four living creatures around the throne of God, Rv 4:6). Five is certainly used in an indefinite sense as a small number (Is 19:18; 30:17). Nor do eight or nine seem to have any special significance, although, like other numbers, they may be used in a factual sense to describe any of God’s activities (nine plagues on Egypt, Ex 7–10). “Ten” does have significance because of the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1-17), but not any special symbolism earlier in the Bible. If anything, “ten” is elsewhere used in a vague way. Laban changes Jacob’s wages ten times (Gn 31:7); Daniel and his friends are ten times better than all other students (Dn 1:20); ten times over, the Jewish settlers will be warned of impending enemy attacks (Neh 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>Eleven appears to have no special biblical significance, but 12 certainly has. The clearest proof of this is the existence of the 12 tribes in Israel. In Revelation 7:4-8, where it is mathematically important that the number of tribes be limited to 12, the tribe of Dan is altogether omitted—probably on account of Dan’s sin of idolatry (Jgs 18:14-20). Ishmael’s descendants were also divided into 12 clans (Gn 17:20), so that the number 12 was apparently significant outside Israel as well. In the NT Christ chose 12 apostles (Mt 10:1-4). The link with the number of tribes is made specific when Christ tells the apostles that they will sit on 12 thrones, judging the 12 tribes (Mt 19:28). However, it is interesting that, after the election and appointment of Matthias (Acts 1:26), the Christian church apparently made no subsequent efforts to maintain the number of apostles. Like “seven times seven,” “twelve times twelve” increases the force of the number. When this is further multiplied by a thousand, the figure becomes the 144,000 redeemed (Rv 7:4), who were sealed “out of all the tribes of Israel.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExactStatistics\">Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>As distinct from the metaphorical use of numbers to denote completion, immensity, and the like, numbers in Hebrew were often used to give exact tallies or measurements. Such usage is known to us only from clay tablets and ostraca (broken pieces of potsherd engraved in ink, used as rough notebooks). However, ascertaining exactly what the text was in its earliest form and what that text means is difficult.<\/p>\n<p>An example is the number of the sons of Jeconiah among the inhabitants of Beth-shemesh. They were struck down by the Lord because of their failure to rejoice with the others when God’s ark returned to Israel from the Philistine country (1 Sm 6:19). The Greek text (LXX) reads “seventy”; the later Hebrew manuscripts add “fifty thousand.” But, as Beth-shemesh itself was only a small frontier town, and the “sons of Jeconiah” was presumably only one clan among several, the smaller number is obviously the original, and the large addition due to some later manuscript confusion.<\/p>\n<p>A good rule in trying to decide whether a number is statistical or impressionistic is to determine whether it is a small number, or an unusual number for which there is no obvious theological explanation. When the men of Ai killed some 36 Israelites at the first assault on the city (Jos 7:5), the smallness of the number is evidence that this is a vividly remembered factual detail. Similarly, in the case of the number of Abraham’s 318 men (Gn 14:14) or the catch of 153 fish after the resurrection (Jn 21:11), the numbers, though large, are not round numbers but unusual combinations, and are obviously meant in a literal or statistical sense. Irrelevant details like this have a habit of remaining in the memory, and are the best guarantee of the trustworthiness of the narrative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Numerology\">Numerology<\/p>\n<p>Numerology may be said to be an extended application of the metaphorical significance of numbers (7, 40, etc.) already discussed. In the Bible, this systematization of numbers always goes with a strong sense of the sovereignty of God, his control over human history, and a belief in his ongoing purpose and its triumphant conclusion.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps the first clear instance of numerology in the Bible is 1 Kings 6:1, where Solomon began to build the temple 480 years after the exodus, a period 5 times 10 times 12, or 4 times 120, the ideal life span of man in early days (Gn 6:3). First Chronicles 6:3-8 gives 12 generations of men (presumably 40 years each) to cover the same period, so “twelve generations” is probably the real basis for the computation, rather than any exact year-by-year tally. A tally would have been impossible in the days of the judges and unlikely before the monarchy. David was the first to establish an official scribe or recorder to keep daily annals in Israel (2 Sm 8:16-17), as was common in the great kingdoms from far earlier times. Such Israelite annals are later mentioned as sources of the books of the kings (2 Kgs 14:18). The number 480 is probably a rough approximation rather than exact and denotes the end of one of God’s epochs.<\/p>\n<p>When Jeremiah prophesies an exile of 70 years for Judah (Jer 25:11; 29:10), it is not only a historical prediction that was literally fulfilled but also a symbol of completeness; Judah’s punishment is complete (cf. Is 40:2). Isaiah (Is 23:15) had made a similar prophecy of a 70-year punishment for Tyre, and Ezekiel (Ez 29:11-13) prophesied a 40-year “exile” for Egypt. When these 70 years are regarded as sabbatical years, where the land must lie untilled to compensate for the 7 times 70 years of sin before, then true numerology begins (2 Chr 36:21). Here numerology is used only as an explanation of past and present, but it can also be used to explain the future, especially in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel (Dn 9:2) refers to the literal 70 years of the exile as foretold by Jeremiah. In Daniel 9:24, this has been extended to 70 weeks of years (490 years) applied to the distant future. Daniel 9:25 sees 69 of these (483 years) as elapsing before Messiah appears. Presumably, the last week of the 70 is therefore thought of as the time of his activity. However this may be interpreted in terms of actual dates, it must be harmonized with 9:26, where the Messiah is “cut off” after 62 weeks of years (434 years). The difficulty lies in establishing the starting point for this long period. This is an example of an elaborate numerology, embracing centuries of history, all ultimately based on the 70 years of Jeremiah. According to biblical principles, this can have both an “immediate” fulfillment in the return from exile, and a “prophetic” fulfillment in the far distant future in connection with the coming of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The other major example of extended numerology in Daniel is in connection with the “time, times, and half a time” (7:25). This must stand for three and a half “times,” that is, half of seven “times.” Thus, it refers either to three and a half years (half a “week” of years) or three and a half “weeks” of years (cf. “seven times” in 4:16, where “seven years” is clearly meant). Whatever may be its ultimate prophetic fulfillment in Christ, the “initial” or “partial” fulfillment is the roughly three and a half years of bitter persecution of God’s people by Antiochus Epiphanes (167–164 <span>BC<\/span>). This figure of three and a half years reappears in Revelation 11:2 (“forty-two months”), and 12:14 (“a time, and times, and half a time”), to describe the period of Rome’s persecution of the Christian church. The figure had possibly become a symbol of any bitter but limited persecution. The “two thousand three hundred evenings and mornings” of Daniel 8:14 may mean 1,150 days, which is approximately the same length of time.<\/p>\n<p>The three and a half years of Daniel 7:25 reappear in Revelation 11 in the form of “forty-two months,” the time when the heathen will trample down Jerusalem (Rv 11:2). The 1,290 days of Daniel 12:11 reappear here (in the slightly different form of 1,260 days) as the time that God’s two witnesses will prophesy (Rv 11:3). The 42 months reappear in Revelation 13:5 as the period that the wild beast will be allowed to blaspheme. While the “thousand years” of 20:6 is not derived from Daniel at all, the metaphorical use of “thousand” is familiar to the OT. The closest direct parallel is in Deuteronomy 7:9, where God’s covenant will be kept with a “thousand generations” to come.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY* Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern. Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mys...","summary_en":"NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY* Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern. Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mys...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33926,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>SARAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12).<\/li>\n<p>Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would make of him a great nation (12:2) and that the land of Canaan would be given to his seed (v 7), Sarah was still barren.<\/p>\n<p>After 10 years had passed (cf. Gn 12:4; 16:16) and Sarah continued without children, she gave her Egyptian slave, Hagar, to Abraham as a concubine. Hagar conceived and bore a son, Ishmael (16:3-4). God promised that a nation would come from Ishmael (17:20) but indicated that he was not to be the child of the promise. Sarah herself was to be the mother of this child, even though she laughed when the birth was predicted. The fulfillment of this prediction took place with the birth of Isaac (21:2-3), when Sarah was 90 years old, 25 years after the original promise of a seed to Abraham (17:17; 21:5).