1
Avraam era bătrân, înaintat în vârstă; şi Domnul binecuvântase pe Avraam în orice lucru.
2
Avraam a zis celui mai bătrân rob din casa lui, care era îngrijitorul tuturor averilor lui: ,,Pune-ţi te rog, mâna subt coapsa mea;
3
şi te voi pune să juri, pe Domnul, Dumnezeul cerului şi Dumnezeul pământului, că nu vei lua fiului meu o nevastă dintre fetele Cananiţilor, în mijlocul cărora locuiesc,
4
ci te vei duce în ţara şi la rudele mele să iei nevastă fiului meu Isaac.``
5
Robul i-a răspuns: ,,Poate că femeia n-are să vrea să mă urmeze în ţara aceasta; va trebui să duc oare pe fiul tău în ţara de unde ai ieşit tu?``
6
Avraam i-a zis: ,,Să nu care cumva să duci pe fiul meu acolo!
7
Domnul, Dumnezeul cerului, care m-a scos din casa tatălui meu şi din patria mea, care mi-a vorbit şi mi-a jurat, zicând: ,,Seminţei tale voi da ţara aceasta,`` va trimete pe Îngerul Său înaintea ta; şi de acolo vei lua o nevastă fiului meu.
8
Dacă femeia nu va vrea să te urmeze, vei fi dezlegat de jurământul acesta, pe care te pun să-l faci. Cu nici un chip să nu duci însă acolo pe fiul meu.``
9
Robul şi-a pus mâna subt coapsa stăpânului său Avraam, şi i-a jurat că are să păzească aceste lucruri.
10
Robul a luat zece cămile dintre cămilele stăpânului său, şi a plecat, având cu el toate lucrurile de preţ ale stăpânului său. S-a sculat, şi a plecat în Mesopotamia, în cetatea lui Nahor.
11
A lăsat cămilele să se odihnească, în genunchi, afară din cetate, lângă o fântână. Era seara, pe vremea când ies femeile să scoată apă.
12
Şi a zis: ,,Doamne, Dumnezeul stăpânului meu Avraam! Te rog, dă-mi izbândă astăzi, şi îndură-Te de stăpânul meu Avraam.
13
Iată, stau lângă izvorul acesta de apă, şi fetele oamenilor din cetate vin să scoată apă.
14
Fă ca fata căreia îi voi zice: ,,Pleacă-ţi vadra, te rog, ca să beau,`` şi care va răspunde: ,,Bea, şi am să dau de băut şi cămilelor tale,`` să fie aceea, pe care ai rânduit-o Tu pentru robul Tău Isaac! Şi prin aceasta voi cunoaşte că Te-ai îndurat de stăpânul meu.``
15
Nu sfârşise el încă de vorbit, şi-a ieşit, cu vadra pe umăr, Rebeca, fata lui Betuel, fiul Milcăi, nevasta lui Nahor, fratele lui Avraam.
16
Fata era foarte frumoasă; era fecioară, şi nici un bărbat n-avusese legături cu ea. Ea s-a pogorât la izvor, şi-a umplut vadra şi s-a suit iarăş.
17
Robul a alergat înaintea ei, şi a zis: ,,Dă-mi, te rog, să beau puţină apă din vadra ta.``
18
,,Bea, domnul meu,`` a răspuns ea. Şi s-a grăbit de a plecat vadra pe mână, şi i-a dat să bea.
19
După ce i-a dat şi a băut de s-a săturat, a zis: ,,Am să scot apă şi pentru cămilele tale, până vor bea şi se vor sătura.``
20
A vărsat în grabă vadra în adăpătoare, şi a alergat iarăş la fântână ca să scoată apă; şi a scos pentru toate cămilele lui.
21
Omul o privea cu mirare şi fără să zică nimic, ca să vadă dacă Domnul a făcut să-i izbutească sau nu călătoria.
22
Când s-au săturat cămilele de băut, omul a luat o verigă de aur, de greutatea unei jumătăţi de siclu şi două brăţări, grele de zece sicli de aur.
23
Şi a zis: ,,A cui fată eşti? Spune-mi, te rog. Este loc pentru noi în casa tatălui tău, ca să rămânem peste noapte?``
24
Ea a răspuns: ,,Eu sânt fata lui Betuel, fiul Milcăi şi al lui Nahor.``
25
Şi i-a zis mai departe: ,,Avem paie şi nutreţ din belşug, şi este şi loc de găzduit peste noapte.``
26
Atunci omul a plecat capul, şi s-a aruncat cu faţa la pământ înaintea Domnului,
27
zicând: ,,Binecuvântat să fie Domnul, Dumnezeul stăpânului meu Avraam, care n-a părăsit îndurarea şi credincioşia Lui faţă de stăpânul meu! Domnul m-a îndreptat în casa fraţilor stăpânului meu.``
28
Fata a alergat şi a istorisit mamei sale acasă cele întâmplate.
29
Rebeca avea un frate, numit Laban. Şi Laban a alergat afară la omul acela, la izvor.
30
Văzuse veriga şi brăţările în mânile sorei sale, şi auzise pe soru-sa Rebeca spunând: ,,Aşa mi-a vorbit omul acela.`` A venit dar la omul acela, care stătea lângă cămile la izvor,
31
şi a zis: ,,Vino, binecuvântatul Domnului! Pentruce stai afară? Am pregătit casa, şi am pregătit un loc pentru cămile.``
32
Omul a intrat în casă. Laban a pus să descarce cămilele, a dat paie şi nutreţ cămilelor şi a adus apă pentru spălat picioarele omului aceluia şi ale oamenilor cari erau cu el.
33
Apoi, i-a dat să mănânce. Dar el a zis: ,,Nu mănânc până nu voi spune ce am de spus.`` ,,Vorbeşte!`` a zis Laban.
34
Atunci el a zis: ,,Eu sânt robul lui Avraam.
35
Domnul a umplut de binecuvântări pe stăpânul meu, care a ajuns la mare propăşire. I-a dat oi şi boi, argint şi aur, robi şi roabe, cămile şi măgari.
36
Sara, nevasta stăpânului meu, a născut, la bătrâneţă, un fiu stăpânului meu; şi lui i-a dat el tot ce are.
37
Stăpânul meu m-a pus să jur, şi a zis: ,,Să nu iei fiului meu o nevastă dintre fetele Cananiţilor, în ţara cărora locuiesc;
38
ci să te duci în casa tatălui meu şi la rudele mele, ca deacolo să iei nevastă fiului meu.``
39
Eu am zis stăpânului meu: ,,Poatecă femeia n-are să vrea să mă urmeze.``
40
Şi el mi-a răspuns: ,,Domnul, înaintea căruia umblu, va trimete pe Îngerul Său cu tine, şi-ţi va da izbândă în călătorie, şi vei lua fiului meu o nevastă din rudele şi din casa tatălui meu.
41
Vei fi deslegat de jurământul pe care mi-l faci, dacă te vei duce la rudele mele; şi dacă nu ţi-o vor da, vei fi deslegat de jurământul pe care mi-l faci.``
42
Eu am ajuns azi la izvor, şi am zis: ,,Doamne, Dumnezeul stăpânului meu Avraam, dacă binevoieşti să-mi dai izbândă în călătoria pe care o fac,
43
iată, eu stau la izvorul de apă, şi fata care va ieşi să scoată apă, şi căreia îi voi zice: ,,Dă-mi, te rog, să beau puţină apă din vadra ta,``
44
şi care îmi va răspunde: ,,Bea tu însuţi, şi voi da de băut şi cămilelor tale,`` fata aceea să fie nevasta pe care a rânduit-o Domnul pentru fiul stăpânului meu!``
45
Înainte de a sfârşi de vorbit în inima mea, iată că a ieşit Rebeca, cu vadra pe umăr, s-a coborât la izvor, şi a scos apă. Eu i-am zis: ,,Dă-mi să beau, te rog.``
46
Ea s-a grăbit, şi-a plecat vadra deasupra umărului, şi a zis: ,,Bea, şi voi da de băut şi cămilelor tale.`` Am băut, şi a dat de băut şi cămilelor mele.
47
Eu am întrebat-o, şi am zis: ,,A cui fată eşti?`` Ea a răspuns: ,,Sânt fata lui Betuel, fiul lui Nahor şi al Milcăi.`` I-am pus veriga în nas, şi brăţările la mâni.
48
Apoi am plecat capul, m-am aruncat cu faţa la pământ înaintea Domnului, şi am binecuvântat pe Domnul, Dumnezeul stăpânului meu Avraam, că m-a călăuzit pe calea cea dreaptă, ca să iau pe fata fratelui stăpânului meu pentru fiul lui.
49
Acum, dacă voiţi să arătaţi bunăvoinţă şi credincioşie faţă de stăpânul meu, spuneţi-mi; dacă nu, spuneţi-mi iarăş, ca să mă îndrept la dreapta sau la stânga.``
50
Laban şi Betuel, drept răspuns, au zis: ,,Dela Domnul vine lucrul acesta; noi nu-ţi mai putem spune nici rău nici bine.
51
Iată, Rebeca este înaintea ta; ia-o şi du-te, ca să fie nevasta fiului stăpânului tău, cum a spus Domnul.``
52
Când a auzit robul lui Avraam cuvintele lor, s-a aruncat cu faţa la pământ înaintea Domnului.
53
Şi robul a scos scule de argint, scule de aur, şi îmbrăcăminte, pe cari le-a dat Rebecii; a dat de asemenea daruri bogate fratelui său şi mamei sale.
54
După aceea, au mâncat şi au băut, el şi oamenii cari erau împreună cu el şi s-au culcat. Dimineaţa când s-au sculat, robul a zis: ,,Lăsaţi-mă să mă întorc la stăpânul meu.``
55
Fratele şi mama fetei au zis: ,,Fata să mai rămână câtva timp cu noi, măcar vreo zece zile: pe urmă, poate să plece.``
56
El le-a răspuns: ,,Nu mă opriţi, fiindcă Domnul mi-a dat izbândă în călătoria mea; lăsaţi-mă să plec, şi să mă duc la stăpânul meu.``
57
Atunci ei au răspuns: ,,Să chemăm pe fată, şi s-o întrebăm.``
58
Au chemat dar pe Rebeca, şi i-au zis: ,,Vrei să te duci cu omul acesta?`` ,,Da, vreau,`` a răspuns ea.
59
Şi au lăsat pe sora lor Rebeca să plece cu doica ei, cu robul lui Avraam şi cu oamenii lui.
60
Au binecuvântat pe Rebeca, şi i-au zis: ,,O, sora noastră, să ajungi mama a mii de zeci de mii, şi sămânţa ta să stăpânească cetăţile vrăjmaşilor săi!``
61
Rebeca s-a sculat, împreună cu slujnicele ei, au încălecat pe cămile, şi au urmat pe omul acela. Robul a luat pe Rebeca, şi a plecat.
62
Isaac se întorsese dela fântâna ,,Lahai-Roi,`` căci locuia în ţara de meazăzi.
63
Într-o seară, când Isaac ieşise să cugete în taină pe câmp, a ridicat ochii, şi s-a uitat; şi iată că veneau nişte cămile.
64
Rebeca a ridicat şi ea ochii, a văzut pe Isaac, şi s-a dat jos de pe cămilă.
65
Şi a zis robului: ,,Cine este omul acesta, care vine înaintea noastră pe câmp?`` Robul a răspuns: ,,Este stăpânul meu!`` Atunci ea şi-a luat măhrama, şi s-a acoperit.
66
Robul a istorisit lui Isaac toate lucrurile pe cari le făcuse.