<\/p>\n<p>When famine forced Abraham and Sarah to journey down into Egypt shortly after their entrance into Canaan, Sarah was represented to the Egyptians as Abraham’s sister. This resulted in Sarah’s being taken into the harem of Pharaoh because of her great beauty (Gn 12:11-15), and Abraham’s being well treated and rewarded by the Egyptians instead of being killed. God intervened to protect the marriage of Abraham and Sarah by plaguing the house of Pharaoh to force Sarah’s release. A similar tactic was followed by Abraham and Sarah on another occasion in Gerar (ch 20), where she was taken into the household of Abimelech the king of Gerar. Again God protected Sarah, preserved her as the mother of the promised seed, and prevented any suspicion or doubt concerning who was the father of Isaac. Significantly, Isaac was born not long after this incident (21:1-5), his birth having been promised about a year earlier (17:21; 18:10-14). Sarah died at the age of 127 and was buried in the cave at Machpelah, which Abraham had purchased from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23).<\/p>\n<p>Apart from the book of Genesis, Sarah is referred to in the OT only in Isaiah 51:2. Reference is made to her in the NT in Romans 4:19, 9:9, Hebrews 11:11, 1 Peter 3:6, and Galatians 4:21-31, although in the Galatians text she is not mentioned by name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Barrenness.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Serah, Asher’s daughter, in Numbers 26:46. <em>See<\/em> Serah.<\/li>\n<li>3. The heroine of the book of Tobit. Her prayer of anguish was heard by God, who sent the angel Raphael as a matchmaker to arrange her marriage to Tobias (Tb 6:9ff.). She had been tormented by a demon, who had caused the death of her previous seven husbands but was exorcised by Tobias using a recipe of fish heart and liver that was given to him by the angel Raphael (8:2). After the death of Tobit and his wife, Anna, in Nineveh, Tobias and Sarah, and their children returned to Sarah’s family in Ecbatana (14:12ff.).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SARAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12).<\/li>\n<p>Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would make of him a great nation (12:2) and that the land of Canaan would be given to his seed (v 7), Sarah was still barren.<\/p>\n<p>After 10 years had passed (cf. Gn 12:4; 16:16) and Sarah continued without children, she gave her Egyptian slave, Hagar, to Abraham as a concubine. Hagar conceived and bore a son, Ishmael (16:3-4). God promised that a nation would come from Ishmael (17:20) but indicated that he was not to be the child of the promise. Sarah herself was to be the mother of this child, even though she laughed when the birth was predicted. The fulfillment of this prediction took place with the birth of Isaac (21:2-3), when Sarah was 90 years old, 25 years after the original promise of a seed to Abraham (17:17; 21:5).<\/p>\n<p>When famine forced Abraham and Sarah to journey down into Egypt shortly after their entrance into Canaan, Sarah was represented to the Egyptians as Abraham’s sister. This resulted in Sarah’s being taken into the harem of Pharaoh because of her great beauty (Gn 12:11-15), and Abraham’s being well treated and rewarded by the Egyptians instead of being killed. God intervened to protect the marriage of Abraham and Sarah by plaguing the house of Pharaoh to force Sarah’s release. A similar tactic was followed by Abraham and Sarah on another occasion in Gerar (ch 20), where she was taken into the household of Abimelech the king of Gerar. Again God protected Sarah, preserved her as the mother of the promised seed, and prevented any suspicion or doubt concerning who was the father of Isaac. Significantly, Isaac was born not long after this incident (21:1-5), his birth having been promised about a year earlier (17:21; 18:10-14). Sarah died at the age of 127 and was buried in the cave at Machpelah, which Abraham had purchased from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23).<\/p>\n<p>Apart from the book of Genesis, Sarah is referred to in the OT only in Isaiah 51:2. Reference is made to her in the NT in Romans 4:19, 9:9, Hebrews 11:11, 1 Peter 3:6, and Galatians 4:21-31, although in the Galatians text she is not mentioned by name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Barrenness.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Serah, Asher’s daughter, in Numbers 26:46. <em>See<\/em> Serah.<\/li>\n<li>3. The heroine of the book of Tobit. Her prayer of anguish was heard by God, who sent the angel Raphael as a matchmaker to arrange her marriage to Tobias (Tb 6:9ff.). She had been tormented by a demon, who had caused the death of her previous seven husbands but was exorcised by Tobias using a recipe of fish heart and liver that was given to him by the angel Raphael (8:2). After the death of Tobit and his wife, Anna, in Nineveh, Tobias and Sarah, and their children returned to Sarah’s family in Ecbatana (14:12ff.).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SARAH 1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12). Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would m...","summary_en":"SARAH 1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12). Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would m...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43090,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:20","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:20-21<\/strong> <em>Ishmael<\/em> would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the <em>covenant<\/em> promises were for <em>Isaac<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:20-21<\/strong> <em>Ishmael<\/em> would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the <em>covenant<\/em> promises were for <em>Isaac<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:20-21 Ishmael would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the covenant promises were for Isaac.","summary_en":"17:20-21 Ishmael would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the covenant promises were for Isaac.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70716,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:20","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:20-21<\/strong> <em>Ishmael<\/em> would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the <em>covenant<\/em> promises were for <em>Isaac<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:20-21<\/strong> <em>Ishmael<\/em> would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the <em>covenant<\/em> promises were for <em>Isaac<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:20-21 Ishmael would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the covenant promises were for Isaac.","summary_en":"17:20-21 Ishmael would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the covenant promises were for Isaac.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98342,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:20","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:20-21<\/strong> <em>Ishmael<\/em> would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the <em>covenant<\/em> promises were for <em>Isaac<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:20-21<\/strong> <em>Ishmael<\/em> would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the <em>covenant<\/em> promises were for <em>Isaac<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:20-21 Ishmael would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the covenant promises were for Isaac.","summary_en":"17:20-21 Ishmael would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the covenant promises were for Isaac.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125968,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:20","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:20-21<\/strong> <em>Ishmael<\/em> would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the <em>covenant<\/em> promises were for <em>Isaac<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:20-21<\/strong> <em>Ishmael<\/em> would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the <em>covenant<\/em> promises were for <em>Isaac<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:20-21 Ishmael would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the covenant promises were for Isaac.","summary_en":"17:20-21 Ishmael would not be abandoned; his family would prosper (see 25:13-16), but the covenant promises were for Isaac.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":33933,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sarah","title_en":"Sarah","content_ro":"<h3>SARAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12).<\/li>\n<p>Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would make of him a great nation (12:2) and that the land of Canaan would be given to his seed (v 7), Sarah was still barren.<\/p>\n<p>After 10 years had passed (cf. Gn 12:4; 16:16) and Sarah continued without children, she gave her Egyptian slave, Hagar, to Abraham as a concubine. Hagar conceived and bore a son, Ishmael (16:3-4). God promised that a nation would come from Ishmael (17:20) but indicated that he was not to be the child of the promise. Sarah herself was to be the mother of this child, even though she laughed when the birth was predicted. The fulfillment of this prediction took place with the birth of Isaac (21:2-3), when Sarah was 90 years old, 25 years after the original promise of a seed to Abraham (17:17; 21:5).<\/p>\n<p>When famine forced Abraham and Sarah to journey down into Egypt shortly after their entrance into Canaan, Sarah was represented to the Egyptians as Abraham’s sister. This resulted in Sarah’s being taken into the harem of Pharaoh because of her great beauty (Gn 12:11-15), and Abraham’s being well treated and rewarded by the Egyptians instead of being killed. God intervened to protect the marriage of Abraham and Sarah by plaguing the house of Pharaoh to force Sarah’s release. A similar tactic was followed by Abraham and Sarah on another occasion in Gerar (ch 20), where she was taken into the household of Abimelech the king of Gerar. Again God protected Sarah, preserved her as the mother of the promised seed, and prevented any suspicion or doubt concerning who was the father of Isaac. Significantly, Isaac was born not long after this incident (21:1-5), his birth having been promised about a year earlier (17:21; 18:10-14). Sarah died at the age of 127 and was buried in the cave at Machpelah, which Abraham had purchased from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23).<\/p>\n<p>Apart from the book of Genesis, Sarah is referred to in the OT only in Isaiah 51:2. Reference is made to her in the NT in Romans 4:19, 9:9, Hebrews 11:11, 1 Peter 3:6, and Galatians 4:21-31, although in the Galatians text she is not mentioned by name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Barrenness.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Serah, Asher’s daughter, in Numbers 26:46. <em>See<\/em> Serah.<\/li>\n<li>3. The heroine of the book of Tobit. Her prayer of anguish was heard by God, who sent the angel Raphael as a matchmaker to arrange her marriage to Tobias (Tb 6:9ff.). She had been tormented by a demon, who had caused the death of her previous seven husbands but was exorcised by Tobias using a recipe of fish heart and liver that was given to him by the angel Raphael (8:2). After the death of Tobit and his wife, Anna, in Nineveh, Tobias and Sarah, and their children returned to Sarah’s family in Ecbatana (14:12ff.).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SARAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12).<\/li>\n<p>Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would make of him a great nation (12:2) and that the land of Canaan would be given to his seed (v 7), Sarah was still barren.<\/p>\n<p>After 10 years had passed (cf. Gn 12:4; 16:16) and Sarah continued without children, she gave her Egyptian slave, Hagar, to Abraham as a concubine. Hagar conceived and bore a son, Ishmael (16:3-4). God promised that a nation would come from Ishmael (17:20) but indicated that he was not to be the child of the promise. Sarah herself was to be the mother of this child, even though she laughed when the birth was predicted. The fulfillment of this prediction took place with the birth of Isaac (21:2-3), when Sarah was 90 years old, 25 years after the original promise of a seed to Abraham (17:17; 21:5).<\/p>\n<p>When famine forced Abraham and Sarah to journey down into Egypt shortly after their entrance into Canaan, Sarah was represented to the Egyptians as Abraham’s sister. This resulted in Sarah’s being taken into the harem of Pharaoh because of her great beauty (Gn 12:11-15), and Abraham’s being well treated and rewarded by the Egyptians instead of being killed. God intervened to protect the marriage of Abraham and Sarah by plaguing the house of Pharaoh to force Sarah’s release. A similar tactic was followed by Abraham and Sarah on another occasion in Gerar (ch 20), where she was taken into the household of Abimelech the king of Gerar. Again God protected Sarah, preserved her as the mother of the promised seed, and prevented any suspicion or doubt concerning who was the father of Isaac. Significantly, Isaac was born not long after this incident (21:1-5), his birth having been promised about a year earlier (17:21; 18:10-14). Sarah died at the age of 127 and was buried in the cave at Machpelah, which Abraham had purchased from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23).<\/p>\n<p>Apart from the book of Genesis, Sarah is referred to in the OT only in Isaiah 51:2. Reference is made to her in the NT in Romans 4:19, 9:9, Hebrews 11:11, 1 Peter 3:6, and Galatians 4:21-31, although in the Galatians text she is not mentioned by name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Barrenness.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Serah, Asher’s daughter, in Numbers 26:46. <em>See<\/em> Serah.<\/li>\n<li>3. The heroine of the book of Tobit. Her prayer of anguish was heard by God, who sent the angel Raphael as a matchmaker to arrange her marriage to Tobias (Tb 6:9ff.). She had been tormented by a demon, who had caused the death of her previous seven husbands but was exorcised by Tobias using a recipe of fish heart and liver that was given to him by the angel Raphael (8:2). After the death of Tobit and his wife, Anna, in Nineveh, Tobias and Sarah, and their children returned to Sarah’s family in Ecbatana (14:12ff.).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SARAH 1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12). Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would m...","summary_en":"SARAH 1. Wife of Abraham whose name was originally Sarai (Gn 11:29). Her name was changed to Sarah (“princess”) when she was promised that she would bear a son and become the mother of nations and kings (17:15-16). Sarah was both the wife and the half sister of Abraham (20:12). Sarah accompanied Abraham in his journey from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and eventually into the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31; 12:5). She remained barren for much of her marriage. When God promised Abraham that he would m...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":40549,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68175,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95801,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123427,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6671,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16903,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Household","title_en":"Household","content_ro":"<h3>HOUSEHOLD<\/h3>\n<p>Persons who live in the same place and compose a family or extended family. In biblical times a household included father, mother(s), children, grandparents, servants, concubines, and sojourners. Jacob’s household, for example, included 66 people, not counting the wives of his sons (Gn 46:26). Households were seen as corporately responsible for the honor of the family (2 Sm 3:27 gives an example of revenge by a household). Male members of the entire household were circumcised as a sign of the covenant (Gn 17:23). In the NT era, some entire households were baptized (Acts 11:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Family Life and Relations.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOUSEHOLD<\/h3>\n<p>Persons who live in the same place and compose a family or extended family. In biblical times a household included father, mother(s), children, grandparents, servants, concubines, and sojourners. Jacob’s household, for example, included 66 people, not counting the wives of his sons (Gn 46:26). Households were seen as corporately responsible for the honor of the family (2 Sm 3:27 gives an example of revenge by a household). Male members of the entire household were circumcised as a sign of the covenant (Gn 17:23). In the NT era, some entire households were baptized (Acts 11:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Family Life and Relations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOUSEHOLD Persons who live in the same place and compose a family or extended family. In biblical times a household included father, mother(s), children, grandparents, servants, concubines, and sojourners. Jacob’s household, for example, included 66 people, not counting the wives of his sons (Gn 46:26). Households were seen as corporately responsible for the honor of the family (2 Sm 3:27 gives an example of revenge by a household). Male members of the entire household were circumcised as a s...","summary_en":"HOUSEHOLD Persons who live in the same place and compose a family or extended family. In biblical times a household included father, mother(s), children, grandparents, servants, concubines, and sojourners. Jacob’s household, for example, included 66 people, not counting the wives of his sons (Gn 46:26). Households were seen as corporately responsible for the honor of the family (2 Sm 3:27 gives an example of revenge by a household). Male members of the entire household were circumcised as a s...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43091,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:23-27<\/strong> Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:23-27<\/strong> Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:23-27 Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).","summary_en":"17:23-27 Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70717,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:23-27<\/strong> Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:23-27<\/strong> Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:23-27 Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).","summary_en":"17:23-27 Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98343,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:23-27<\/strong> Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:23-27<\/strong> Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:23-27 Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).","summary_en":"17:23-27 Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125969,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 17:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 17:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>17:23-27<\/strong> Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>17:23-27<\/strong> Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"17:23-27 Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).","summary_en":"17:23-27 Having received God’s word about Isaac, Abraham immediately complied with God’s instructions. He implemented the rite of circumcision as an act of faith; it signified their participation in the covenant (cp. Rom 4:11-12; Gal 5:2-6, 11; 6:15; Phil 3:2-3; Col 2:11-12; 1 Pet 3:21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59910,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87536,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115162,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142788,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":7861,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Covenant","title_en":"Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the OT is developed from Noah to Abraham and reaches its first climax in the covenant formed between God and Israel at Mt Sinai. After King David’s time, the history of the covenant becomes a less prominent theme.