67
Isaac a dus pe Rebeca în cortul mamei sale Sara; a luat pe Rebeca, ea a fost nevasta lui, şi el a iubit-o. Astfel a fost mângâiat Isaac pentru pierderea mamei sale.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":40630,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40657,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68256,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68283,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95882,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95909,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123508,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123535,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2521,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aram-Naharaim","title_en":"Aram-Naharaim","content_ro":"<h3>ARAM-NAHARAIM<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew word meaning “Aram of the two rivers”; it refers to the area bounded by the upper Euphrates and the Habur Rivers. It is sometimes translated “Mesopotamia” (Dt 23:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). The major city of that area was Haran, where Terah and Abram stopped and where Terah died (Gn 11:31-32). A servant of Abraham (Abram) returned to the same region to seek a wife for Abraham’s son Isaac (Gn 24:1-10). Isaac’s son Jacob also returned to Haran to seek a wife (Gn 28:1-5; Paddan-aram is a synonym of Aram-naharaim). Aram-naharaim was the home of Balaam, the pagan prophet (Dt 23:4). One oppressor of Israel during the period of the judges was Cushan-rishathaim, king of Aram-naharaim (Jgs 3:8-11). Later, in King David’s wars with Ammon, he had to confront mercenary charioteers hired from the Aramean centers of Aram-naharaim, Aram-maacah, and Zobah (1 Chr 19:6; cf. Ps 60 title). <em>See<\/em> Syria, Syrians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARAM-NAHARAIM<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew word meaning “Aram of the two rivers”; it refers to the area bounded by the upper Euphrates and the Habur Rivers. It is sometimes translated “Mesopotamia” (Dt 23:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). The major city of that area was Haran, where Terah and Abram stopped and where Terah died (Gn 11:31-32). A servant of Abraham (Abram) returned to the same region to seek a wife for Abraham’s son Isaac (Gn 24:1-10). Isaac’s son Jacob also returned to Haran to seek a wife (Gn 28:1-5; Paddan-aram is a synonym of Aram-naharaim). Aram-naharaim was the home of Balaam, the pagan prophet (Dt 23:4). One oppressor of Israel during the period of the judges was Cushan-rishathaim, king of Aram-naharaim (Jgs 3:8-11). Later, in King David’s wars with Ammon, he had to confront mercenary charioteers hired from the Aramean centers of Aram-naharaim, Aram-maacah, and Zobah (1 Chr 19:6; cf. Ps 60 title). <em>See<\/em> Syria, Syrians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARAM-NAHARAIM Hebrew word meaning “Aram of the two rivers”; it refers to the area bounded by the upper Euphrates and the Habur Rivers. It is sometimes translated “Mesopotamia” (Dt 23:4, rsv). The major city of that area was Haran, where Terah and Abram stopped and where Terah died (Gn 11:31-32). A servant of Abraham (Abram) returned to the same region to seek a wife for Abraham’s son Isaac (Gn 24:1-10). Isaac’s son Jacob also returned to Haran to seek a wife (Gn 28:1-5; Paddan-aram is a synon...","summary_en":"ARAM-NAHARAIM Hebrew word meaning “Aram of the two rivers”; it refers to the area bounded by the upper Euphrates and the Habur Rivers. It is sometimes translated “Mesopotamia” (Dt 23:4, rsv). The major city of that area was Haran, where Terah and Abram stopped and where Terah died (Gn 11:31-32). A servant of Abraham (Abram) returned to the same region to seek a wife for Abraham’s son Isaac (Gn 24:1-10). Isaac’s son Jacob also returned to Haran to seek a wife (Gn 28:1-5; Paddan-aram is a synon...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13570,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Genesis","title_en":"Book of Genesis","content_ro":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","summary_en":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17708,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>ISAAC<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yitshaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Isaak<\/span><em>.<\/em> If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child (Gn 17:17; 18:12) and then suddenly becoming parents, as God had promised.<\/p>\n<p>Isaac’s pedigree is also interesting, for Sarah was not only the wife of Abraham but also his half sister (Gn 20:12), and this fact alone may have interfered with conception in their earlier years. Because of this relationship, Isaac belonged to both sides of Terah’s family. According to prevailing custom, the son of the legal wife took precedence over the male offspring of concubines, so that Isaac had priority of inheritance over Ishmael. The gifts that Abraham subsequently gave to the sons of his concubines (25:6) were without prejudice to the inheritance of Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>Following God’s instructions (Gn 17:10-14), Isaac was circumcised on the eighth day as a member of the covenant community. The next ceremony came when he was old enough for weaning, probably around three years old. In eastern countries where this procedure is still observed, the child’s transition from milk to solid protein and carbohydrates is normally celebrated in the context of a feast. During the celebration the mother chews a mouthful of solid food and then pushes it into the baby’s mouth with her tongue. The infant is often so shocked by this treatment that it promptly expels the food, whereupon the mother repeats the process. For an observer the procedure can be hilarious, and Ishmael may have been laughing at such a spectacle when he incurred Sarah’s wrath (21:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>During the years of Isaac’s adolescence, Abraham was living in Philistine territory (Gn 21:34). The supreme test of the father’s faith and obedience came in this period. Having watched this son of God’s promise grow up into a healthy young man, Abraham is asked by God to offer him as a sacrifice. Isaac was familiar with sacrificial rituals and helped with the preparations, though probably not without some misgivings, for he was also familiar with the patriarchal traditions that gave the head of the family power of life or death over everyone and everything in the family. If he voiced any protest as he lay bound on the sacrificial altar, it is not recorded. When Abraham’s faith did not waver, God intervened at the crucial moment and provided another offering in the form of a ram. Because of his obedience, God promised Abraham great blessing, blessing in which Isaac also participated (Gn 22; 25:11). It was this act of faith and obedience that Paul honored centuries later by calling Abraham the forefather of the Christian church (Rom 4).<\/p>\n<p>After Sarah’s death (Gn 23), Abraham set about securing a bride for Isaac, as it was the custom for parents to arrange marriages for their children. Rather than have Isaac marry a local pagan woman, Abraham sent his household steward to Nahor in Mesopotamia to seek a bride for his son from among his relatives. In an account that emphasizes faith, perseverance, and divine blessing, Genesis 24 describes how the servant met Rebekah and betrothed her to Isaac even before he had met the rest of her family. Bethuel, her father, and Laban, her brother, assented to this arrangement, and she left with the family’s blessing to take up her new responsibilities in Palestine as Isaac’s wife.<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham died at a ripe old age, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah (Gn 25:8-9). Isaac was now patriarch of the family. He pleaded with God that his wife, Rebekah, might bear children, and as a result, she bore twin sons, Esau (“the hairy one”) and Jacob (“supplanter”). Esau became a hunter, and Isaac favored him, while Jacob was more of a settler and agriculturalist and was favored by his mother. Jacob was also crafty and took advantage of Esau’s extreme hunger one day, bargaining with his older brother to exchange his birthright for some lentil stew. Possession of the birthright secured for Jacob a double portion of the inheritance (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>When famine gripped the land, God instructed Isaac not to visit Egypt (Gn 26:2), but to stay in Palestine, where he would enjoy great prosperity. When the men of the area asked about Rebekah, Isaac became fearful and said she was his sister. When the deception was uncovered, Abimelech the king rebuked Isaac and forbade anyone to interfere with him. Isaac prospered so greatly that Abimelech finally asked him to relocate, so he moved to Beersheba, where there was sufficient water for his flocks, and his fortune increased.<\/p>\n<p>Although Esau was Isaac’s favorite son, he displeased his father by marrying two Hittite women. When Isaac felt that the end of his life was approaching, he wanted to bless his firstborn in the traditional patriarchal manner (Gn 27). Rebekah overheard his instructions to Esau, and she encouraged Jacob to deceive the blind old man by disguising himself as Esau and taking his brother’s blessing. The deception succeeded, and Isaac gave Jacob the blessing of the firstborn. When Esau appeared to receive his blessing he was too late, and he was very bitter against Jacob because of what had happened. Rebekah sent Jacob away to her brother Laban in Mesopotamia, to escape Esau’s anger and also to obtain a wife. Esau did receive a blessing from Isaac, but a lesser one. Two decades later a rich and prosperous Jacob returned with his family. He made peace with Esau before Isaac died, and the brothers buried Isaac in Hebron (Gn 35:27-29).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac is given less prominence in the patriarchal narratives than Abraham or Jacob, but his importance for covenantal faith was recognized in such NT passages as Acts 7:8, Romans 9:7, Galatians 4:21-31, and Hebrews 11:9-20.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAAC<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yitshaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Isaak<\/span><em>.<\/em> If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child (Gn 17:17; 18:12) and then suddenly becoming parents, as God had promised.<\/p>\n<p>Isaac’s pedigree is also interesting, for Sarah was not only the wife of Abraham but also his half sister (Gn 20:12), and this fact alone may have interfered with conception in their earlier years. Because of this relationship, Isaac belonged to both sides of Terah’s family. According to prevailing custom, the son of the legal wife took precedence over the male offspring of concubines, so that Isaac had priority of inheritance over Ishmael. The gifts that Abraham subsequently gave to the sons of his concubines (25:6) were without prejudice to the inheritance of Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>Following God’s instructions (Gn 17:10-14), Isaac was circumcised on the eighth day as a member of the covenant community. The next ceremony came when he was old enough for weaning, probably around three years old. In eastern countries where this procedure is still observed, the child’s transition from milk to solid protein and carbohydrates is normally celebrated in the context of a feast. During the celebration the mother chews a mouthful of solid food and then pushes it into the baby’s mouth with her tongue. The infant is often so shocked by this treatment that it promptly expels the food, whereupon the mother repeats the process. For an observer the procedure can be hilarious, and Ishmael may have been laughing at such a spectacle when he incurred Sarah’s wrath (21:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>During the years of Isaac’s adolescence, Abraham was living in Philistine territory (Gn 21:34). The supreme test of the father’s faith and obedience came in this period. Having watched this son of God’s promise grow up into a healthy young man, Abraham is asked by God to offer him as a sacrifice. Isaac was familiar with sacrificial rituals and helped with the preparations, though probably not without some misgivings, for he was also familiar with the patriarchal traditions that gave the head of the family power of life or death over everyone and everything in the family. If he voiced any protest as he lay bound on the sacrificial altar, it is not recorded. When Abraham’s faith did not waver, God intervened at the crucial moment and provided another offering in the form of a ram. Because of his obedience, God promised Abraham great blessing, blessing in which Isaac also participated (Gn 22; 25:11). It was this act of faith and obedience that Paul honored centuries later by calling Abraham the forefather of the Christian church (Rom 4).<\/p>\n<p>After Sarah’s death (Gn 23), Abraham set about securing a bride for Isaac, as it was the custom for parents to arrange marriages for their children. Rather than have Isaac marry a local pagan woman, Abraham sent his household steward to Nahor in Mesopotamia to seek a bride for his son from among his relatives. In an account that emphasizes faith, perseverance, and divine blessing, Genesis 24 describes how the servant met Rebekah and betrothed her to Isaac even before he had met the rest of her family. Bethuel, her father, and Laban, her brother, assented to this arrangement, and she left with the family’s blessing to take up her new responsibilities in Palestine as Isaac’s wife.<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham died at a ripe old age, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah (Gn 25:8-9). Isaac was now patriarch of the family. He pleaded with God that his wife, Rebekah, might bear children, and as a result, she bore twin sons, Esau (“the hairy one”) and Jacob (“supplanter”). Esau became a hunter, and Isaac favored him, while Jacob was more of a settler and agriculturalist and was favored by his mother. Jacob was also crafty and took advantage of Esau’s extreme hunger one day, bargaining with his older brother to exchange his birthright for some lentil stew. Possession of the birthright secured for Jacob a double portion of the inheritance (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>When famine gripped the land, God instructed Isaac not to visit Egypt (Gn 26:2), but to stay in Palestine, where he would enjoy great prosperity. When the men of the area asked about Rebekah, Isaac became fearful and said she was his sister. When the deception was uncovered, Abimelech the king rebuked Isaac and forbade anyone to interfere with him. Isaac prospered so greatly that Abimelech finally asked him to relocate, so he moved to Beersheba, where there was sufficient water for his flocks, and his fortune increased.<\/p>\n<p>Although Esau was Isaac’s favorite son, he displeased his father by marrying two Hittite women. When Isaac felt that the end of his life was approaching, he wanted to bless his firstborn in the traditional patriarchal manner (Gn 27). Rebekah overheard his instructions to Esau, and she encouraged Jacob to deceive the blind old man by disguising himself as Esau and taking his brother’s blessing. The deception succeeded, and Isaac gave Jacob the blessing of the firstborn. When Esau appeared to receive his blessing he was too late, and he was very bitter against Jacob because of what had happened. Rebekah sent Jacob away to her brother Laban in Mesopotamia, to escape Esau’s anger and also to obtain a wife. Esau did receive a blessing from Isaac, but a lesser one. Two decades later a rich and prosperous Jacob returned with his family. He made peace with Esau before Isaac died, and the brothers buried Isaac in Hebron (Gn 35:27-29).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac is given less prominence in the patriarchal narratives than Abraham or Jacob, but his importance for covenantal faith was recognized in such NT passages as Acts 7:8, Romans 9:7, Galatians 4:21-31, and Hebrews 11:9-20.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAAC Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel. The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew Yitshaq, in Greek Isaak. If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child...","summary_en":"ISAAC Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel. The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew Yitshaq, in Greek Isaak. If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26860,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nahor (Person)","title_en":"Nahor (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>NAHOR (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s grandfather (Gn 11:22-25; 1 Chr 1:26); also an ancestor of Jesus according to Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:34, where some English translations follow the Greek spelling, Nachor). The Genesis and 1 Chronicles passages show that Nahor is from Shem’s line. Hence, Abraham and his descendants are part of the Semitic family of nations.<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Terah and Abraham’s brother (Gn 11:26-29; Jos 24:2). He married Milcah, Haran’s daughter, and his family is named in Genesis 22:20-23. Abraham sent his servant to seek a wife for Isaac at Nahor’s residence in Mesopotamia (see Gn 24:10, which possibly suggests that the city itself was called Nahor). There he found Rebekah, Nahor’s granddaughter (Gn 24:1-51). Nahor is also named as the father (perhaps grandfather) of Laban, to whom Jacob went when he fled from his brother Esau (Gn 29:5). Both of these texts link Abraham’s family with related Semitic people. In Genesis 31:53 God is spoken of as “the God of Abraham and Nahor.”<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nahor (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAHOR (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s grandfather (Gn 11:22-25; 1 Chr 1:26); also an ancestor of Jesus according to Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:34, where some English translations follow the Greek spelling, Nachor). The Genesis and 1 Chronicles passages show that Nahor is from Shem’s line. Hence, Abraham and his descendants are part of the Semitic family of nations.<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Terah and Abraham’s brother (Gn 11:26-29; Jos 24:2). He married Milcah, Haran’s daughter, and his family is named in Genesis 22:20-23. Abraham sent his servant to seek a wife for Isaac at Nahor’s residence in Mesopotamia (see Gn 24:10, which possibly suggests that the city itself was called Nahor). There he found Rebekah, Nahor’s granddaughter (Gn 24:1-51). Nahor is also named as the father (perhaps grandfather) of Laban, to whom Jacob went when he fled from his brother Esau (Gn 29:5). Both of these texts link Abraham’s family with related Semitic people. In Genesis 31:53 God is spoken of as “the God of Abraham and Nahor.”<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nahor (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAHOR (Person) 1. Abraham’s grandfather (Gn 11:22-25; 1 Chr 1:26); also an ancestor of Jesus according to Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:34, where some English translations follow the Greek spelling, Nachor). The Genesis and 1 Chronicles passages show that Nahor is from Shem’s line. Hence, Abraham and his descendants are part of the Semitic family of nations. 2. Son of Terah and Abraham’s brother (Gn 11:26-29; Jos 24:2). He married Milcah, Haran’s daughter, and his family is named in Genesis 22:20-23...","summary_en":"NAHOR (Person) 1. Abraham’s grandfather (Gn 11:22-25; 1 Chr 1:26); also an ancestor of Jesus according to Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:34, where some English translations follow the Greek spelling, Nachor). The Genesis and 1 Chronicles passages show that Nahor is from Shem’s line. Hence, Abraham and his descendants are part of the Semitic family of nations. 2. Son of Terah and Abraham’s brother (Gn 11:26-29; Jos 24:2). He married Milcah, Haran’s daughter, and his family is named in Genesis 22:20-23...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32506,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rebecca*, Rebekah","title_en":"Rebecca*, Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>REBECCA*, REBEKAH<\/h3>\n<p>Daughter of Bethuel and the wife of the patriarch Isaac. Her name, which means “well fed” or “choice,” appears 31 times in Genesis (primarily in chs 24–27) and once in Romans 9:10.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah’s father was Bethuel, who in turn was the son of Milcah and Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gn 22:20-23). Abraham was her great-uncle and eventually, of course, her father-in-law. Laban, the father of Leah and Rachel, was her brother. Thus her son Jacob married his two cousins, who were sisters.