<\/p>\n<p>At a low point in covenant history the Bible introduces the prophet Jeremiah’s prophecy of a “new covenant” in Israel’s future. Christians believe that Jeremiah’s prophecy eventually found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ. It is not accidental that the two volumes of the Christian Bible have been called the Old Covenant and New Covenant (the word commonly translated “testament” means “covenant”).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<p>• The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>• The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMeaningofCovenant\">The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The essence of covenant is to be found in a particular kind of relationship between persons. Mutual obligations characterize that kind of relationship. Thus a covenant relationship is not merely a mutual acquaintance but a commitment to responsibility and action. A key word in Scripture to describe that commitment is “faithfulness,” acted out in a context of abiding friendship.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the word “covenant” was used in an ordinary human sense as well as in a theological sense. An understanding of human covenants provides a starting point for understanding the covenant between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HumanCovenants\">Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>A variety of human relationships, from profoundly personal to distantly political, may be described as covenantal. The deep brotherly love that David and Jonathan shared led to a formal covenant between them (1 Sm 18:3). Their covenant of friendship was more than a token of esteem; it bound them to demonstrate mutual loyalty and loving-kindness in certain tangible ways. Jonathan’s covenant faithfulness was typified on an occasion when David was out of favor with the king; Jonathan braved his father’s wrath to speak favorably for his friend. Subsequently, he warned David secretly to flee into hiding (1 Sm 19–20).<\/p>\n<p>To appreciate the many OT laws on marriage and divorce, one must understand that marriage itself was a covenant relationship (Mal 2:14). The solemn promises exchanged by a man and woman became their covenant obligations. Faithfulness to those promises brought marital blessing (cf. Ps 128; Prv 18:22); violation brought a curse.<\/p>\n<p>An individual could, at least figuratively, make a covenant or vow with himself or herself (something like a New Year’s resolution). Job, arguing his integrity before God, referred to a covenant he had made with his eyes to keep him from looking at women licentiously (Jb 31:1).<\/p>\n<p>Covenants could also have a national or international character. The elders of Israel made a national covenant with King David in Hebron (2 Sm 5:3). Probably it contained explicit promises both from the elders on behalf of the people to submit themselves to the king’s authority and from David to rule the nation justly and according to the law of God (Dt 17:15-20). The covenant relationship described mutual obligations between a senior partner (the king) and junior partners (the Israelites). In international relationships OT covenants were similar to modern treaties or alliances. King Solomon entered into such a covenant with Hiram, king of Tyre; that covenant, like many modern international treaties, was a trade agreement between the two nations (1 Kgs 5:12).<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is thus an interpersonal framework of trust, responsibilities, and benefits, with broad application to almost every human relationship from personal friendship to international trade agreements. In Scripture covenant is also the most comprehensive concept covering an individual’s relationship to God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Divine-HumanCovenants\">Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>The same basic characteristics of a strictly human covenant are present in a divine covenant: (1) a relationship between two parties (God and a human being or nation), and (2) mutual obligations between the covenant partners. To the OT believer, religion meant covenant. OT religion was faithfulness to the covenant relationship between God and his chosen people; religious responsibilities for both the faith and practice of Israel were covenant responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a divine-human covenant in the OT was not static. Although the fundamental character of covenant remains the same throughout the Bible, the specific nature and form of the covenant changed and developed in the course of ancient Israel’s history. A brief survey of covenant history will further clarify its dimensions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BeginningsoftheCovenantTradition\">Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<h5>Adam<\/h5>\n<p>Adam and Eve were placed in the Garden. God was their Creator; they were his creatures. The meaning of their lives was to be found in relationship with each other and with God, the giver of the Garden. The fall, however, brought a disruption of the divine relationship, and they were expelled from the Garden.<\/p>\n<p>The fall substantially influenced the nature of subsequent religious covenants. The separation of humankind from God clarifies the nature of the human predicament. Created for a relationship with the Creator, sinning humans are excluded from that relationship and cannot, on their own accord, reestablish it. From that circumstance emerges a distinctive feature of divine-human covenants, namely, that God alone can initiate the relationship of covenant.<\/p>\n<h5>Noah<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit mention of covenant in Scripture refers to the initiative taken by God to bind himself again to human beings in a covenant, despite human faithlessness. When God warned Noah to build an ark in order to escape the impending Flood, he also promised to establish a covenant with him (Gn 6:18). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger, but his grace was shown in his dealings with Noah. The promised covenant provided that God would maintain a relationship with one family, even though other divine-human relationships were being formally severed. Significantly, God’s covenant promise to Noah came in a context of demand: God ordered Noah to build an ark (v 14). Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to a divine command.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant was elaborated only after the Flood, when Noah had made an offering to God (Gn 8:20-22). The covenant with Noah was in fact a universal covenant with humankind and all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world. The sign of that covenant was the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant with Noah affords some perspective for understanding the “covenant God.” Although human beings may deserve destruction because of their wickedness, God withholds that destruction. The covenant of Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being; nevertheless, it left open the possibility of a more intimate covenant. Human beings, in spite of their evil, are allowed for a time to live in God’s world; during those years, they may seek a deeper relationship with that world’s Creator.<\/p>\n<h5>Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit reference to God’s covenant with Abraham is in Genesis 15. When the Lord called the 75-year-old Abram (as he was first called) to leave his home city of Ur and set out on a journey, a relationship already existed between God and Abram. In that relationship, which enabled God to command Abram’s obedience, God made certain promises to him: “I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing” (Gn 12:2, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Formal establishment of the covenant with Abram is described in Genesis 15 as a profound religious experience. The initiative lay entirely with God, who approached Abram in a vision and spoke with him. Abram raised a fundamental objection: how could he experience the blessing of God if it was to come to him through a son he did not have? His wife Sarai was past the childbearing age, and he himself was “as good as dead” (Rom 4:19). God assured the old man that he would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abram’s belief at that point introduced the theme of righteousness central to the covenant concept: Abram “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>, and he reckoned it to him as righteousness” (Gn 15:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). At the end of that day, Abram knew that his own future and the future of his descendants were firmly in the hands of the covenant God. “On that day the <span>Lord<\/span> made a covenant with Abram, saying, ‘To your descendants I give this land’ ” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The covenant is more fully expressed in Genesis 17, which probably records a renewal of God’s covenant with Abram. The initiative once again lay with God (Gn 17:1). God addressed the 99-year-old Abram in words that made clear that the covenant was not a relationship between equal partners. God was the Almighty; Abram was a human being to whom an extraordinary privilege had been granted.