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 24 is the account of the successful search by Abraham’s servant for a wife for Isaac. He went to Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia) in obedience to Abraham, who did not want his son to marry a local Canaanite. In answer to the servant’s prayer, Rebekah not only gave a drink to the man but also watered his camels. After a certain amount of hospitality was extended and payment was made, Rebekah willingly went to meet her new husband.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-27). She preferred Jacob, the younger, over Esau and was a party to the deception of her husband in securing the right of the firstborn for Jacob. Disguising Jacob to feel, look, and smell like Esau the outdoorsman was her idea. She also prepared Isaac’s favorite dish in order to facilitate the event (27:5-17).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture records little more of her life but does report that she was buried next to her husband in the cave of Machpelah near Mamre (49:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaac.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REBECCA*, REBEKAH<\/h3>\n<p>Daughter of Bethuel and the wife of the patriarch Isaac. Her name, which means “well fed” or “choice,” appears 31 times in Genesis (primarily in chs 24–27) and once in Romans 9:10.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah’s father was Bethuel, who in turn was the son of Milcah and Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gn 22:20-23). Abraham was her great-uncle and eventually, of course, her father-in-law. Laban, the father of Leah and Rachel, was her brother. Thus her son Jacob married his two cousins, who were sisters.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 24 is the account of the successful search by Abraham’s servant for a wife for Isaac. He went to Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia) in obedience to Abraham, who did not want his son to marry a local Canaanite. In answer to the servant’s prayer, Rebekah not only gave a drink to the man but also watered his camels. After a certain amount of hospitality was extended and payment was made, Rebekah willingly went to meet her new husband.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-27). She preferred Jacob, the younger, over Esau and was a party to the deception of her husband in securing the right of the firstborn for Jacob. Disguising Jacob to feel, look, and smell like Esau the outdoorsman was her idea. She also prepared Isaac’s favorite dish in order to facilitate the event (27:5-17).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture records little more of her life but does report that she was buried next to her husband in the cave of Machpelah near Mamre (49:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaac.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REBECCA*, REBEKAH Daughter of Bethuel and the wife of the patriarch Isaac. Her name, which means “well fed” or “choice,” appears 31 times in Genesis (primarily in chs 24–27) and once in Romans 9:10. Rebekah’s father was Bethuel, who in turn was the son of Milcah and Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gn 22:20-23). Abraham was her great-uncle and eventually, of course, her father-in-law. Laban, the father of Leah and Rachel, was her brother. Thus her son Jacob married his two cousins, who were sisters....","summary_en":"REBECCA*, REBEKAH Daughter of Bethuel and the wife of the patriarch Isaac. Her name, which means “well fed” or “choice,” appears 31 times in Genesis (primarily in chs 24–27) and once in Romans 9:10. Rebekah’s father was Bethuel, who in turn was the son of Milcah and Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gn 22:20-23). Abraham was her great-uncle and eventually, of course, her father-in-law. Laban, the father of Leah and Rachel, was her brother. Thus her son Jacob married his two cousins, who were sisters....","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43177,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:1-67<\/strong> Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:1-67<\/strong> Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:1-67 Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).","summary_en":"24:1-67 Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43178,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:1-9<\/strong> Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) <em>swear<\/em> to <em>find a wife<\/em> among Abraham’s <em>relatives<\/em> in his <em>homeland<\/em>, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:1-9<\/strong> Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) <em>swear<\/em> to <em>find a wife<\/em> among Abraham’s <em>relatives<\/em> in his <em>homeland<\/em>, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:1-9 Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) swear to find a wife among Abraham’s relatives in his homeland, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.","summary_en":"24:1-9 Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) swear to find a wife among Abraham’s relatives in his homeland, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70803,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:1-67<\/strong> Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:1-67<\/strong> Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:1-67 Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).","summary_en":"24:1-67 Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70804,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:1-9<\/strong> Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) <em>swear<\/em> to <em>find a wife<\/em> among Abraham’s <em>relatives<\/em> in his <em>homeland<\/em>, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:1-9<\/strong> Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) <em>swear<\/em> to <em>find a wife<\/em> among Abraham’s <em>relatives<\/em> in his <em>homeland<\/em>, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:1-9 Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) swear to find a wife among Abraham’s relatives in his homeland, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.","summary_en":"24:1-9 Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) swear to find a wife among Abraham’s relatives in his homeland, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98429,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:1-67<\/strong> Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:1-67<\/strong> Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:1-67 Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).","summary_en":"24:1-67 Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98430,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:1-9<\/strong> Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) <em>swear<\/em> to <em>find a wife<\/em> among Abraham’s <em>relatives<\/em> in his <em>homeland<\/em>, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:1-9<\/strong> Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) <em>swear<\/em> to <em>find a wife<\/em> among Abraham’s <em>relatives<\/em> in his <em>homeland<\/em>, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:1-9 Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) swear to find a wife among Abraham’s relatives in his homeland, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.","summary_en":"24:1-9 Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) swear to find a wife among Abraham’s relatives in his homeland, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126055,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:1-67<\/strong> Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:1-67<\/strong> Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:1-67 Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).","summary_en":"24:1-67 Isaac’s marriage to Rebekah ensured that God’s plan would continue into the next generation. God showed covenant faithfulness by working through his faithful people (24:12, 27, 49).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126056,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:1-9<\/strong> Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) <em>swear<\/em> to <em>find a wife<\/em> among Abraham’s <em>relatives<\/em> in his <em>homeland<\/em>, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:1-9<\/strong> Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) <em>swear<\/em> to <em>find a wife<\/em> among Abraham’s <em>relatives<\/em> in his <em>homeland<\/em>, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:1-9 Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) swear to find a wife among Abraham’s relatives in his homeland, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.","summary_en":"24:1-9 Confident in the Lord’s promise, Abraham had his chief servant (probably Eliezer, 15:2) swear to find a wife among Abraham’s relatives in his homeland, some 450 miles away. Abraham was faithful to the covenant by preparing for Isaac’s future.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":15248,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hand","title_en":"Hand","content_ro":"<h3>HAND<\/h3>\n<p>The terminal part of the forelimb that has the ability to grasp. “Hand” is used hundreds of times in the Bible to describe a physical part of one’s body. It is also used frequently in metaphors or figurative language.<\/p>\n<p>Figuratively, the hand meant power (Dt 2:15; Ps 31:5; Mk 14:62). Indeed, in Joshua 8:20 “hand to flee” is translated “power to flee” (see Ps 76:5). Conversely, limp hands symbolized irresoluteness and weakness (Is 35:3). Clasping the hands signified friendship (2 Kgs 10:15). To seat someone on one’s right hand denoted favor (Pss 16:11; 77:10; 110:1). Clean hands symbolized innocence (Ps 26:6), while striking hands sealed a bargain (Prv 6:1, <span>kjv<\/span>). Lifting the hand symbolized violence (1 Kgs 11:26, <span>rsv<\/span>). The hands were used in supplicatory prayer (Ex 17:11; Lv 9:22; Is 1:15; 1 Tm 2:8) and in making vows (Gn 14:22, <span>kjv<\/span>; 24:2).<\/p>\n<p>Other idiomatic uses of the hands expressed jeopardizing one’s life (Jgs 12:3), gladness (2 Kgs 11:12), generosity (Dt 15:11), grief (2 Sm 13:19), humility (Prv 30:32), and undertaking a duty (Lk 9:62). Manual labor is an expression of man’s dignity and duty (Eph 4:28; 1 Thes 4:11), the marks of which Paul was not ashamed to display (Acts 20:34; 1 Cor 4:12). Ritual hand washing was obligatory for the priests before fulfilling their office (Ex 30:19-21; 40:30-32). The scribes and Pharisees so misapplied this that Jesus ignored ceremonial hand washing (Mt 15:1-20; Lk 11:38). Pilate’s hand washing (Mt 27:24) disclaimed responsibility for, or professed innocence concerning, a wrong that, however, could not be done without his consent.<\/p>\n<p>When Israel went out of Egypt “with an high hand” (Ex 14:8, <span>kjv<\/span>), the reference is to the hand or help of the Lord. The hand of the Lord represented God’s resistless power (Dt 2:15), judgment (Acts 13:11; Heb 10:31), divine inspiration (Ez 8:1; 37:1), and providential care (Ezr 7:6; Jn 10:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>The laying on of hands had a profound significance and occurs frequently in the Bible. Before making a blood sacrifice, the person making the offering, not the priest, laid hands on the victim. The act signified the transference of guilt to, or self-identification with, the victim (Lv 1:4). Laying on of hands signified appointment to an office, as when Moses commissioned Joshua (Nm 27:12-23), the apostles made seven disciples their associates or deputies in the ministry (Acts 6:5-6), and Paul and Barnabas were appointed missionaries and representatives of the church in Antioch (13:3). By laying on of hands, a person was made an associate with the holder of an office and was admitted to the status of that office (1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6). The act was accompanied by prayer and was, in itself, a form of prayer. As Augustine remarks: “What else is the laying on of hands but a prayer over one?”<\/p>\n<p>The laying on of hands accompanied healing in the ministry of the Lord (Mk 6:5; Lk 4:40; 13:11-13) and of the disciples (Mk 16:18; Acts 9:12, 17; 28:8). This expressed the self-identification and sympathy of the healer with and for the sufferer, as well as reinforced the patient’s faith and God’s imparting health to him in answer to prayer.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Right Hand.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAND<\/h3>\n<p>The terminal part of the forelimb that has the ability to grasp. “Hand” is used hundreds of times in the Bible to describe a physical part of one’s body. It is also used frequently in metaphors or figurative language.<\/p>\n<p>Figuratively, the hand meant power (Dt 2:15; Ps 31:5; Mk 14:62). Indeed, in Joshua 8:20 “hand to flee” is translated “power to flee” (see Ps 76:5). Conversely, limp hands symbolized irresoluteness and weakness (Is 35:3). Clasping the hands signified friendship (2 Kgs 10:15). To seat someone on one’s right hand denoted favor (Pss 16:11; 77:10; 110:1). Clean hands symbolized innocence (Ps 26:6), while striking hands sealed a bargain (Prv 6:1, <span>kjv<\/span>). Lifting the hand symbolized violence (1 Kgs 11:26, <span>rsv<\/span>). The hands were used in supplicatory prayer (Ex 17:11; Lv 9:22; Is 1:15; 1 Tm 2:8) and in making vows (Gn 14:22, <span>kjv<\/span>; 24:2).<\/p>\n<p>Other idiomatic uses of the hands expressed jeopardizing one’s life (Jgs 12:3), gladness (2 Kgs 11:12), generosity (Dt 15:11), grief (2 Sm 13:19), humility (Prv 30:32), and undertaking a duty (Lk 9:62). Manual labor is an expression of man’s dignity and duty (Eph 4:28; 1 Thes 4:11), the marks of which Paul was not ashamed to display (Acts 20:34; 1 Cor 4:12). Ritual hand washing was obligatory for the priests before fulfilling their office (Ex 30:19-21; 40:30-32). The scribes and Pharisees so misapplied this that Jesus ignored ceremonial hand washing (Mt 15:1-20; Lk 11:38). Pilate’s hand washing (Mt 27:24) disclaimed responsibility for, or professed innocence concerning, a wrong that, however, could not be done without his consent.<\/p>\n<p>When Israel went out of Egypt “with an high hand” (Ex 14:8, <span>kjv<\/span>), the reference is to the hand or help of the Lord. The hand of the Lord represented God’s resistless power (Dt 2:15), judgment (Acts 13:11; Heb 10:31), divine inspiration (Ez 8:1; 37:1), and providential care (Ezr 7:6; Jn 10:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>The laying on of hands had a profound significance and occurs frequently in the Bible. Before making a blood sacrifice, the person making the offering, not the priest, laid hands on the victim. The act signified the transference of guilt to, or self-identification with, the victim (Lv 1:4). Laying on of hands signified appointment to an office, as when Moses commissioned Joshua (Nm 27:12-23), the apostles made seven disciples their associates or deputies in the ministry (Acts 6:5-6), and Paul and Barnabas were appointed missionaries and representatives of the church in Antioch (13:3). By laying on of hands, a person was made an associate with the holder of an office and was admitted to the status of that office (1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6). The act was accompanied by prayer and was, in itself, a form of prayer. As Augustine remarks: “What else is the laying on of hands but a prayer over one?”<\/p>\n<p>The laying on of hands accompanied healing in the ministry of the Lord (Mk 6:5; Lk 4:40; 13:11-13) and of the disciples (Mk 16:18; Acts 9:12, 17; 28:8). This expressed the self-identification and sympathy of the healer with and for the sufferer, as well as reinforced the patient’s faith and God’s imparting health to him in answer to prayer.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Right Hand.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAND The terminal part of the forelimb that has the ability to grasp. “Hand” is used hundreds of times in the Bible to describe a physical part of one’s body. It is also used frequently in metaphors or figurative language. Figuratively, the hand meant power (Dt 2:15; Ps 31:5; Mk 14:62). Indeed, in Joshua 8:20 “hand to flee” is translated “power to flee” (see Ps 76:5). Conversely, limp hands symbolized irresoluteness and weakness (Is 35:3). Clasping the hands signified friendship (2 Kgs 10:15)...","summary_en":"HAND The terminal part of the forelimb that has the ability to grasp. “Hand” is used hundreds of times in the Bible to describe a physical part of one’s body. It is also used frequently in metaphors or figurative language. Figuratively, the hand meant power (Dt 2:15; Ps 31:5; Mk 14:62). Indeed, in Joshua 8:20 “hand to flee” is translated “power to flee” (see Ps 76:5). Conversely, limp hands symbolized irresoluteness and weakness (Is 35:3). Clasping the hands signified friendship (2 Kgs 10:15)...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43179,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:2","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:2<\/strong> Putting his <em>hand under<\/em> Abraham’s <em>thigh<\/em> (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:2<\/strong> Putting his <em>hand under<\/em> Abraham’s <em>thigh<\/em> (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:2 Putting his hand under Abraham’s thigh (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.","summary_en":"24:2 Putting his hand under Abraham’s thigh (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70805,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:2","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:2<\/strong> Putting his <em>hand under<\/em> Abraham’s <em>thigh<\/em> (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:2<\/strong> Putting his <em>hand under<\/em> Abraham’s <em>thigh<\/em> (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:2 Putting his hand under Abraham’s thigh (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.","summary_en":"24:2 Putting his hand under Abraham’s thigh (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98431,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:2","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:2<\/strong> Putting his <em>hand under<\/em> Abraham’s <em>thigh<\/em> (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:2<\/strong> Putting his <em>hand under<\/em> Abraham’s <em>thigh<\/em> (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:2 Putting his hand under Abraham’s thigh (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.","summary_en":"24:2 Putting his hand under Abraham’s thigh (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126057,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:2","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:2<\/strong> Putting his <em>hand under<\/em> Abraham’s <em>thigh<\/em> (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:2<\/strong> Putting his <em>hand under<\/em> Abraham’s <em>thigh<\/em> (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:2 Putting his hand under Abraham’s thigh (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.","summary_en":"24:2 Putting his hand under Abraham’s thigh (cp. 47:29), the servant took a very solemn oath, assuming the burden of completing this mission.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":43180,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:3","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:3<\/strong> Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the <em>local Canaanite<\/em> people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:3<\/strong> Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the <em>local Canaanite<\/em> people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:3 Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the local Canaanite people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).","summary_en":"24:3 Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the local Canaanite people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70806,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:3","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:3<\/strong> Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the <em>local Canaanite<\/em> people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:3<\/strong> Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the <em>local Canaanite<\/em> people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:3 Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the local Canaanite people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).","summary_en":"24:3 Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the local Canaanite people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98432,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:3","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:3<\/strong> Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the <em>local Canaanite<\/em> people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:3<\/strong> Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the <em>local Canaanite<\/em> people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:3 Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the local Canaanite people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).","summary_en":"24:3 Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the local Canaanite people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126058,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:3","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:3<\/strong> Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the <em>local Canaanite<\/em> people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:3<\/strong> Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the <em>local Canaanite<\/em> people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:3 Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the local Canaanite people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).","summary_en":"24:3 Isaac knew how wicked and threatening the local Canaanite people were, so he maintained separation from them (cp. 26:34-35; 27:46; 28:8-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":43181,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:6","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:6-8<\/strong> <em>Under no circumstances<\/em> was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:6-8<\/strong> <em>Under no circumstances<\/em> was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:6-8 Under no circumstances was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.","summary_en":"24:6-8 Under no circumstances was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70807,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:6","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:6-8<\/strong> <em>Under no circumstances<\/em> was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:6-8<\/strong> <em>Under no circumstances<\/em> was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:6-8 Under no circumstances was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.","summary_en":"24:6-8 Under no circumstances was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98433,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:6","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:6-8<\/strong> <em>Under no circumstances<\/em> was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:6-8<\/strong> <em>Under no circumstances<\/em> was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:6-8 Under no circumstances was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.","summary_en":"24:6-8 Under no circumstances was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126059,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:6","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:6-8<\/strong> <em>Under no circumstances<\/em> was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:6-8<\/strong> <em>Under no circumstances<\/em> was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:6-8 Under no circumstances was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.","summary_en":"24:6-8 Under no circumstances was the servant to take Isaac from the Promised Land to seek a wife. Abraham ensured Isaac’s safety and secured God’s promises in the land of blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":39906,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"Angel of the Lord","title_en":"Angel of the Lord","content_ro":"<h3>Angel of the Lord<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Angelic being mentioned in the Bible, more properly translated the “messenger” of the Lord. In the OT the angel of the Lord, as God’s personal emissary, performed special functions at particular times in the history of Israel.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The OT references portray a variety of services rendered but a basic unity of purpose: the gracious intervention of the Lord toward his people, sometimes to an individual, sometimes on a national scale. The angelic figure served Israel positively as guide and protector (Ex 14:19) and companion in the wilderness wanderings (Ex 23:20; 33:2; Nm 20:16) or negatively as assassin or destroyer (2 Sm 24:16), yet always acted to preserve the sanctity of Israel’s covenant with God. Certain individuals such as Hagar (Gn 16:7; 21:17), Balaam (Nm 22:21-22), and Abraham’s servant (Gn 24:7, 40) were also confronted by the divinely commissioned messenger (cf. further references 1 Sm 29:9; 2 Sm 14:20; 19:27; 1 Kgs 19:7; 2 Kgs 19:35; 1 Chr 21:15; 2 Chr 32:21).<\/p>\n<p>In certain texts, it seems impossible to distinguish between the angel of the Lord and the Lord himself (Gn 16:7-13; 21:17; 22:11-18; 24:7, 40; 31:11-13; 48:16; Ex 3:2-10; Jgs 6:12-14; 13:21-22). Sometimes the angel is depicted acting for the Lord and yet is addressed as the Lord. God says, “You may not look directly at my face, for no one may see me and live” (Ex 33:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). And yet Hagar (Gn 16:13), Jacob (Gn 32:30), and Moses (Ex 33:11) are said to have seen God “face-to-face” in view of their confrontation with this angel. God promises that his very presence will be among the Israelites, and yet it is the angel who goes with them (Ex 23:23). The commander of the army of God is given reverence equal to God’s (Jos 5:13–6:2). The angel seems to possess the full authority and character of God. The presence of the messenger of the Lord, in whom God’s “name” resides (Ex 23:20) assures the hearer-reader that it is one God who directs the course of history (Gn 16:7; 31:11; Ex 3:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Angel of the Lord<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Angelic being mentioned in the Bible, more properly translated the “messenger” of the Lord. In the OT the angel of the Lord, as God’s personal emissary, performed special functions at particular times in the history of Israel.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The OT references portray a variety of services rendered but a basic unity of purpose: the gracious intervention of the Lord toward his people, sometimes to an individual, sometimes on a national scale. The angelic figure served Israel positively as guide and protector (Ex 14:19) and companion in the wilderness wanderings (Ex 23:20; 33:2; Nm 20:16) or negatively as assassin or destroyer (2 Sm 24:16), yet always acted to preserve the sanctity of Israel’s covenant with God. Certain individuals such as Hagar (Gn 16:7; 21:17), Balaam (Nm 22:21-22), and Abraham’s servant (Gn 24:7, 40) were also confronted by the divinely commissioned messenger (cf. further references 1 Sm 29:9; 2 Sm 14:20; 19:27; 1 Kgs 19:7; 2 Kgs 19:35; 1 Chr 21:15; 2 Chr 32:21).<\/p>\n<p>In certain texts, it seems impossible to distinguish between the angel of the Lord and the Lord himself (Gn 16:7-13; 21:17; 22:11-18; 24:7, 40; 31:11-13; 48:16; Ex 3:2-10; Jgs 6:12-14; 13:21-22). Sometimes the angel is depicted acting for the Lord and yet is addressed as the Lord. God says, “You may not look directly at my face, for no one may see me and live” (Ex 33:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). And yet Hagar (Gn 16:13), Jacob (Gn 32:30), and Moses (Ex 33:11) are said to have seen God “face-to-face” in view of their confrontation with this angel. God promises that his very presence will be among the Israelites, and yet it is the angel who goes with them (Ex 23:23). The commander of the army of God is given reverence equal to God’s (Jos 5:13–6:2). The angel seems to possess the full authority and character of God. The presence of the messenger of the Lord, in whom God’s “name” resides (Ex 23:20) assures the hearer-reader that it is one God who directs the course of history (Gn 16:7; 31:11; Ex 3:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Angel of the Lord Angelic being mentioned in the Bible, more properly translated the “messenger” of the Lord. In the OT the angel of the Lord, as God’s personal emissary, performed special functions at particular times in the history of Israel. The OT references portray a variety of services rendered but a basic unity of purpose: the gracious intervention of the Lord toward his people, sometimes to an individual, sometimes on a national scale. The angelic figure served Israel positively as gu...","summary_en":"Angel of the Lord Angelic being mentioned in the Bible, more properly translated the “messenger” of the Lord. In the OT the angel of the Lord, as God’s personal emissary, performed special functions at particular times in the history of Israel. The OT references portray a variety of services rendered but a basic unity of purpose: the gracious intervention of the Lord toward his people, sometimes to an individual, sometimes on a national scale. The angelic figure served Israel positively as gu...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":15324,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Haran (Place)","title_en":"Haran (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>HARAN (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>City of northern Mesopotamia, first mentioned in Genesis 11:31 as the destination of Terah, Abraham’s father, in migrating from Ur of the Chaldees, and his home until his death. At age 75, Abraham was commanded by God to move to a land that God had for him (Gn 12:1-4). There were relatives who remained in Haran, however, to whom Jacob, Abraham’s grandson, fled in fear of Esau (27:42-43). Jacob stayed in Haran many years while serving his Uncle Laban and acquiring Leah and Rachel as wives, as well as many sheep and goats, servants, camels, and donkeys (30:43).<\/p>\n<p>This “city of Nahor” (Gn 11:27-29; 24:10; 27:43) was established in the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>, and its location on a branch of the Euphrates soon made it an important commercial center. Perhaps the ancient trade route that linked Damascus, Nineveh, and Carchemish passed by Haran. Ezekiel mentions trade between Haran and Tyre (Ez 27:23). Haran was an Aramean city and was famous for its worship of the lunar Sin and Nikkal. This system was an offspring of the cult found in Sumerian Ur. Sin and his consort Nikkal were revered not only here but throughout Canaan and even in Egypt. The cult persisted past NT times, its temple finally being destroyed by Mongols in the 13th century <span>AD<\/span>. It is little wonder that God commanded Abraham to leave this seat of idolatry. Modern Harran preserves the ancient cuneiform spelling of the name (cf. <span>kjv<\/span> “Charran,” Acts 7:2, 4).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HARAN (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>City of northern Mesopotamia, first mentioned in Genesis 11:31 as the destination of Terah, Abraham’s father, in migrating from Ur of the Chaldees, and his home until his death. At age 75, Abraham was commanded by God to move to a land that God had for him (Gn 12:1-4). There were relatives who remained in Haran, however, to whom Jacob, Abraham’s grandson, fled in fear of Esau (27:42-43). Jacob stayed in Haran many years while serving his Uncle Laban and acquiring Leah and Rachel as wives, as well as many sheep and goats, servants, camels, and donkeys (30:43).<\/p>\n<p>This “city of Nahor” (Gn 11:27-29; 24:10; 27:43) was established in the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>, and its location on a branch of the Euphrates soon made it an important commercial center. Perhaps the ancient trade route that linked Damascus, Nineveh, and Carchemish passed by Haran. Ezekiel mentions trade between Haran and Tyre (Ez 27:23). Haran was an Aramean city and was famous for its worship of the lunar Sin and Nikkal. This system was an offspring of the cult found in Sumerian Ur. Sin and his consort Nikkal were revered not only here but throughout Canaan and even in Egypt. The cult persisted past NT times, its temple finally being destroyed by Mongols in the 13th century <span>AD<\/span>. It is little wonder that God commanded Abraham to leave this seat of idolatry. Modern Harran preserves the ancient cuneiform spelling of the name (cf. <span>kjv<\/span> “Charran,” Acts 7:2, 4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HARAN (Place) City of northern Mesopotamia, first mentioned in Genesis 11:31 as the destination of Terah, Abraham’s father, in migrating from Ur of the Chaldees, and his home until his death. At age 75, Abraham was commanded by God to move to a land that God had for him (Gn 12:1-4). There were relatives who remained in Haran, however, to whom Jacob, Abraham’s grandson, fled in fear of Esau (27:42-43). Jacob stayed in Haran many years while serving his Uncle Laban and acquiring Leah and Rachel...","summary_en":"HARAN (Place) City of northern Mesopotamia, first mentioned in Genesis 11:31 as the destination of Terah, Abraham’s father, in migrating from Ur of the Chaldees, and his home until his death. At age 75, Abraham was commanded by God to move to a land that God had for him (Gn 12:1-4). There were relatives who remained in Haran, however, to whom Jacob, Abraham’s grandson, fled in fear of Esau (27:42-43). Jacob stayed in Haran many years while serving his Uncle Laban and acquiring Leah and Rachel...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25340,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mesopotamia","title_en":"Mesopotamia","content_ro":"<h3>MESOPOTAMIA<\/h3>\n<p>Name given by the Greeks to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, an area today called al-Jazira, “the island,” by the Arabs. Mesopotamia, which means literally “between the rivers,” is applied to the land between and near those rivers down to the Persian Gulf. Much of it is included in Iraq, but some of it is in Syria, and a small part in Turkey.<\/p>\n<p>Mesopotamia played a significant role in OT history. Much of the tightly compressed account of Genesis 1–11 was centered here. The Garden of Eden was situated in this area, for two of the rivers of Genesis 2:10-14 are identified as the Euphrates and the Tigris.<\/p>\n<p>The prehistoric cultures of Mesopotamia are unknown. The historical periods are labeled by the names of various cities that dominated them, such as Ur and Isin-Larsa, or by the names of dynasties established in those places, for example, Ur III.<\/p>\n\n<p>The southernmost part of Mesopotamia is known as Sumer and was populated by the Sumerians, who had a distinctive culture and a non-Semitic language, which was written in cuneiform script, as were most of the other languages of Mesopotamia. Farther north was the district called Akkad, which was also named Agade and had a Semitic population. Still farther north, along the Tigris, was the land that became Assyria, while to the far west was Syria, or Aram, and in between was Mitanni (c. 1400 <span>BC<\/span>). As portions of Mesopotamia slipped from hand to hand, various sections became parts of different empires, such as Hittite, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek or Hellenistic, and Roman.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT the name for Mesopotamia is Aram-naharaim, “Aram of the two rivers.” Abraham sent his servant, Eliezer, to Aram-naharaim to find a wife for Isaac (Gn 24:10). In this context it has been suggested that the two rivers were the Euphrates and the Khabur. The account of the adventures of Jacob in this area does not use the term Aram-naharaim but employs instead the name Paddan-aram, “the field [or garden] of Aram” (28:2).<\/p>\n<p>Balaam, the son of Beor, was from Pethor in Mesopotamia (Dt 23:4). During the period of the judges, Cushan-rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia, oppressed Israel for eight years, but the Lord brought deliverance through Othniel (Jgs 3:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>When the Ammonites expected David to invade their territory because they had insulted his ambassadors, they hired chariotry from Mesopotamia and elsewhere to bolster their forces (1 Chr 19:6).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT Mesopotamia is mentioned only twice. People from Mesopotamia were present on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:9). Stephen, in his defense before the Sanhedrin, states that Abraham lived in Mesopotamia before he lived in Haran (Acts 7:2; see Gn 11:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MESOPOTAMIA<\/h3>\n<p>Name given by the Greeks to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, an area today called al-Jazira, “the island,” by the Arabs. Mesopotamia, which means literally “between the rivers,” is applied to the land between and near those rivers down to the Persian Gulf. Much of it is included in Iraq, but some of it is in Syria, and a small part in Turkey.<\/p>\n<p>Mesopotamia played a significant role in OT history. Much of the tightly compressed account of Genesis 1–11 was centered here. The Garden of Eden was situated in this area, for two of the rivers of Genesis 2:10-14 are identified as the Euphrates and the Tigris.<\/p>\n<p>The prehistoric cultures of Mesopotamia are unknown. The historical periods are labeled by the names of various cities that dominated them, such as Ur and Isin-Larsa, or by the names of dynasties established in those places, for example, Ur III.<\/p>\n\n<p>The southernmost part of Mesopotamia is known as Sumer and was populated by the Sumerians, who had a distinctive culture and a non-Semitic language, which was written in cuneiform script, as were most of the other languages of Mesopotamia. Farther north was the district called Akkad, which was also named Agade and had a Semitic population. Still farther north, along the Tigris, was the land that became Assyria, while to the far west was Syria, or Aram, and in between was Mitanni (c. 1400 <span>BC<\/span>). As portions of Mesopotamia slipped from hand to hand, various sections became parts of different empires, such as Hittite, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek or Hellenistic, and Roman.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT the name for Mesopotamia is Aram-naharaim, “Aram of the two rivers.” Abraham sent his servant, Eliezer, to Aram-naharaim to find a wife for Isaac (Gn 24:10). In this context it has been suggested that the two rivers were the Euphrates and the Khabur. The account of the adventures of Jacob in this area does not use the term Aram-naharaim but employs instead the name Paddan-aram, “the field [or garden] of Aram” (28:2).<\/p>\n<p>Balaam, the son of Beor, was from Pethor in Mesopotamia (Dt 23:4). During the period of the judges, Cushan-rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia, oppressed Israel for eight years, but the Lord brought deliverance through Othniel (Jgs 3:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>When the Ammonites expected David to invade their territory because they had insulted his ambassadors, they hired chariotry from Mesopotamia and elsewhere to bolster their forces (1 Chr 19:6).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT Mesopotamia is mentioned only twice. People from Mesopotamia were present on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:9). Stephen, in his defense before the Sanhedrin, states that Abraham lived in Mesopotamia before he lived in Haran (Acts 7:2; see Gn 11:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MESOPOTAMIA Name given by the Greeks to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, an area today called al-Jazira, “the island,” by the Arabs. Mesopotamia, which means literally “between the rivers,” is applied to the land between and near those rivers down to the Persian Gulf. Much of it is included in Iraq, but some of it is in Syria, and a small part in Turkey. Mesopotamia played a significant role in OT history. Much of the tightly compressed account of Genesis 1–11 was centered he...","summary_en":"MESOPOTAMIA Name given by the Greeks to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, an area today called al-Jazira, “the island,” by the Arabs. Mesopotamia, which means literally “between the rivers,” is applied to the land between and near those rivers down to the Persian Gulf. Much of it is included in Iraq, but some of it is in Syria, and a small part in Turkey. Mesopotamia played a significant role in OT history. Much of the tightly compressed account of Genesis 1–11 was centered he...