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the details of the covenant in Genesis 17 show that both partners assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abram and his descendants while requiring certain commitments from Abram. The blessing Abram would receive as a covenant partner became clear from the new name God gave him. “I am changing your name. It will no longer be Abram; now you will be known as Abraham, for you will be the father of many nations” (Gn 17:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). God would give to Abraham, through his descendants, the land of Canaan as an everlasting gift and would be the personal God of Abraham and his family in perpetuity (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s giving required a response of obedience from Abraham: “Live a blameless life” (Gn 17:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Those simple words indicate the essence of covenant relationship: to relate to God is to live in his presence; since God is holy, one who knows him is expected to live a life of integrity and blamelessness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant also had a more formal aspect. Abraham and the male members of his household were to undergo the rite of circumcision as a symbol of covenant commitment. Abraham was an old man when he was circumcised (Gn 17:24), though male children born into the covenant family were to be circumcised when they were eight days old (v 12). Circumcision was not in itself a ritual peculiar to the Hebrews; it was practiced in most societies in the ancient Near East (the Philistines were one exception). The distinctiveness lay in what the act symbolized: among other things, a continuing and faithful relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham was characterized by both present and future realities. The covenant established a continuing relationship between Abraham and his Creator. Yet its thrust pointed to future blessing—in the children yet to be born, the “chosen people,” and in the land that eventually his descendants would call their own.<\/p>\n<p>Another dimension of the covenant lay still further in the future: “All the families of the earth will be blessed through you” (Gn 12:3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Early in the OT, the idea of election (God’s unconditional preference; cf. 2 Thes 2:13) is present. God chose to enter into a covenant relationship with a particular man and his particular descendants. Yet God always elects a person to serve: Adam, to cultivate the Garden; Noah, to build an ark; Abraham, to leave his home for another land and to live blamelessly before God (cf. Eph 2:8-10). Further, the “particularity” of Abraham’s election contained within it a universality: through his descendants the blessing of God would be offered to all.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the future aspects of Abraham’s covenant reflect two stages. From Abraham’s perspective, in the relatively near future his descendants would possess a land given them by God. But in the more distant future was the prospect of a universal blessing, the culmination of God’s work in the world. The initial fulfillment of that distant future is perceived in the NT, but the more immediate fulfillment of God’s promise was the Sinai covenant at the time of Moses.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSinaiCovenant\">The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The covenant established between God and Israel at Mt Sinai is the focal point of the covenant tradition in the OT. It was anticipated in the covenant of Abraham and lay behind the covenant of David and the proclamation of the prophets. It was central to OT religion, laying down the foundations of Judaism that continue into the modern world. The Sinai covenant was the formal institution of a relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In order to appreciate the impact of the Sinai covenant, one must understand its historical context. It was preceded by the exodus of the Hebrew people from Egypt under the leadership of Moses. The exodus was an extraordinary act of liberation in which God intervened in the normal course of history to free his people from slavery in Egypt. The exodus is interpreted in the OT as a divine act comparable to Creation, the act through which God “created” the nation of Israel. Examination of the two versions of the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11; Dt 5:12-15) shows that the exodus from Egypt directly parallels the creation of the world as a basis for Sabbath observance. Although Israel was created in the exodus, the nation had neither a constitution nor land. The covenant provided the nascent state of Israel with a constitution, making it a theocratic state (a state ruled by God).<\/p>\n<p>The basic account of the Sinai covenant is contained in Exodus 19 and 20. The initiative came from God, who gave instructions through Moses to prepare for the covenant; God spoke the words that contained the covenant offer. There was no doubt that the God of Israel was the senior partner in the relationship made formal at Sinai. The God who had revealed himself through his acts in the exodus then revealed himself in words. Those two aspects—the God who acts and speaks—are central to OT theology. And although the covenant contained law, it was preceded by the exodus, an act of divine grace.<\/p>\n<p>God’s offer of covenant carried with it a divine promise: “You will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). The promise was one of extraordinary privilege; an entire nation was called upon to represent all other nations before the God of the universe. But the priestly office, though it carried privilege, was also a demanding office. A priest had to be pure and had to know the God whose presence he was required to enter. Thus Israel, the priestly nation, received a law that would provide direction in living, in loving God, and in serving all people. The law given with the covenant expressed the requirements for God’s covenant people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Covenant Law<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant law had two principal parts. First, the Ten Commandments expressed God’s requirements of Israel in a concise form (Ex 20:2-17). The commandments specified the covenant people’s relationship both to God and to other human beings. Although the tendency in the present day is to view the Ten Commandments as a system of ethics or morality, they had a different role in ancient Israel. The covenant law was the foundation or constitution of a new nation, a special “nation of priests.” The head of the nation-state was God. Hence, in ancient Israel the status of the Ten Commandments was approximately that of the code of criminal law in a modern nation-state. To break one of those laws was to commit a crime against God, the head of the state. Yet the laws had a positive purpose. They set down a way of life that would result in a full and rich communion with God and community with others.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the covenant law was a detailed law code covering the activities of everyday life. Examples of such laws are found in Exodus 21–23. These laws were compiled and recorded in the “Book of the Covenant” (Ex 24:7). Although many laws were contained in this book, it was impossible to codify every aspect of human behavior. The diversity of the examples given indicates that for the covenant member no area of human life was beyond the influence of the covenant. Persons who entered into a relationship with God entered into a relationship that impinged on every possible aspect of their lives.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Renewal<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant at Sinai was made with a particular group of people under the leadership of Moses but was binding on future generations. Consequently, the covenant was renewed from time to time. Covenant renewals are recorded in the time of Joshua (Jos 8:30-35; 24:1-28) and, much later, during the reign of King Josiah (2 Kgs 23:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The most important passage in the Bible for understanding covenant renewal and the nature of covenant is the book of Deuteronomy. The entire book describes a particular covenant renewal ceremony that occurred at a critical juncture in Israel’s early history. The Sinai covenant was renewed just before Moses’ death, before the transition of leadership to Joshua, and before a major military campaign to possess the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant since the time of Abraham had contained a promise of land. Immediately before they entered that land (c. 1250 <span>BC<\/span>), the covenant vows were renewed with a new generation of Israelites, most of whom had not stood at the foot of Mt Sinai some 40 years earlier. Although covenant renewal is the central theme of Deuteronomy, the writer focused primarily on Moses’ sermon rather than on a detailed account of the renewal ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ceremony were simply a repetition of what happened at the original ratification of the covenant. The Ten Commandments were repeated (Dt 5:6-21), and the laws of the Book of the Covenant were expounded in greater detail (Dt 12–26). Two points emerging in Deuteronomy are particularly significant for an understanding of covenant: a clear statement of covenant love and a detailed statement of the blessings and curses that accompanied the making and renewing of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCovenantwithDavid\">The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>The covenant tradition underwent modification during the time of King David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>). The Sinai covenant had been established between God and Israel, with Moses acting as mediator. In David’s time an additional element was added: God entered into a covenant with David as king. That royal covenant was intimated to David through the prophet Nathan (2 Sm 7:8-16), indicating once again the divine initiative. It was to be an everlasting covenant with David’s royal lineage (23:5).