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26859,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nahor (Person)","title_en":"Nahor (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>NAHOR (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s grandfather (Gn 11:22-25; 1 Chr 1:26); also an ancestor of Jesus according to Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:34, where some English translations follow the Greek spelling, Nachor). The Genesis and 1 Chronicles passages show that Nahor is from Shem’s line. Hence, Abraham and his descendants are part of the Semitic family of nations.<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Terah and Abraham’s brother (Gn 11:26-29; Jos 24:2). He married Milcah, Haran’s daughter, and his family is named in Genesis 22:20-23. Abraham sent his servant to seek a wife for Isaac at Nahor’s residence in Mesopotamia (see Gn 24:10, which possibly suggests that the city itself was called Nahor). There he found Rebekah, Nahor’s granddaughter (Gn 24:1-51). Nahor is also named as the father (perhaps grandfather) of Laban, to whom Jacob went when he fled from his brother Esau (Gn 29:5). Both of these texts link Abraham’s family with related Semitic people. In Genesis 31:53 God is spoken of as “the God of Abraham and Nahor.”<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nahor (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAHOR (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s grandfather (Gn 11:22-25; 1 Chr 1:26); also an ancestor of Jesus according to Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:34, where some English translations follow the Greek spelling, Nachor). The Genesis and 1 Chronicles passages show that Nahor is from Shem’s line. Hence, Abraham and his descendants are part of the Semitic family of nations.<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Terah and Abraham’s brother (Gn 11:26-29; Jos 24:2). He married Milcah, Haran’s daughter, and his family is named in Genesis 22:20-23. Abraham sent his servant to seek a wife for Isaac at Nahor’s residence in Mesopotamia (see Gn 24:10, which possibly suggests that the city itself was called Nahor). There he found Rebekah, Nahor’s granddaughter (Gn 24:1-51). Nahor is also named as the father (perhaps grandfather) of Laban, to whom Jacob went when he fled from his brother Esau (Gn 29:5). Both of these texts link Abraham’s family with related Semitic people. In Genesis 31:53 God is spoken of as “the God of Abraham and Nahor.”<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nahor (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAHOR (Person) 1. Abraham’s grandfather (Gn 11:22-25; 1 Chr 1:26); also an ancestor of Jesus according to Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:34, where some English translations follow the Greek spelling, Nachor). The Genesis and 1 Chronicles passages show that Nahor is from Shem’s line. Hence, Abraham and his descendants are part of the Semitic family of nations. 2. Son of Terah and Abraham’s brother (Gn 11:26-29; Jos 24:2). He married Milcah, Haran’s daughter, and his family is named in Genesis 22:20-23...","summary_en":"NAHOR (Person) 1. Abraham’s grandfather (Gn 11:22-25; 1 Chr 1:26); also an ancestor of Jesus according to Luke’s genealogy (Lk 3:34, where some English translations follow the Greek spelling, Nachor). The Genesis and 1 Chronicles passages show that Nahor is from Shem’s line. Hence, Abraham and his descendants are part of the Semitic family of nations. 2. Son of Terah and Abraham’s brother (Gn 11:26-29; Jos 24:2). He married Milcah, Haran’s daughter, and his family is named in Genesis 22:20-23...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26863,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nahor (Place)","title_en":"Nahor (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>NAHOR (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Northwestern Mesopotamian city; home of Rebekah, Isaac’s wife, and Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gn 24:10). Nahor is frequently mentioned in the Mari documents (18th century <span>BC<\/span>) as the town of Nakhur, located near Haran in the Balikh River Valley. This city was probably the home of some of the ancient Habiru people. Its site is unknown.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nahor (Person) #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAHOR (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Northwestern Mesopotamian city; home of Rebekah, Isaac’s wife, and Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gn 24:10). Nahor is frequently mentioned in the Mari documents (18th century <span>BC<\/span>) as the town of Nakhur, located near Haran in the Balikh River Valley. This city was probably the home of some of the ancient Habiru people. Its site is unknown.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nahor (Person) #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAHOR (Place) Northwestern Mesopotamian city; home of Rebekah, Isaac’s wife, and Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gn 24:10). Nahor is frequently mentioned in the Mari documents (18th century BC) as the town of Nakhur, located near Haran in the Balikh River Valley. This city was probably the home of some of the ancient Habiru people. Its site is unknown. See also Nahor (Person) #2.","summary_en":"NAHOR (Place) Northwestern Mesopotamian city; home of Rebekah, Isaac’s wife, and Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gn 24:10). Nahor is frequently mentioned in the Mari documents (18th century BC) as the town of Nakhur, located near Haran in the Balikh River Valley. This city was probably the home of some of the ancient Habiru people. Its site is unknown. See also Nahor (Person) #2.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28698,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paddan-Aram Paddan","title_en":"Paddan-Aram Paddan","content_ro":"<h3>PADDAN, PADDAN-ARAM<\/h3>\n<p>Northwestern Mesopotamian district whose name means “Field of Aram,” distinguishing this flatland from the mountainous regions to the north and east. Paddan-aram is alternately called Paddan in Genesis 48:7, the “land of Aram” in Hosea 12:12, and Aram-naharaim in Genesis 24:10 meaning “Aram of the two rivers” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). The two rivers probably referred to the Euphrates and Balih rivers, between which this tract of land was situated.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aram-naharaim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PADDAN, PADDAN-ARAM<\/h3>\n<p>Northwestern Mesopotamian district whose name means “Field of Aram,” distinguishing this flatland from the mountainous regions to the north and east. Paddan-aram is alternately called Paddan in Genesis 48:7, the “land of Aram” in Hosea 12:12, and Aram-naharaim in Genesis 24:10 meaning “Aram of the two rivers” (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). The two rivers probably referred to the Euphrates and Balih rivers, between which this tract of land was situated.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aram-naharaim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PADDAN, PADDAN-ARAM Northwestern Mesopotamian district whose name means “Field of Aram,” distinguishing this flatland from the mountainous regions to the north and east. Paddan-aram is alternately called Paddan in Genesis 48:7, the “land of Aram” in Hosea 12:12, and Aram-naharaim in Genesis 24:10 meaning “Aram of the two rivers” (see nlt mg). The two rivers probably referred to the Euphrates and Balih rivers, between which this tract of land was situated. See also Aram-naharaim.","summary_en":"PADDAN, PADDAN-ARAM Northwestern Mesopotamian district whose name means “Field of Aram,” distinguishing this flatland from the mountainous regions to the north and east. Paddan-aram is alternately called Paddan in Genesis 48:7, the “land of Aram” in Hosea 12:12, and Aram-naharaim in Genesis 24:10 meaning “Aram of the two rivers” (see nlt mg). The two rivers probably referred to the Euphrates and Balih rivers, between which this tract of land was situated. See also Aram-naharaim.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43182,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:10-60<\/strong> The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:10-60<\/strong> The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:10-60 The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.","summary_en":"24:10-60 The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43183,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:10-27<\/strong> The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:10-27<\/strong> The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:10-27 The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.","summary_en":"24:10-27 The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43184,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:10<\/strong> <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called <em>Paddan-aram<\/em> (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had <em>ten . . . camels<\/em> for provisions and <em>gifts<\/em> (24:22, 53).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:10<\/strong> <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called <em>Paddan-aram<\/em> (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had <em>ten . . . camels<\/em> for provisions and <em>gifts<\/em> (24:22, 53).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:10 Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called Paddan-aram (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had ten . . . camels for provisions and gifts (24:22, 53).","summary_en":"24:10 Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called Paddan-aram (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had ten . . . camels for provisions and gifts (24:22, 53).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70808,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:10-60<\/strong> The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:10-60<\/strong> The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:10-60 The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.","summary_en":"24:10-60 The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70809,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:10-27<\/strong> The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:10-27<\/strong> The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:10-27 The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.","summary_en":"24:10-27 The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70810,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:10<\/strong> <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called <em>Paddan-aram<\/em> (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had <em>ten . . . camels<\/em> for provisions and <em>gifts<\/em> (24:22, 53).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:10<\/strong> <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called <em>Paddan-aram<\/em> (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had <em>ten . . . camels<\/em> for provisions and <em>gifts<\/em> (24:22, 53).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:10 Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called Paddan-aram (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had ten . . . camels for provisions and gifts (24:22, 53).","summary_en":"24:10 Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called Paddan-aram (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had ten . . . camels for provisions and gifts (24:22, 53).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98434,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:10-60<\/strong> The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:10-60<\/strong> The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:10-60 The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.","summary_en":"24:10-60 The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98435,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:10-27<\/strong> The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:10-27<\/strong> The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:10-27 The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.","summary_en":"24:10-27 The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98436,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:10<\/strong> <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called <em>Paddan-aram<\/em> (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had <em>ten . . . camels<\/em> for provisions and <em>gifts<\/em> (24:22, 53).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:10<\/strong> <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called <em>Paddan-aram<\/em> (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had <em>ten . . . camels<\/em> for provisions and <em>gifts<\/em> (24:22, 53).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:10 Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called Paddan-aram (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had ten . . . camels for provisions and gifts (24:22, 53).","summary_en":"24:10 Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called Paddan-aram (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had ten . . . camels for provisions and gifts (24:22, 53).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126060,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:10-60<\/strong> The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:10-60<\/strong> The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:10-60 The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.","summary_en":"24:10-60 The servant faithfully carried out the mission, and he glorified God in displaying faithful covenant love for Abraham’s family by bringing all the details together. God sovereignly worked behind the scenes to accomplish his will through the circumstances of those acting responsibly in faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126061,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:10-27<\/strong> The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:10-27<\/strong> The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:10-27 The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.","summary_en":"24:10-27 The servant obeyed his master’s instructions and trusted God to lead him to the right woman.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126062,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:10","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:10<\/strong> <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called <em>Paddan-aram<\/em> (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had <em>ten . . . camels<\/em> for provisions and <em>gifts<\/em> (24:22, 53).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:10<\/strong> <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called <em>Paddan-aram<\/em> (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had <em>ten . . . camels<\/em> for provisions and <em>gifts<\/em> (24:22, 53).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:10 Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called Paddan-aram (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had ten . . . camels for provisions and gifts (24:22, 53).","summary_en":"24:10 Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) was also called Paddan-aram (“the field of Aram,” cp. 25:20). It was a two-week journey in each direction, so the servant had ten . . . camels for provisions and gifts (24:22, 53).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62160,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89786,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117412,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145038,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":40658,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68284,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95910,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123536,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25961,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Miracle","title_en":"Miracle","content_ro":"<h3>MIRACLE<\/h3>\n<p>A divine act by which God reveals himself to people. The classical definition of miracle assumes that it is contrary to natural law, but this is a misnomer for two reasons. First, many of the miracles of the Bible used nature rather than bypassed it (e.g., the wind that parted the Red Sea, Ex 14:21). Second, there no longer is a concept of “absolute natural laws”; rather, a phenomenon that is not readily explainable may reflect laws that scientists do not yet fully understand. In Scripture the element of faith is crucial; a natural approach cannot prove or disprove the presence of “miracle.” The timing and content of the process can be miraculous, even though the event may seem natural. The revelatory significance is also important. In every case God performed the miracle not merely as a “wonder” to inspire awe but as a “sign” to draw people to himself.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheVocabularyofMiracles\">The Vocabulary of Miracles<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the two main terms are “sign” and “wonder,” which often occur together (e.g., nine times in Dt alone, 4:34; 13:1; etc.). More than one Hebrew term is used for “wonder”—one referring to it as an act of supernatural power and another as being beyond man’s understanding. On the whole, they are used synonymously for God’s providential acts within history. The “sign” refers to an act that occurs as a token or pledge of God’s control over events and as a revelation of God’s presence with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The NT uses the same basic idiom, “signs and wonders,” with the same general thrust (cf. Mt 24:24; Mk 13:22; Jn 4:48; Acts 2:43). A third term is that for “power” or miracle, and this becomes the predominant term in the synoptic Gospels. It signifies the mighty act itself by which God is revealed in Christ. A fourth term is “work,” which along with “sign” is preferred in the Gospel of John. This term is used in John to show that in Jesus the work of the Father is revealed. While the terms are often synonymous (the first three occur together in Rom 15:19-20; 2 Thes 2:9; Heb 2:4), they designate three different aspects of miracles. “Signs” point to the theological meaning of miracle as a revelation of God; “power,” to the force behind the act; “work,” to the person behind it; and “wonder,” to its awesome effect on the observer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MiraclesintheOldTestament\">Miracles in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>To the Hebrew, a miracle was nothing more nor less than an act of God. Therefore, nature herself was a miracle (Jb 5:9-10; Pss 89:6; 106:2), and an act of kindness or victory over one’s enemies is so described (Gn 24:12-27; 1 Sm 14:23). The natural order is totally under Yahweh’s control, so a miracle was observable not because of its supernatural nature but because of its character as part of the divine revelation. This connection with salvation history is crucial, for Israel at all times tried to guard against a desire for the spectacular. Deuteronomy 13:1-4 warns against accepting a wonder as authenticating a prophet; rather, the authentication must come from the fact that he worships Yahweh.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles in the OT are restricted to critical periods of redemptive history. Many have discussed the act of Creation as the first miracle, but in actuality it is not presented as such in the Genesis account. A miracle is signified by its revelatory significance and\/or its connection with crucial points in the history of God’s people—the exodus, the conquest of Jordan, the battle against the insidious Baal worship of the prophetic period. Creation is characterized by one major theme: a chronicle of the beginnings. The miracles of Genesis—striking blind the inhabitants of Sodom, the Flood, Babel—all signify the wrath of God upon those who have turned against him. This is the other side of redemptive history, the judgment of God upon those who are not his people.<\/p>\n<p>The miracles of the exodus account have two foci: The plagues represent the absolute power of Yahweh over the gods of Egypt, and the miracles of the wilderness show God’s absolute care and protection of his people. The plagues are particularly interesting because each one is directed at one of the gods of Egypt and reveals Yahweh as the only potentate. The basic theme is found in Exodus 7:5 and is repeated throughout the account (cf. 7:17; 8:6, 18; 9:14-16, 29; 12:12): “When I show the Egyptians my power and force them to let the Israelites go, they will realize that I am the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In this regard they were directed not only at the Egyptians but also to the Israelites, who needed to know that their God would vindicate them against the Egyptians. This is borne out in the major miracle, the crossing of the Red Sea. The plagues themselves show a gradual increase in severity.<\/p>\n<p>The wilderness miracles are intimately connected to the basic theme of the wandering narratives, the trial of Israel in times of desperate need and God’s providential protection of his people when they turn to him. The basic organization of the stories concerns the need itself, which leads to Israel’s complaint; this is followed by Moses’ intercession and then by God’s sovereign intervention. The miracles are interspersed with other stories that tell of God’s punishment when the people’s murmuring tries him too far. The miracle is God’s self-revelation regarding his involvement in the needs of his own; Israel must then respond, and her response determines her blessing or punishment at the hands of Yahweh.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles are conspicuously absent in the period of the united monarchy. This was a time of self-sufficiency, when God worked through the monarchy and did not intervene directly in the life of the nation. The reason is that Israel’s eschatological hopes had been realized and made concrete in the presence of the Holy City and the temple.<\/p>\n<p>It was different during the prophetic period. In the lives of Elijah and Elisha, miracles were predominant. This was a time of apostasy, and under the reign of Ahab and Jezebel the nation turned to paganism and the worship of Baal. The very existence of the Hebraic religion seemed to be threatened, and so the times called for extraordinary measures. Here the wondrous nature of the miracles is more evident than anywhere else in the OT. There are conscious allusions to the exodus miracles, perhaps looking to Elijah as a new Moses reinstituting the true worship of Yahweh. Parallels are seen in the challenge to the priests of Baal (1 Kgs 18; cf. Ex 7); the revelation of God on Mt Horeb with the wind, earthquake, and fire (1 Kgs 19; cf. Ex 19); and the parting of the Jordan (2 Kgs 2:10-14; cf. Ex 14). Many of the miracles were intended to demonstrate the impotence of Baal, such as the drought, the contest on Mt Carmel, and the miraculous sustenance supplied by God. Again, God’s actions within history were part of his self-revelation, the vindication of his messengers, and the punishment of his enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles are infrequent in the writing prophets, perhaps due to the proclamation form of the writings (i.e., they dealt with message rather than deeds). The two major exceptions (apart from the recovery of Hezekiah chronicled in Is 38) are Jonah and Daniel. In Jonah, the miracle is addressed not to the Ninevites but to the Israelites, who are called back to their covenant obligations as the spokesmen for Yahweh. In Daniel the direction is reversed, and the situation is the same as that in Exodus or Kings. The miracles are directed to the Babylonians and Persians and have the same foci as the earlier events of the exodus and Elijah-Elisha chronicles, that is, the supremacy of Yahweh over the foreign gods and the vindication of his messengers. This is the third and final time of crisis and illustrates the major theological use of miracles in the OT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MiraclesintheNewTestament\">Miracles in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the miraculous has a similar purpose in the NT; it occurred at a crisis point in salvation history to authenticate the presence of God in historical acts. It differs, however, in that it is transcended by the presence of the very Son of God, who himself is the greatest miracle of all. God now has not only acted in history; he has entered history and has turned it to himself. The parallels with the exodus events are obvious and show that the miracles of Jesus paved the way for the entrance of the new covenant in the same way that the exodus miracles prepared for the old.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Jesus’ Understanding<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus stressed the connection between his miraculous ministry, especially the casting out of demons (exorcism), and the coming of the kingdom of God. As in the OT, the miracles signify the presence of God, but here it is more direct and also signals the inauguration of his kingdom (Mt 12:28). As such, then, the exorcism miracles mean the binding of Satan and the institution of the reign of God (Mk 3:23-27). At the same time all the miracles signify the dawning of the age of salvation, as expressed in Jesus’ inaugural address at Nazareth (Lk 4:18-21, from Is 61:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Yet these miracles are not automatic signposts to the act of God; they must be interpreted by faith. Jesus was well aware of the presence of other miracles in his day (Mt 12:27) and so stressed the presence of faith in the healing miracles (Mk 5:32; 10:52). This faith must be directed to the presence of God in the event and in Jesus himself. The necessity of faith also helps to understand Jesus’ refusal to provide his contemporaries with a “sign” (Mk 8:11-12); miracles could never “prove” the presence of God. For a better understanding of the connection between faith and miracles, it is best to note each Evangelist’s individual portrait of the theological use of miracles.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Mark<\/h5>\n<p>Mark, the first of the four Gospels to be written, has often been called the “action Gospel” because of its emphasis on Jesus’ deeds rather than his teaching. This is also true regarding Jesus’ miracles, for Mark contains more proportionately than any of the others. There are five groups or five kinds of miracles in Mark. The first group centers on Jesus’ authority over demons (Mk 1:21-39). The second concerns Jesus’ authority over the law and conflict with his opponents (1:40–3:6). They result in fame but occasion his refusal to allow his true identity as Son of God to be known. The third group (3:7-30) contains exorcisms and the Beelzebub controversy, centering on his power over Satan. The fourth group (4:35–6:43) contains especially powerful miracles (stilling the storm, the Gaderene demoniac, the raising of Jairus’s daughter) and probably centers on the disciples, as Jesus thereby reveals to them the meaning of the kingdom and seeks to overcome their own spiritual dullness. The fifth and final group (6:30–8:26) continues the theme of the disciples’ misunderstanding and prepares the way for the Passion, with the message regarding the bread, blindness, and the judgment of God.<\/p>\n<p>The miracles in Mark center on conflict, first with Jesus’ opponents and then with his own disciples. While the miracles are harbingers of God’s kingdom, their purpose is to force an encounter with Jesus’ true significance. They do not show Jesus as a Hellenistic wonder worker; in fact, they lead only to amazement and then disbelief in those who do not have faith. Jesus’ personhood has been hidden and can only be understood in light of the cross. The miracles are not proofs but powers; God does not authenticate himself through them but shows himself to those with eyes to see.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Matthew<\/h5>\n<p>Matthew’s is the teaching Gospel, where dialogue takes precedence over action. Matthew compresses Mark’s narrative in order to make room for didactic material. Therefore, his stress is on the theological implications of faith rather than on the results they contain. Matthew’s groups of miracles are isometric to teaching passages, in keeping with his general practice of combining narrative portions and organizing them around didactic sections. The first group (chs 8–9) combines miracles from Mark’s first, second, and fourth groups and stresses Jesus’ significance as the servant of Yahweh who exercises sovereign power and forgives sins. The secondary theme teaches discipleship and shows the awakening faith of the disciples and their involvement in Jesus’ ministry. The second group (ch 12) centers on his authority over the law (the man with the withered hand) and over Satan (the Beelzebub controversy). The third group (chs 14–15) parallels Mark’s fifth group but has a different purpose. Rather than arousing conflict, the disciples are seen in positive guise, actively involved in the Master’s work. So the disciples become the means by which Jesus’ ministry is continued. Therefore, the disciples are involved as “learners” (the meaning of “disciple”) in his miraculous ministry.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Luke<\/h5>\n<p>Luke-Acts is remarkable and extremely important because it establishes beyond dispute the early church’s belief that it was in absolute continuity with Jesus and was continuing the work of God in the world. Luke’s major stress is on salvation history, and so one of his major stylistic methods for showing this direct connection is miraculous deeds. Especially enlightening here is Acts 9:32-42, where in two healing miracles Peter duplicated the Lord’s miracles (the paralytic Aeneas, Lk 5:18-26; the raising of Dorcas, Lk 8:49-56).<\/p>\n<p>From this respect also Luke returns to Mark’s interest in the deed more than the teaching. However, Luke goes even further than Mark, for the miracles validate Jesus more directly. The first group follows the inaugural address (4:18-22), which itself presents the miraculous deeds as authenticating signposts to Jesus’ personhood. They center on Jesus’ power and authority (vv 31-41) and validate God’s power in Jesus (5:17; 8:39) as well as faith in Jesus (seen in the “praise” motif, 5:25; 7:16; etc., but especially in Acts 9:35; 13:12; 19:17). The presence of “fear” at the miracles is a human response to having witnessed God’s power (Lk 5:26; 7:16; 8:35-37; 24:5). The call to the disciples occurs in the presence of miracles (5:1-11, at the miraculous catch of fish; vv 27-28, after the healing of the bedridden paralytic).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, Luke views miracles as having redemptive significance. However, this is not contrary to Mark’s picture. Luke still avoids picturing Jesus as a mere wonder worker; Jesus still refuses to satisfy people’s curiosity for an external sign (Lk 11:29-32; cf. also 9:9), and in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31) he teaches that the unbelieving heart can never be convinced by such events. Nevertheless, they can lead to repentance (10:13-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in John<\/h5>\n<p>John is the most directly theological of the Evangelists, and miracles are characteristically given a distinctive Johannine coloring. In the Synoptics, miracles are “acts of power” signifying the entrance of God’s reign into this world via Jesus; thereby, Jesus establishes Satan’s defeat and God’s sovereign control of history. John, however, contains no exorcisms, and the miracles are seen as “signs.” At the same time miracles are part of the larger category of “works” (the other term for miracles used in John), by which Jesus shows the Father’s presence in himself (Jn 10:32, 37-39; 14:10) and they give witness to Jesus as the sent one (5:36; 10:25, 38).<\/p>\n<p>John selects only seven “sign miracles” from many others (20:30) and uses them as part of the thematic development in the respective section of each. For instance, changing the water into wine is a messianic act, signifying the outpouring of the kingdom blessing in the ministry of Jesus, the Messiah (ch 2); the multiplication of the loaves builds upon the “bread of life” and points to the messianic banquet as spiritually present in Jesus (ch 6).<\/p>\n<p>The paradoxical nature of miracles in the Synoptics is even greater in John. He gives more stress to the wondrous nature of the events by providing such details as the stupendous amount of water changed into wine (2:6, approximately 120 gallons, or 454.2 liters); the distance over which Jesus’ healing power works (4:46, almost 20 miles, or 32.2 kilometers); the length of time the man of Bethesda had been lame (5:5, 38 years; cf. 9:1, where the man had been born blind); the amount of bread needed to feed the 5,000 (6:7, where Philip said 200 denarii, or days’ wages, would not have bought enough); and the proof of Lazarus’s death (11:39; he had already begun to decay). John has a great interest in the miraculous. Yet at the same time there is even greater stress on the inadequacy of miracles for faith. The miracles as “signs” have saving value and point to the true significance of Jesus but are related to an awakening faith and in themselves are insufficient (2:11; 4:50). They have christological force, looking to Jesus’ sonship and the Father’s authentication of him but are based on the soteriological decision of the individual. As “signs,” they contain the very presence of God in Jesus, the spiritual reality of the “sight” and “life” he brings (9:35-38; 11:24-26). Yet their purpose is to divide the audience and confront it with the necessity of decision. Two camps result—those seeking understanding and those considering only the outward aspects. Some refuse to consider the signs, and thus they reject them (3:18-21; 11:47-50), while others see them shallowly as mere wonders and fail to see in them the true significance of Jesus (2:23-25; 4:45). On the other hand, some view them with the eye of faith and go on to a realization of his personhood (2:11; 5:36-46; 11:42). In John the highest faith of all is that which does not need external stimulation (20:29).<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in the Rest of the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Apart from Acts, several passages in the NT speak of the value of miracles. Paul in 2 Corinthians 12:12 and Romans 15:18-19 considered them as “sign-gifts,” which authenticated the divine authority of the “true apostle.” He listed healing and miracles as specific “gifts of the Spirit” in 1 Corinthians 12:9-10. In Galatians 3:5 he considered them evidence for the presence of the Spirit. The author of the letter to the Hebrews in 2:4 said “God bore witness” to the true message of salvation via miracles. Therefore, in the apostolic age the miracles of God’s servants were seen more directly as authenticating signs of God’s action in his messengers.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Sign; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIRACLE<\/h3>\n<p>A divine act by which God reveals himself to people. The classical definition of miracle assumes that it is contrary to natural law, but this is a misnomer for two reasons. First, many of the miracles of the Bible used nature rather than bypassed it (e.g., the wind that parted the Red Sea, Ex 14:21). Second, there no longer is a concept of “absolute natural laws”; rather, a phenomenon that is not readily explainable may reflect laws that scientists do not yet fully understand. In Scripture the element of faith is crucial; a natural approach cannot prove or disprove the presence of “miracle.” The timing and content of the process can be miraculous, even though the event may seem natural. The revelatory significance is also important. In every case God performed the miracle not merely as a “wonder” to inspire awe but as a “sign” to draw people to himself.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheVocabularyofMiracles\">The Vocabulary of Miracles<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the two main terms are “sign” and “wonder,” which often occur together (e.g., nine times in Dt alone, 4:34; 13:1; etc.). More than one Hebrew term is used for “wonder”—one referring to it as an act of supernatural power and another as being beyond man’s understanding. On the whole, they are used synonymously for God’s providential acts within history. The “sign” refers to an act that occurs as a token or pledge of God’s control over events and as a revelation of God’s presence with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The NT uses the same basic idiom, “signs and wonders,” with the same general thrust (cf. Mt 24:24; Mk 13:22; Jn 4:48; Acts 2:43). A third term is that for “power” or miracle, and this becomes the predominant term in the synoptic Gospels. It signifies the mighty act itself by which God is revealed in Christ. A fourth term is “work,” which along with “sign” is preferred in the Gospel of John. This term is used in John to show that in Jesus the work of the Father is revealed. While the terms are often synonymous (the first three occur together in Rom 15:19-20; 2 Thes 2:9; Heb 2:4), they designate three different aspects of miracles. “Signs” point to the theological meaning of miracle as a revelation of God; “power,” to the force behind the act; “work,” to the person behind it; and “wonder,” to its awesome effect on the observer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MiraclesintheOldTestament\">Miracles in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>To the Hebrew, a miracle was nothing more nor less than an act of God. Therefore, nature herself was a miracle (Jb 5:9-10; Pss 89:6; 106:2), and an act of kindness or victory over one’s enemies is so described (Gn 24:12-27; 1 Sm 14:23). The natural order is totally under Yahweh’s control, so a miracle was observable not because of its supernatural nature but because of its character as part of the divine revelation. This connection with salvation history is crucial, for Israel at all times tried to guard against a desire for the spectacular. Deuteronomy 13:1-4 warns against accepting a wonder as authenticating a prophet; rather, the authentication must come from the fact that he worships Yahweh.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles in the OT are restricted to critical periods of redemptive history. Many have discussed the act of Creation as the first miracle, but in actuality it is not presented as such in the Genesis account. A miracle is signified by its revelatory significance and\/or its connection with crucial points in the history of God’s people—the exodus, the conquest of Jordan, the battle against the insidious Baal worship of the prophetic period. Creation is characterized by one major theme: a chronicle of the beginnings. The miracles of Genesis—striking blind the inhabitants of Sodom, the Flood, Babel—all signify the wrath of God upon those who have turned against him. This is the other side of redemptive history, the judgment of God upon those who are not his people.<\/p>\n<p>The miracles of the exodus account have two foci: The plagues represent the absolute power of Yahweh over the gods of Egypt, and the miracles of the wilderness show God’s absolute care and protection of his people. The plagues are particularly interesting because each one is directed at one of the gods of Egypt and reveals Yahweh as the only potentate. The basic theme is found in Exodus 7:5 and is repeated throughout the account (cf. 7:17; 8:6, 18; 9:14-16, 29; 12:12): “When I show the Egyptians my power and force them to let the Israelites go, they will realize that I am the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In this regard they were directed not only at the Egyptians but also to the Israelites, who needed to know that their God would vindicate them against the Egyptians. This is borne out in the major miracle, the crossing of the Red Sea. The plagues themselves show a gradual increase in severity.<\/p>\n<p>The wilderness miracles are intimately connected to the basic theme of the wandering narratives, the trial of Israel in times of desperate need and God’s providential protection of his people when they turn to him. The basic organization of the stories concerns the need itself, which leads to Israel’s complaint; this is followed by Moses’ intercession and then by God’s sovereign intervention. The miracles are interspersed with other stories that tell of God’s punishment when the people’s murmuring tries him too far. The miracle is God’s self-revelation regarding his involvement in the needs of his own; Israel must then respond, and her response determines her blessing or punishment at the hands of Yahweh.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles are conspicuously absent in the period of the united monarchy. This was a time of self-sufficiency, when God worked through the monarchy and did not intervene directly in the life of the nation. The reason is that Israel’s eschatological hopes had been realized and made concrete in the presence of the Holy City and the temple.