<\/p>\n\n<p>Christians generally interpret the covenant with David as a messianic covenant. For several centuries the dynasty established by David ruled a united Israel, then ruled the remaining southern kingdom of Judah. But in 586 <span>BC<\/span> Judah was conquered by the Babylonians. At that point a descendant of David was no longer ruling an independent kingdom of God’s chosen people. The everlasting nature of the covenant with David was brought out, however, not in the pages of ancient history but in the expectation of a Messiah who would be born of David’s descendants. Matthew and Luke both pointed to Jesus’ Davidic descent (Mt 1:1; Lk 3:31). The NT thus extends the covenant acts of God into the new age in the person of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNewCovenantPredictedintheOldTestament\">The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although David’s covenant with God was eternal, in a sense the covenant established with Israel on Mt Sinai was temporal. The Sinai covenant included conditional clauses, stated in the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy. Israel’s disobedience of the covenant law would at worst bring exile from the Promised Land, a central covenant theme from Abraham to Moses and beyond.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew prophets often perceived the danger of an end to the covenant as a result of Israel’s sins. Some of the prophets, especially Hosea and Jeremiah, also perceived a deeper truth; namely, that the covenant was rooted in divine love and that therefore even the curse of God could not be final.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea dramatically expressed that truth through the “living parable” of his marriage (Hos 1–3). He married Gomer at God’s command, but later, as a result of her unfaithfulness, the marital covenant was dissolved by divorce. Although Gomer’s adulterous acts compelled Hosea to divorce her, he did not cease to love her. God later commanded Hosea to go back to Gomer (Hos 3:1). Despite her unfaithfulness, the prophet was to take her again into the covenant relationship of marriage. That acted-out parable depicted God’s actions with Israel. Israel’s sin would inevitably culminate in a divorce from God, but Hosea perceived a new marriage. In the new covenant between God and Israel, Israel would be graciously accepted back into a relationship with God (2:14-18).<\/p>\n<p>The new covenant is given powerful expression in the writings of the prophet Jeremiah, who lived through the end of the seventh and beginning of the sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In his lifetime Jeremiah saw the kingdom of Judah defeated in war. The nation lost its independence and became a vassal of the Babylonian Empire. In an external sense, that defeat in 586 <span>BC<\/span> marked the end of the Sinai covenant. Israel could no longer call the Promised Land its own. Yet Jeremiah perceived a truth beyond the contemporary political realities. God’s work in the world, like his love for the world, was not over.<\/p>\n<p>Thus Jeremiah spoke of a new covenant that God would bring into effect: “The days are coming, says the <span>Lord<\/span>, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah” (Jer 31:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The new covenant would be marked by an act of God within human hearts, a radical spiritual transformation (Jer 31:34). At the Last Supper Jesus declared to his disciples that “this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20, <span>rsv<\/span>). To the writer of Hebrews, the new covenant was central to a full understanding of the ministry of Jesus Christ (Heb 8:8-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is a concept central to the message and the history of the OT. The covenant theme continues into the NT as a way of interpreting the Christian gospel. Meaning in human life is to be found in a covenant relationship with the living God. Yet sinful human beings cannot work their way into such a relationship; God alone can initiate it. According to the NT, God’s act in giving his son, Jesus, to die opened up the covenant relationship to all human beings. The forgiveness made available by Jesus’ “blood of the new covenant” makes it possible for any individual to enter into a covenant relationship with God. Entry into such a relationship, today as in Abraham’s time, hinges upon faith (Gal 3:6-14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alliance; Covenant, The New; Law, Biblical Concept of; Oath; Vows.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the OT is developed from Noah to Abraham and reaches its first climax in the covenant formed between God and Israel at Mt Sinai. After King David’s time, the history of the covenant becomes a less prominent theme.<\/p>\n<p>At a low point in covenant history the Bible introduces the prophet Jeremiah’s prophecy of a “new covenant” in Israel’s future. Christians believe that Jeremiah’s prophecy eventually found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ. It is not accidental that the two volumes of the Christian Bible have been called the Old Covenant and New Covenant (the word commonly translated “testament” means “covenant”).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>• Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<p>• The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>• The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>• The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMeaningofCovenant\">The Meaning of Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The essence of covenant is to be found in a particular kind of relationship between persons. Mutual obligations characterize that kind of relationship. Thus a covenant relationship is not merely a mutual acquaintance but a commitment to responsibility and action. A key word in Scripture to describe that commitment is “faithfulness,” acted out in a context of abiding friendship.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the word “covenant” was used in an ordinary human sense as well as in a theological sense. An understanding of human covenants provides a starting point for understanding the covenant between God and human beings.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HumanCovenants\">Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>A variety of human relationships, from profoundly personal to distantly political, may be described as covenantal. The deep brotherly love that David and Jonathan shared led to a formal covenant between them (1 Sm 18:3). Their covenant of friendship was more than a token of esteem; it bound them to demonstrate mutual loyalty and loving-kindness in certain tangible ways. Jonathan’s covenant faithfulness was typified on an occasion when David was out of favor with the king; Jonathan braved his father’s wrath to speak favorably for his friend. Subsequently, he warned David secretly to flee into hiding (1 Sm 19–20).<\/p>\n<p>To appreciate the many OT laws on marriage and divorce, one must understand that marriage itself was a covenant relationship (Mal 2:14). The solemn promises exchanged by a man and woman became their covenant obligations. Faithfulness to those promises brought marital blessing (cf. Ps 128; Prv 18:22); violation brought a curse.<\/p>\n<p>An individual could, at least figuratively, make a covenant or vow with himself or herself (something like a New Year’s resolution). Job, arguing his integrity before God, referred to a covenant he had made with his eyes to keep him from looking at women licentiously (Jb 31:1).<\/p>\n<p>Covenants could also have a national or international character. The elders of Israel made a national covenant with King David in Hebron (2 Sm 5:3). Probably it contained explicit promises both from the elders on behalf of the people to submit themselves to the king’s authority and from David to rule the nation justly and according to the law of God (Dt 17:15-20). The covenant relationship described mutual obligations between a senior partner (the king) and junior partners (the Israelites). In international relationships OT covenants were similar to modern treaties or alliances. King Solomon entered into such a covenant with Hiram, king of Tyre; that covenant, like many modern international treaties, was a trade agreement between the two nations (1 Kgs 5:12).<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is thus an interpersonal framework of trust, responsibilities, and benefits, with broad application to almost every human relationship from personal friendship to international trade agreements. In Scripture covenant is also the most comprehensive concept covering an individual’s relationship to God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Divine-HumanCovenants\">Divine-Human Covenants<\/p>\n<p>The same basic characteristics of a strictly human covenant are present in a divine covenant: (1) a relationship between two parties (God and a human being or nation), and (2) mutual obligations between the covenant partners. To the OT believer, religion meant covenant. OT religion was faithfulness to the covenant relationship between God and his chosen people; religious responsibilities for both the faith and practice of Israel were covenant responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a divine-human covenant in the OT was not static. Although the fundamental character of covenant remains the same throughout the Bible, the specific nature and form of the covenant changed and developed in the course of ancient Israel’s history. A brief survey of covenant history will further clarify its dimensions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BeginningsoftheCovenantTradition\">Beginnings of the Covenant Tradition<\/p>\n<h5>Adam<\/h5>\n<p>Adam and Eve were placed in the Garden. God was their Creator; they were his creatures. The meaning of their lives was to be found in relationship with each other and with God, the giver of the Garden. The fall, however, brought a disruption of the divine relationship, and they were expelled from the Garden.