<\/p>\n<p>It was different during the prophetic period. In the lives of Elijah and Elisha, miracles were predominant. This was a time of apostasy, and under the reign of Ahab and Jezebel the nation turned to paganism and the worship of Baal. The very existence of the Hebraic religion seemed to be threatened, and so the times called for extraordinary measures. Here the wondrous nature of the miracles is more evident than anywhere else in the OT. There are conscious allusions to the exodus miracles, perhaps looking to Elijah as a new Moses reinstituting the true worship of Yahweh. Parallels are seen in the challenge to the priests of Baal (1 Kgs 18; cf. Ex 7); the revelation of God on Mt Horeb with the wind, earthquake, and fire (1 Kgs 19; cf. Ex 19); and the parting of the Jordan (2 Kgs 2:10-14; cf. Ex 14). Many of the miracles were intended to demonstrate the impotence of Baal, such as the drought, the contest on Mt Carmel, and the miraculous sustenance supplied by God. Again, God’s actions within history were part of his self-revelation, the vindication of his messengers, and the punishment of his enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles are infrequent in the writing prophets, perhaps due to the proclamation form of the writings (i.e., they dealt with message rather than deeds). The two major exceptions (apart from the recovery of Hezekiah chronicled in Is 38) are Jonah and Daniel. In Jonah, the miracle is addressed not to the Ninevites but to the Israelites, who are called back to their covenant obligations as the spokesmen for Yahweh. In Daniel the direction is reversed, and the situation is the same as that in Exodus or Kings. The miracles are directed to the Babylonians and Persians and have the same foci as the earlier events of the exodus and Elijah-Elisha chronicles, that is, the supremacy of Yahweh over the foreign gods and the vindication of his messengers. This is the third and final time of crisis and illustrates the major theological use of miracles in the OT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MiraclesintheNewTestament\">Miracles in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the miraculous has a similar purpose in the NT; it occurred at a crisis point in salvation history to authenticate the presence of God in historical acts. It differs, however, in that it is transcended by the presence of the very Son of God, who himself is the greatest miracle of all. God now has not only acted in history; he has entered history and has turned it to himself. The parallels with the exodus events are obvious and show that the miracles of Jesus paved the way for the entrance of the new covenant in the same way that the exodus miracles prepared for the old.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Jesus’ Understanding<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus stressed the connection between his miraculous ministry, especially the casting out of demons (exorcism), and the coming of the kingdom of God. As in the OT, the miracles signify the presence of God, but here it is more direct and also signals the inauguration of his kingdom (Mt 12:28). As such, then, the exorcism miracles mean the binding of Satan and the institution of the reign of God (Mk 3:23-27). At the same time all the miracles signify the dawning of the age of salvation, as expressed in Jesus’ inaugural address at Nazareth (Lk 4:18-21, from Is 61:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Yet these miracles are not automatic signposts to the act of God; they must be interpreted by faith. Jesus was well aware of the presence of other miracles in his day (Mt 12:27) and so stressed the presence of faith in the healing miracles (Mk 5:32; 10:52). This faith must be directed to the presence of God in the event and in Jesus himself. The necessity of faith also helps to understand Jesus’ refusal to provide his contemporaries with a “sign” (Mk 8:11-12); miracles could never “prove” the presence of God. For a better understanding of the connection between faith and miracles, it is best to note each Evangelist’s individual portrait of the theological use of miracles.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Mark<\/h5>\n<p>Mark, the first of the four Gospels to be written, has often been called the “action Gospel” because of its emphasis on Jesus’ deeds rather than his teaching. This is also true regarding Jesus’ miracles, for Mark contains more proportionately than any of the others. There are five groups or five kinds of miracles in Mark. The first group centers on Jesus’ authority over demons (Mk 1:21-39). The second concerns Jesus’ authority over the law and conflict with his opponents (1:40–3:6). They result in fame but occasion his refusal to allow his true identity as Son of God to be known. The third group (3:7-30) contains exorcisms and the Beelzebub controversy, centering on his power over Satan. The fourth group (4:35–6:43) contains especially powerful miracles (stilling the storm, the Gaderene demoniac, the raising of Jairus’s daughter) and probably centers on the disciples, as Jesus thereby reveals to them the meaning of the kingdom and seeks to overcome their own spiritual dullness. The fifth and final group (6:30–8:26) continues the theme of the disciples’ misunderstanding and prepares the way for the Passion, with the message regarding the bread, blindness, and the judgment of God.<\/p>\n<p>The miracles in Mark center on conflict, first with Jesus’ opponents and then with his own disciples. While the miracles are harbingers of God’s kingdom, their purpose is to force an encounter with Jesus’ true significance. They do not show Jesus as a Hellenistic wonder worker; in fact, they lead only to amazement and then disbelief in those who do not have faith. Jesus’ personhood has been hidden and can only be understood in light of the cross. The miracles are not proofs but powers; God does not authenticate himself through them but shows himself to those with eyes to see.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Matthew<\/h5>\n<p>Matthew’s is the teaching Gospel, where dialogue takes precedence over action. Matthew compresses Mark’s narrative in order to make room for didactic material. Therefore, his stress is on the theological implications of faith rather than on the results they contain. Matthew’s groups of miracles are isometric to teaching passages, in keeping with his general practice of combining narrative portions and organizing them around didactic sections. The first group (chs 8–9) combines miracles from Mark’s first, second, and fourth groups and stresses Jesus’ significance as the servant of Yahweh who exercises sovereign power and forgives sins. The secondary theme teaches discipleship and shows the awakening faith of the disciples and their involvement in Jesus’ ministry. The second group (ch 12) centers on his authority over the law (the man with the withered hand) and over Satan (the Beelzebub controversy). The third group (chs 14–15) parallels Mark’s fifth group but has a different purpose. Rather than arousing conflict, the disciples are seen in positive guise, actively involved in the Master’s work. So the disciples become the means by which Jesus’ ministry is continued. Therefore, the disciples are involved as “learners” (the meaning of “disciple”) in his miraculous ministry.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Luke<\/h5>\n<p>Luke-Acts is remarkable and extremely important because it establishes beyond dispute the early church’s belief that it was in absolute continuity with Jesus and was continuing the work of God in the world. Luke’s major stress is on salvation history, and so one of his major stylistic methods for showing this direct connection is miraculous deeds. Especially enlightening here is Acts 9:32-42, where in two healing miracles Peter duplicated the Lord’s miracles (the paralytic Aeneas, Lk 5:18-26; the raising of Dorcas, Lk 8:49-56).<\/p>\n<p>From this respect also Luke returns to Mark’s interest in the deed more than the teaching. However, Luke goes even further than Mark, for the miracles validate Jesus more directly. The first group follows the inaugural address (4:18-22), which itself presents the miraculous deeds as authenticating signposts to Jesus’ personhood. They center on Jesus’ power and authority (vv 31-41) and validate God’s power in Jesus (5:17; 8:39) as well as faith in Jesus (seen in the “praise” motif, 5:25; 7:16; etc., but especially in Acts 9:35; 13:12; 19:17). The presence of “fear” at the miracles is a human response to having witnessed God’s power (Lk 5:26; 7:16; 8:35-37; 24:5). The call to the disciples occurs in the presence of miracles (5:1-11, at the miraculous catch of fish; vv 27-28, after the healing of the bedridden paralytic).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, Luke views miracles as having redemptive significance. However, this is not contrary to Mark’s picture. Luke still avoids picturing Jesus as a mere wonder worker; Jesus still refuses to satisfy people’s curiosity for an external sign (Lk 11:29-32; cf. also 9:9), and in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31) he teaches that the unbelieving heart can never be convinced by such events. Nevertheless, they can lead to repentance (10:13-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in John<\/h5>\n<p>John is the most directly theological of the Evangelists, and miracles are characteristically given a distinctive Johannine coloring. In the Synoptics, miracles are “acts of power” signifying the entrance of God’s reign into this world via Jesus; thereby, Jesus establishes Satan’s defeat and God’s sovereign control of history. John, however, contains no exorcisms, and the miracles are seen as “signs.” At the same time miracles are part of the larger category of “works” (the other term for miracles used in John), by which Jesus shows the Father’s presence in himself (Jn 10:32, 37-39; 14:10) and they give witness to Jesus as the sent one (5:36; 10:25, 38).<\/p>\n<p>John selects only seven “sign miracles” from many others (20:30) and uses them as part of the thematic development in the respective section of each. For instance, changing the water into wine is a messianic act, signifying the outpouring of the kingdom blessing in the ministry of Jesus, the Messiah (ch 2); the multiplication of the loaves builds upon the “bread of life” and points to the messianic banquet as spiritually present in Jesus (ch 6).<\/p>\n<p>The paradoxical nature of miracles in the Synoptics is even greater in John. He gives more stress to the wondrous nature of the events by providing such details as the stupendous amount of water changed into wine (2:6, approximately 120 gallons, or 454.2 liters); the distance over which Jesus’ healing power works (4:46, almost 20 miles, or 32.2 kilometers); the length of time the man of Bethesda had been lame (5:5, 38 years; cf. 9:1, where the man had been born blind); the amount of bread needed to feed the 5,000 (6:7, where Philip said 200 denarii, or days’ wages, would not have bought enough); and the proof of Lazarus’s death (11:39; he had already begun to decay). John has a great interest in the miraculous. Yet at the same time there is even greater stress on the inadequacy of miracles for faith. The miracles as “signs” have saving value and point to the true significance of Jesus but are related to an awakening faith and in themselves are insufficient (2:11; 4:50). They have christological force, looking to Jesus’ sonship and the Father’s authentication of him but are based on the soteriological decision of the individual. As “signs,” they contain the very presence of God in Jesus, the spiritual reality of the “sight” and “life” he brings (9:35-38; 11:24-26). Yet their purpose is to divide the audience and confront it with the necessity of decision. Two camps result—those seeking understanding and those considering only the outward aspects. Some refuse to consider the signs, and thus they reject them (3:18-21; 11:47-50), while others see them shallowly as mere wonders and fail to see in them the true significance of Jesus (2:23-25; 4:45). On the other hand, some view them with the eye of faith and go on to a realization of his personhood (2:11; 5:36-46; 11:42). In John the highest faith of all is that which does not need external stimulation (20:29).<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in the Rest of the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Apart from Acts, several passages in the NT speak of the value of miracles. Paul in 2 Corinthians 12:12 and Romans 15:18-19 considered them as “sign-gifts,” which authenticated the divine authority of the “true apostle.” He listed healing and miracles as specific “gifts of the Spirit” in 1 Corinthians 12:9-10. In Galatians 3:5 he considered them evidence for the presence of the Spirit. The author of the letter to the Hebrews in 2:4 said “God bore witness” to the true message of salvation via miracles. Therefore, in the apostolic age the miracles of God’s servants were seen more directly as authenticating signs of God’s action in his messengers.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Sign; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIRACLE A divine act by which God reveals himself to people. The classical definition of miracle assumes that it is contrary to natural law, but this is a misnomer for two reasons. First, many of the miracles of the Bible used nature rather than bypassed it (e.g., the wind that parted the Red Sea, Ex 14:21). Second, there no longer is a concept of “absolute natural laws”; rather, a phenomenon that is not readily explainable may reflect laws that scientists do not yet fully understand. In Scri...","summary_en":"MIRACLE A divine act by which God reveals himself to people. The classical definition of miracle assumes that it is contrary to natural law, but this is a misnomer for two reasons. First, many of the miracles of the Bible used nature rather than bypassed it (e.g., the wind that parted the Red Sea, Ex 14:21). Second, there no longer is a concept of “absolute natural laws”; rather, a phenomenon that is not readily explainable may reflect laws that scientists do not yet fully understand. In Scri...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":40631,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68257,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95883,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123509,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34430,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Servant","title_en":"Servant","content_ro":"<h3>SERVANT<\/h3>\n<p>A person under obligation to serve a master, who in turn would provide a measure of protection. Some servants were slaves under legal bondage; others were servants voluntarily. It is not always possible to distinguish among “servant,” “slave,” “bondman,” and “bondwoman.” Several words in both Hebrew and Greek have been translated “servant,” although newer translations sometimes prefer other words.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “lad,” “youth,” or “boy” often means servant (Ex 33:11; Nm 22:22; 2 Kgs 4:12). A word meaning “free-born servant” referred to the servants of the Lord, like the Levites (Ezr 8:17; Is 61:6; Ez 44:11) or priests (Ex 28:35; Jl 1:9; 2:17). Sometimes ministers of the king are called servants (1 Chr 27:1; Prv 29:12), as are angels who minister before the Lord (Pss 103:21; 104:4). The hired servant or hireling was also considered a free person (Ex 12:45; Jb 7:1; Mal 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>The most common Hebrew term, occurring nearly 800 times in the OT, denotes a slave held in bondage (Gn 9:25; 12:16; Ex 20:17; Dt 5:15; 15:17). Yet the same word is used for people of noble rank, such as ministers and advisers to the king (2 Kgs 22:12; 2 Chr 34:20; Neh 2:10) or a servant of God (Gn 24:14; Nm 12:7; Jos 1:7; 2 Kgs 21:8), in such expressions as “Moses [or also David, Isaiah, Israel, Job, etc.] my servant.” One of the noblest expressions is “the servant of Yahweh [the <span>Lord<\/span>]” (Dt 34:5; Jos 1:13; 8:31-33; Is 49:1-6; 50:4-9; 52:13–53:12). The proper name Obadiah means “servant of Yahweh.”<\/p>\n<p>The NT variously defines servant as a hired servant or hireling (Mk 1:20; Lk 15:17-19; Jn 10:12-14), more widely as a slave (Mt 8:9; 10:24-25; 13:27-28; Mk 10:44; 12:2-4; Lk 7:2-3, 8-10; Jn 4:51; 8:34; 13:16; Eph 6:5; Col 1:7), and also as a domestic servant (Lk 16:13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Slave, Slavery.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SERVANT<\/h3>\n<p>A person under obligation to serve a master, who in turn would provide a measure of protection. Some servants were slaves under legal bondage; others were servants voluntarily. It is not always possible to distinguish among “servant,” “slave,” “bondman,” and “bondwoman.” Several words in both Hebrew and Greek have been translated “servant,” although newer translations sometimes prefer other words.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “lad,” “youth,” or “boy” often means servant (Ex 33:11; Nm 22:22; 2 Kgs 4:12). A word meaning “free-born servant” referred to the servants of the Lord, like the Levites (Ezr 8:17; Is 61:6; Ez 44:11) or priests (Ex 28:35; Jl 1:9; 2:17). Sometimes ministers of the king are called servants (1 Chr 27:1; Prv 29:12), as are angels who minister before the Lord (Pss 103:21; 104:4). The hired servant or hireling was also considered a free person (Ex 12:45; Jb 7:1; Mal 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>The most common Hebrew term, occurring nearly 800 times in the OT, denotes a slave held in bondage (Gn 9:25; 12:16; Ex 20:17; Dt 5:15; 15:17). Yet the same word is used for people of noble rank, such as ministers and advisers to the king (2 Kgs 22:12; 2 Chr 34:20; Neh 2:10) or a servant of God (Gn 24:14; Nm 12:7; Jos 1:7; 2 Kgs 21:8), in such expressions as “Moses [or also David, Isaiah, Israel, Job, etc.] my servant.” One of the noblest expressions is “the servant of Yahweh [the <span>Lord<\/span>]” (Dt 34:5; Jos 1:13; 8:31-33; Is 49:1-6; 50:4-9; 52:13–53:12). The proper name Obadiah means “servant of Yahweh.”<\/p>\n<p>The NT variously defines servant as a hired servant or hireling (Mk 1:20; Lk 15:17-19; Jn 10:12-14), more widely as a slave (Mt 8:9; 10:24-25; 13:27-28; Mk 10:44; 12:2-4; Lk 7:2-3, 8-10; Jn 4:51; 8:34; 13:16; Eph 6:5; Col 1:7), and also as a domestic servant (Lk 16:13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Slave, Slavery.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SERVANT A person under obligation to serve a master, who in turn would provide a measure of protection. Some servants were slaves under legal bondage; others were servants voluntarily. It is not always possible to distinguish among “servant,” “slave,” “bondman,” and “bondwoman.” Several words in both Hebrew and Greek have been translated “servant,” although newer translations sometimes prefer other words. The Hebrew word for “lad,” “youth,” or “boy” often means servant (Ex 33:11; Nm 22:22; 2 ...","summary_en":"SERVANT A person under obligation to serve a master, who in turn would provide a measure of protection. Some servants were slaves under legal bondage; others were servants voluntarily. It is not always possible to distinguish among “servant,” “slave,” “bondman,” and “bondwoman.” Several words in both Hebrew and Greek have been translated “servant,” although newer translations sometimes prefer other words. The Hebrew word for “lad,” “youth,” or “boy” often means servant (Ex 33:11; Nm 22:22; 2 ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43185,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:14<\/strong> Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:14<\/strong> Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:14 Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.","summary_en":"24:14 Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70811,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:14<\/strong> Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:14<\/strong> Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:14 Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.","summary_en":"24:14 Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98437,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:14<\/strong> Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:14<\/strong> Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:14 Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.","summary_en":"24:14 Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126063,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:14","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:14<\/strong> Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:14<\/strong> Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:14 Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.","summary_en":"24:14 Abraham’s future daughter-in-law manifested hospitality and industry like Abraham’s (see 18:1-8). Ten thirsty camels could drink 250 gallons of water, so a woman who would work that hard for a stranger was certainly not lazy, but generous and hospitable.