<\/p>\n<p>The fall substantially influenced the nature of subsequent religious covenants. The separation of humankind from God clarifies the nature of the human predicament. Created for a relationship with the Creator, sinning humans are excluded from that relationship and cannot, on their own accord, reestablish it. From that circumstance emerges a distinctive feature of divine-human covenants, namely, that God alone can initiate the relationship of covenant.<\/p>\n<h5>Noah<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit mention of covenant in Scripture refers to the initiative taken by God to bind himself again to human beings in a covenant, despite human faithlessness. When God warned Noah to build an ark in order to escape the impending Flood, he also promised to establish a covenant with him (Gn 6:18). The corruption and violence of the human race had provoked God’s anger, but his grace was shown in his dealings with Noah. The promised covenant provided that God would maintain a relationship with one family, even though other divine-human relationships were being formally severed. Significantly, God’s covenant promise to Noah came in a context of demand: God ordered Noah to build an ark (v 14). Noah’s receipt of the covenant blessing depended on his obedience to a divine command.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant was elaborated only after the Flood, when Noah had made an offering to God (Gn 8:20-22). The covenant with Noah was in fact a universal covenant with humankind and all living creatures (9:8-10). God promised never to send such a flood again as judgment on the world. The sign of that covenant was the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant with Noah affords some perspective for understanding the “covenant God.” Although human beings may deserve destruction because of their wickedness, God withholds that destruction. The covenant of Noah did not establish an intimate relationship between God and each living being; nevertheless, it left open the possibility of a more intimate covenant. Human beings, in spite of their evil, are allowed for a time to live in God’s world; during those years, they may seek a deeper relationship with that world’s Creator.<\/p>\n<h5>Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>The first explicit reference to God’s covenant with Abraham is in Genesis 15. When the Lord called the 75-year-old Abram (as he was first called) to leave his home city of Ur and set out on a journey, a relationship already existed between God and Abram. In that relationship, which enabled God to command Abram’s obedience, God made certain promises to him: “I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing” (Gn 12:2, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Formal establishment of the covenant with Abram is described in Genesis 15 as a profound religious experience. The initiative lay entirely with God, who approached Abram in a vision and spoke with him. Abram raised a fundamental objection: how could he experience the blessing of God if it was to come to him through a son he did not have? His wife Sarai was past the childbearing age, and he himself was “as good as dead” (Rom 4:19). God assured the old man that he would have a son through whom his descendants would eventually be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Abram’s belief at that point introduced the theme of righteousness central to the covenant concept: Abram “believed the <span>Lord<\/span>, and he reckoned it to him as righteousness” (Gn 15:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). At the end of that day, Abram knew that his own future and the future of his descendants were firmly in the hands of the covenant God. “On that day the <span>Lord<\/span> made a covenant with Abram, saying, ‘To your descendants I give this land’ ” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The covenant is more fully expressed in Genesis 17, which probably records a renewal of God’s covenant with Abram. The initiative once again lay with God (Gn 17:1). God addressed the 99-year-old Abram in words that made clear that the covenant was not a relationship between equal partners. God was the Almighty; Abram was a human being to whom an extraordinary privilege had been granted.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the details of the covenant in Genesis 17 show that both partners assumed responsibilities. God committed himself voluntarily to Abram and his descendants while requiring certain commitments from Abram. The blessing Abram would receive as a covenant partner became clear from the new name God gave him. “I am changing your name. It will no longer be Abram; now you will be known as Abraham, for you will be the father of many nations” (Gn 17:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). God would give to Abraham, through his descendants, the land of Canaan as an everlasting gift and would be the personal God of Abraham and his family in perpetuity (vv 7-8).<\/p>\n<p>God’s giving required a response of obedience from Abraham: “Live a blameless life” (Gn 17:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Those simple words indicate the essence of covenant relationship: to relate to God is to live in his presence; since God is holy, one who knows him is expected to live a life of integrity and blamelessness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant also had a more formal aspect. Abraham and the male members of his household were to undergo the rite of circumcision as a symbol of covenant commitment. Abraham was an old man when he was circumcised (Gn 17:24), though male children born into the covenant family were to be circumcised when they were eight days old (v 12). Circumcision was not in itself a ritual peculiar to the Hebrews; it was practiced in most societies in the ancient Near East (the Philistines were one exception). The distinctiveness lay in what the act symbolized: among other things, a continuing and faithful relationship with the living God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Abraham was characterized by both present and future realities. The covenant established a continuing relationship between Abraham and his Creator. Yet its thrust pointed to future blessing—in the children yet to be born, the “chosen people,” and in the land that eventually his descendants would call their own.<\/p>\n<p>Another dimension of the covenant lay still further in the future: “All the families of the earth will be blessed through you” (Gn 12:3, <span>nlt<\/span>). Early in the OT, the idea of election (God’s unconditional preference; cf. 2 Thes 2:13) is present. God chose to enter into a covenant relationship with a particular man and his particular descendants. Yet God always elects a person to serve: Adam, to cultivate the Garden; Noah, to build an ark; Abraham, to leave his home for another land and to live blamelessly before God (cf. Eph 2:8-10). Further, the “particularity” of Abraham’s election contained within it a universality: through his descendants the blessing of God would be offered to all.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the future aspects of Abraham’s covenant reflect two stages. From Abraham’s perspective, in the relatively near future his descendants would possess a land given them by God. But in the more distant future was the prospect of a universal blessing, the culmination of God’s work in the world. The initial fulfillment of that distant future is perceived in the NT, but the more immediate fulfillment of God’s promise was the Sinai covenant at the time of Moses.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSinaiCovenant\">The Sinai Covenant<\/p>\n<p>The covenant established between God and Israel at Mt Sinai is the focal point of the covenant tradition in the OT. It was anticipated in the covenant of Abraham and lay behind the covenant of David and the proclamation of the prophets. It was central to OT religion, laying down the foundations of Judaism that continue into the modern world. The Sinai covenant was the formal institution of a relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In order to appreciate the impact of the Sinai covenant, one must understand its historical context. It was preceded by the exodus of the Hebrew people from Egypt under the leadership of Moses. The exodus was an extraordinary act of liberation in which God intervened in the normal course of history to free his people from slavery in Egypt. The exodus is interpreted in the OT as a divine act comparable to Creation, the act through which God “created” the nation of Israel. Examination of the two versions of the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11; Dt 5:12-15) shows that the exodus from Egypt directly parallels the creation of the world as a basis for Sabbath observance. Although Israel was created in the exodus, the nation had neither a constitution nor land. The covenant provided the nascent state of Israel with a constitution, making it a theocratic state (a state ruled by God).<\/p>\n<p>The basic account of the Sinai covenant is contained in Exodus 19 and 20. The initiative came from God, who gave instructions through Moses to prepare for the covenant; God spoke the words that contained the covenant offer. There was no doubt that the God of Israel was the senior partner in the relationship made formal at Sinai. The God who had revealed himself through his acts in the exodus then revealed himself in words. Those two aspects—the God who acts and speaks—are central to OT theology. And although the covenant contained law, it was preceded by the exodus, an act of divine grace.<\/p>\n<p>God’s offer of covenant carried with it a divine promise: “You will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). The promise was one of extraordinary privilege; an entire nation was called upon to represent all other nations before the God of the universe. But the priestly office, though it carried privilege, was also a demanding office. A priest had to be pure and had to know the God whose presence he was required to enter. Thus Israel, the priestly nation, received a law that would provide direction in living, in loving God, and in serving all people. The law given with the covenant expressed the requirements for God’s covenant people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Covenant Law<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant law had two principal parts. First, the Ten Commandments expressed God’s requirements of Israel in a concise form (Ex 20:2-17). The commandments specified the covenant people’s relationship both to God and to other human beings. Although the tendency in the present day is to view the Ten Commandments as a system of ethics or morality, they had a different role in ancient Israel. The covenant law was the foundation or constitution of a new nation, a special “nation of priests.” The head of the nation-state was God. Hence, in ancient Israel the status of the Ten Commandments was approximately that of the code of criminal law in a modern nation-state. To break one of those laws was to commit a crime against God, the head of the state. Yet the laws had a positive purpose. They set down a way of life that would result in a full and rich communion with God and community with others.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the covenant law was a detailed law code covering the activities of everyday life. Examples of such laws are found in Exodus 21–23. These laws were compiled and recorded in the “Book of the Covenant” (Ex 24:7). Although many laws were contained in this book, it was impossible to codify every aspect of human behavior. The diversity of the examples given indicates that for the covenant member no area of human life was beyond the influence of the covenant. Persons who entered into a relationship with God entered into a relationship that impinged on every possible aspect of their lives.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Renewal<\/h5>\n<p>The covenant at Sinai was made with a particular group of people under the leadership of Moses but was binding on future generations. Consequently, the covenant was renewed from time to time. Covenant renewals are recorded in the time of Joshua (Jos 8:30-35; 24:1-28) and, much later, during the reign of King Josiah (2 Kgs 23:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The most important passage in the Bible for understanding covenant renewal and the nature of covenant is the book of Deuteronomy. The entire book describes a particular covenant renewal ceremony that occurred at a critical juncture in Israel’s early history. The Sinai covenant was renewed just before Moses’ death, before the transition of leadership to Joshua, and before a major military campaign to possess the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant since the time of Abraham had contained a promise of land. Immediately before they entered that land (c. 1250 <span>BC<\/span>), the covenant vows were renewed with a new generation of Israelites, most of whom had not stood at the foot of Mt Sinai some 40 years earlier. Although covenant renewal is the central theme of Deuteronomy, the writer focused primarily on Moses’ sermon rather than on a detailed account of the renewal ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ceremony were simply a repetition of what happened at the original ratification of the covenant. The Ten Commandments were repeated (Dt 5:6-21), and the laws of the Book of the Covenant were expounded in greater detail (Dt 12–26). Two points emerging in Deuteronomy are particularly significant for an understanding of covenant: a clear statement of covenant love and a detailed statement of the blessings and curses that accompanied the making and renewing of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCovenantwithDavid\">The Covenant with David<\/p>\n<p>The covenant tradition underwent modification during the time of King David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>). The Sinai covenant had been established between God and Israel, with Moses acting as mediator. In David’s time an additional element was added: God entered into a covenant with David as king. That royal covenant was intimated to David through the prophet Nathan (2 Sm 7:8-16), indicating once again the divine initiative. It was to be an everlasting covenant with David’s royal lineage (23:5).<\/p>\n\n<p>Christians generally interpret the covenant with David as a messianic covenant. For several centuries the dynasty established by David ruled a united Israel, then ruled the remaining southern kingdom of Judah. But in 586 <span>BC<\/span> Judah was conquered by the Babylonians. At that point a descendant of David was no longer ruling an independent kingdom of God’s chosen people. The everlasting nature of the covenant with David was brought out, however, not in the pages of ancient history but in the expectation of a Messiah who would be born of David’s descendants. Matthew and Luke both pointed to Jesus’ Davidic descent (Mt 1:1; Lk 3:31). The NT thus extends the covenant acts of God into the new age in the person of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNewCovenantPredictedintheOldTestament\">The New Covenant Predicted in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although David’s covenant with God was eternal, in a sense the covenant established with Israel on Mt Sinai was temporal. The Sinai covenant included conditional clauses, stated in the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy. Israel’s disobedience of the covenant law would at worst bring exile from the Promised Land, a central covenant theme from Abraham to Moses and beyond.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew prophets often perceived the danger of an end to the covenant as a result of Israel’s sins. Some of the prophets, especially Hosea and Jeremiah, also perceived a deeper truth; namely, that the covenant was rooted in divine love and that therefore even the curse of God could not be final.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea dramatically expressed that truth through the “living parable” of his marriage (Hos 1–3). He married Gomer at God’s command, but later, as a result of her unfaithfulness, the marital covenant was dissolved by divorce. Although Gomer’s adulterous acts compelled Hosea to divorce her, he did not cease to love her. God later commanded Hosea to go back to Gomer (Hos 3:1). Despite her unfaithfulness, the prophet was to take her again into the covenant relationship of marriage. That acted-out parable depicted God’s actions with Israel. Israel’s sin would inevitably culminate in a divorce from God, but Hosea perceived a new marriage. In the new covenant between God and Israel, Israel would be graciously accepted back into a relationship with God (2:14-18).<\/p>\n<p>The new covenant is given powerful expression in the writings of the prophet Jeremiah, who lived through the end of the seventh and beginning of the sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In his lifetime Jeremiah saw the kingdom of Judah defeated in war. The nation lost its independence and became a vassal of the Babylonian Empire. In an external sense, that defeat in 586 <span>BC<\/span> marked the end of the Sinai covenant. Israel could no longer call the Promised Land its own. Yet Jeremiah perceived a truth beyond the contemporary political realities. God’s work in the world, like his love for the world, was not over.<\/p>\n<p>Thus Jeremiah spoke of a new covenant that God would bring into effect: “The days are coming, says the <span>Lord<\/span>, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah” (Jer 31:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The new covenant would be marked by an act of God within human hearts, a radical spiritual transformation (Jer 31:34). At the Last Supper Jesus declared to his disciples that “this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20, <span>rsv<\/span>). To the writer of Hebrews, the new covenant was central to a full understanding of the ministry of Jesus Christ (Heb 8:8-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Covenant is a concept central to the message and the history of the OT. The covenant theme continues into the NT as a way of interpreting the Christian gospel. Meaning in human life is to be found in a covenant relationship with the living God. Yet sinful human beings cannot work their way into such a relationship; God alone can initiate it. According to the NT, God’s act in giving his son, Jesus, to die opened up the covenant relationship to all human beings. The forgiveness made available by Jesus’ “blood of the new covenant” makes it possible for any individual to enter into a covenant relationship with God. Entry into such a relationship, today as in Abraham’s time, hinges upon faith (Gal 3:6-14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alliance; Covenant, The New; Law, Biblical Concept of; Oath; Vows.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COVENANT Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings. The covenant theme in the OT is developed from...","summary_en":"COVENANT Arrangement between two parties involving mutual obligations; especially the arrangement that established the relationship between God and his people, expressed in grace first with Israel and then with the church. Through that covenant God has conveyed to humanity the meaning of human life and salvation. Covenant is one of the central themes of the Bible, where some covenants are between human beings, others between God and human beings. The covenant theme in the OT is developed from...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":6646,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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