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":4579,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bethuel (Person)","title_en":"Bethuel (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>BETHUEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Youngest son of Abraham’s brother Nahor and his wife, Milcah. Bethuel was thus Abraham’s nephew (Gn 22:23). He was the father of Rebekah (24:15, 24) and was referred to as an Aramean of Paddan-aram (25:20; 28:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETHUEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Youngest son of Abraham’s brother Nahor and his wife, Milcah. Bethuel was thus Abraham’s nephew (Gn 22:23). He was the father of Rebekah (24:15, 24) and was referred to as an Aramean of Paddan-aram (25:20; 28:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETHUEL (Person) Youngest son of Abraham’s brother Nahor and his wife, Milcah. Bethuel was thus Abraham’s nephew (Gn 22:23). He was the father of Rebekah (24:15, 24) and was referred to as an Aramean of Paddan-aram (25:20; 28:5).","summary_en":"BETHUEL (Person) Youngest son of Abraham’s brother Nahor and his wife, Milcah. Bethuel was thus Abraham’s nephew (Gn 22:23). He was the father of Rebekah (24:15, 24) and was referred to as an Aramean of Paddan-aram (25:20; 28:5).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12002,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16852,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hospitality","title_en":"Hospitality","content_ro":"<h3>HOSPITALITY<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical concept often used with the terms “guest,” “stranger,” and “sojourner.” It is useful to limit the meaning of “hospitality” to benevolence done to those outside one’s normal circle of friends, as is implied in the literal meaning of the Greek word meaning “love of strangers.” Although the concept is thoroughly endorsed in the Bible, it is clearly found in nonbiblical cultures as well, especially among the nomadic peoples, where definite obligations to provide food, shelter, and protection are recognized.<\/p>\n<p>The normal exercise of hospitality in the OT can be seen in the examples of Abraham and the three visitors (Gn 18:2-8, 16), Laban’s reception of Abraham’s servant (24:15-61), and Manoah’s treatment of the angel (Jgs 13:15). But there are also cases in which the host felt compelled to take extreme steps to protect his guest, even to the harm of his own family (Gn 19:1-8; Jgs 19:14-24). The hospitality of the Shunammite family is also noteworthy, although Elisha was no stranger to them (2 Kgs 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>According to the NT, Jesus relied on the general practice of hospitality in sending out the disciples (Lk 10:7), as well as in his own travels. As the gospel was spread by traveling missionaries, Christians were commended for entertaining them in their homes (Heb 13:2; 1 Pt 4:9; 3 Jn 1:5-8). Church leaders must not exempt themselves from this ministry (1 Tm 3:2; Ti 1:8); to do so is grounds for judgment (Mt 25:43-46).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreigner.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOSPITALITY<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical concept often used with the terms “guest,” “stranger,” and “sojourner.” It is useful to limit the meaning of “hospitality” to benevolence done to those outside one’s normal circle of friends, as is implied in the literal meaning of the Greek word meaning “love of strangers.” Although the concept is thoroughly endorsed in the Bible, it is clearly found in nonbiblical cultures as well, especially among the nomadic peoples, where definite obligations to provide food, shelter, and protection are recognized.<\/p>\n<p>The normal exercise of hospitality in the OT can be seen in the examples of Abraham and the three visitors (Gn 18:2-8, 16), Laban’s reception of Abraham’s servant (24:15-61), and Manoah’s treatment of the angel (Jgs 13:15). But there are also cases in which the host felt compelled to take extreme steps to protect his guest, even to the harm of his own family (Gn 19:1-8; Jgs 19:14-24). The hospitality of the Shunammite family is also noteworthy, although Elisha was no stranger to them (2 Kgs 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>According to the NT, Jesus relied on the general practice of hospitality in sending out the disciples (Lk 10:7), as well as in his own travels. As the gospel was spread by traveling missionaries, Christians were commended for entertaining them in their homes (Heb 13:2; 1 Pt 4:9; 3 Jn 1:5-8). Church leaders must not exempt themselves from this ministry (1 Tm 3:2; Ti 1:8); to do so is grounds for judgment (Mt 25:43-46).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreigner.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOSPITALITY Biblical concept often used with the terms “guest,” “stranger,” and “sojourner.” It is useful to limit the meaning of “hospitality” to benevolence done to those outside one’s normal circle of friends, as is implied in the literal meaning of the Greek word meaning “love of strangers.” Although the concept is thoroughly endorsed in the Bible, it is clearly found in nonbiblical cultures as well, especially among the nomadic peoples, where definite obligations to provide food, shelter...","summary_en":"HOSPITALITY Biblical concept often used with the terms “guest,” “stranger,” and “sojourner.” It is useful to limit the meaning of “hospitality” to benevolence done to those outside one’s normal circle of friends, as is implied in the literal meaning of the Greek word meaning “love of strangers.” Although the concept is thoroughly endorsed in the Bible, it is clearly found in nonbiblical cultures as well, especially among the nomadic peoples, where definite obligations to provide food, shelter...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22363,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laban (Person)","title_en":"Laban (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","summary_en":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25725,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Milcah","title_en":"Milcah","content_ro":"<h3>MILCAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Daughter of Haran and half sister of Nahor who became Nahor’s wife (Gn 11:29). She bore Nahor eight sons (22:20-23). Through her son Bethuel she was the grandmother of Rebekah (24:15-47).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the five daughters of Zelophehad. Because Zelophehad had no sons, his daughters petitioned Moses to allow them to receive their father’s inheritance in west Manasseh after their father’s death (Nm 26:33; 27:1-11; 36:5-13; Jos 17:3-4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MILCAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Daughter of Haran and half sister of Nahor who became Nahor’s wife (Gn 11:29). She bore Nahor eight sons (22:20-23). Through her son Bethuel she was the grandmother of Rebekah (24:15-47).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the five daughters of Zelophehad. Because Zelophehad had no sons, his daughters petitioned Moses to allow them to receive their father’s inheritance in west Manasseh after their father’s death (Nm 26:33; 27:1-11; 36:5-13; Jos 17:3-4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MILCAH 1. Daughter of Haran and half sister of Nahor who became Nahor’s wife (Gn 11:29). She bore Nahor eight sons (22:20-23). Through her son Bethuel she was the grandmother of Rebekah (24:15-47). 2. One of the five daughters of Zelophehad. Because Zelophehad had no sons, his daughters petitioned Moses to allow them to receive their father’s inheritance in west Manasseh after their father’s death (Nm 26:33; 27:1-11; 36:5-13; Jos 17:3-4).","summary_en":"MILCAH 1. Daughter of Haran and half sister of Nahor who became Nahor’s wife (Gn 11:29). She bore Nahor eight sons (22:20-23). Through her son Bethuel she was the grandmother of Rebekah (24:15-47). 2. One of the five daughters of Zelophehad. Because Zelophehad had no sons, his daughters petitioned Moses to allow them to receive their father’s inheritance in west Manasseh after their father’s death (Nm 26:33; 27:1-11; 36:5-13; Jos 17:3-4).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43186,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:15","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:15-22<\/strong> The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:15-22<\/strong> The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:15-22 The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.","summary_en":"24:15-22 The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70812,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:15","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:15-22<\/strong> The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:15-22<\/strong> The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:15-22 The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.","summary_en":"24:15-22 The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98438,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:15","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:15-22<\/strong> The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:15-22<\/strong> The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:15-22 The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.","summary_en":"24:15-22 The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126064,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:15","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:15-22<\/strong> The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:15-22<\/strong> The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:15-22 The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.","summary_en":"24:15-22 The servant received a precise, immediate answer to his prayer for guidance.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":23979,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Maiden Maid","title_en":"Maiden Maid","content_ro":"<h3>MAID, MAIDEN<\/h3>\n<p>Young unmarried woman, often of the servant class. In the OT, five Hebrew words with varying shades of meaning are translated by the English word “maiden.”<\/p>\n<p>One of these words is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Various English translations of this word include “bondmaid,” “bondwoman,” “handmaid(en),” “maid(en),” “maid servant,” “female servant,” “female slave,” “slave girl,” and “girl.”<\/p>\n<p>Another term is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span><em>.<\/em> This Hebrew word is of similar meaning to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated variously as “handmaid,” “maid(en),” “female slave,” and “slave girl.” Although both <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span> refer to female slaves, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span> seems to imply that a closer relationship existed between the slave and the family to whom she belonged. In the patriarchal story this term is often employed in reference both to female slaves in general and specifically to the concubines who were also slaves to the free wife of their husbands (Gn 16, 29–30).<\/p>\n<p>Still another Hebrew term for “maiden” is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bethulah<\/span><em>.<\/em> This term refers specifically to a virgin, or a young woman of marriageable age (Gn 24:16; Ex 22:16). The OT prophets sometimes used this term figuratively to refer to a city or country as a “virgin” (Jer 31:21; Am 5:2).<\/p>\n<p>Another word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">na‘arah<\/span><em>,<\/em> is itself used in several ways in the OT. Often it refers to an unmarried girl (Est 2:4); at other times it is used in speaking of a servant (Est 4:4; Ru 2:23). This same word is the base of the proper name of a woman (Naarah, the wife of Ashhur, in 1 Chr 4:5-6) and of a city in Ephraim near Jericho (Jos 16:7).<\/p>\n<p>For many years controversy has surrounded the meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span><em>,<\/em> the word for maiden used in Isaiah 7:14. The dispute arises because of the varied definitions of the word throughout the OT (“girl,” “young woman,” “young woman of marriageable age, presumably a virgin”). Only context can accurately determine the meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span> in any given instance. Looking at Isaiah 7:14 from a NT perspective, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span> is a reference to the virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus (see Mt 1:23).<\/p>\n<p>Several Greek words are translated as “maiden” in the English NT. The meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">korasion<\/span> is simply “girl,” “little girl,” or “maiden” (Mt 9:24-25). Another word, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paidiske<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally referred to a “young woman” but later came to mean “a female slave,” “a servant-maid” or “a servant girl” (Mk 14:66; Lk 12:45). It is a diminutive of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pais<\/span> (a Greek word denoting “a young girl,” “maiden,” or “child”) (Lk 8:51, 54). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Numphe<\/span> is the Greek word meaning “young wife,” “bride,” and “daughter-in-law” (Lk 12:53; Rv 21:2). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Parthenos<\/span> is the usual Greek term for “virgin” and occurs 14 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Slave, Slavery.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAID, MAIDEN<\/h3>\n<p>Young unmarried woman, often of the servant class. In the OT, five Hebrew words with varying shades of meaning are translated by the English word “maiden.”<\/p>\n<p>One of these words is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Various English translations of this word include “bondmaid,” “bondwoman,” “handmaid(en),” “maid(en),” “maid servant,” “female servant,” “female slave,” “slave girl,” and “girl.”<\/p>\n<p>Another term is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span><em>.<\/em> This Hebrew word is of similar meaning to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated variously as “handmaid,” “maid(en),” “female slave,” and “slave girl.” Although both <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span> refer to female slaves, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span> seems to imply that a closer relationship existed between the slave and the family to whom she belonged. In the patriarchal story this term is often employed in reference both to female slaves in general and specifically to the concubines who were also slaves to the free wife of their husbands (Gn 16, 29–30).<\/p>\n<p>Still another Hebrew term for “maiden” is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bethulah<\/span><em>.<\/em> This term refers specifically to a virgin, or a young woman of marriageable age (Gn 24:16; Ex 22:16). The OT prophets sometimes used this term figuratively to refer to a city or country as a “virgin” (Jer 31:21; Am 5:2).<\/p>\n<p>Another word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">na‘arah<\/span><em>,<\/em> is itself used in several ways in the OT. Often it refers to an unmarried girl (Est 2:4); at other times it is used in speaking of a servant (Est 4:4; Ru 2:23). This same word is the base of the proper name of a woman (Naarah, the wife of Ashhur, in 1 Chr 4:5-6) and of a city in Ephraim near Jericho (Jos 16:7).<\/p>\n<p>For many years controversy has surrounded the meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span><em>,<\/em> the word for maiden used in Isaiah 7:14. The dispute arises because of the varied definitions of the word throughout the OT (“girl,” “young woman,” “young woman of marriageable age, presumably a virgin”). Only context can accurately determine the meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span> in any given instance. Looking at Isaiah 7:14 from a NT perspective, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span> is a reference to the virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus (see Mt 1:23).<\/p>\n<p>Several Greek words are translated as “maiden” in the English NT. The meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">korasion<\/span> is simply “girl,” “little girl,” or “maiden” (Mt 9:24-25). Another word, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paidiske<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally referred to a “young woman” but later came to mean “a female slave,” “a servant-maid” or “a servant girl” (Mk 14:66; Lk 12:45). It is a diminutive of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pais<\/span> (a Greek word denoting “a young girl,” “maiden,” or “child”) (Lk 8:51, 54). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Numphe<\/span> is the Greek word meaning “young wife,” “bride,” and “daughter-in-law” (Lk 12:53; Rv 21:2). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Parthenos<\/span> is the usual Greek term for “virgin” and occurs 14 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Slave, Slavery.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAID, MAIDEN Young unmarried woman, often of the servant class. In the OT, five Hebrew words with varying shades of meaning are translated by the English word “maiden.” One of these words is ’amah. Various English translations of this word include “bondmaid,” “bondwoman,” “handmaid(en),” “maid(en),” “maid servant,” “female servant,” “female slave,” “slave girl,” and “girl.” Another term is shiphchah. This Hebrew word is of similar meaning to ’amah. It is translated variously as “handmaid,” “m...","summary_en":"MAID, MAIDEN Young unmarried woman, often of the servant class. In the OT, five Hebrew words with varying shades of meaning are translated by the English word “maiden.” One of these words is ’amah. Various English translations of this word include “bondmaid,” “bondwoman,” “handmaid(en),” “maid(en),” “maid servant,” “female servant,” “female slave,” “slave girl,” and “girl.” Another term is shiphchah. This Hebrew word is of similar meaning to ’amah. It is translated variously as “handmaid,” “m...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38025,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Virgin","title_en":"Virgin","content_ro":"<h3>VIRGIN<\/h3>\n<p>Word used only of women and (metaphorically) of places, nations, and the church. Literally, it describes a woman who has reached physical maturity but has not experienced sexual intercourse. Mary, mother of Jesus, is an obvious example (Mt 1:18-25).<\/p>\n<p>The OT puts a high value on premarital virginity. One of Rebekah’s qualities that made her a suitable bride for Isaac was her virginity (Gn 24:16). The law prescribed that priests, as men whose lives should conform most closely to God’s standards, must marry only virgins (Lv 21:7, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>Undoubtedly this reflects the whole Bible’s teaching on marriage, with its ideal of exclusive faithfulness. The NT expresses that ideal by its ban on premarital intercourse (1 Cor 6:13, 18), and by its use of “virgin” language to describe Christians who remain faithful to their Lord (Rv 14:4; cf. 2 Cor 11:2).<\/p>\n<p>Negatively, the OT highlights the same principle in the penalties it lays down for the loss of a woman’s virginity. If the man is morally responsible, he must either marry her or compensate her father (Ex 22:16-17). If the woman herself is to blame, the punishment is death (Dt 22:20-21). The OT says little, however, to commend lifelong virginity. Jeremiah was told not to marry, only to reinforce God’s warning of coming judgment (Jer 16:2). From the woman’s point of view, it was a tragedy to remain an unmarried virgin and therefore childless for life (cf. Jgs 11:37).<\/p>\n<p>The NT echoes the value of marriage but brings out more clearly the advantages of a commitment to virginity for Christian men as well as women. Celibacy for some is God’s gift, declared Paul, because it has positive gains for Christian service (1 Cor 7:7, 25-38). Jesus commended those who “make themselves eunuchs” for the kingdom of heaven’s sake (Mt 19:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Family Life and Relations; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin Birth of Jesus; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>VIRGIN<\/h3>\n<p>Word used only of women and (metaphorically) of places, nations, and the church. Literally, it describes a woman who has reached physical maturity but has not experienced sexual intercourse. Mary, mother of Jesus, is an obvious example (Mt 1:18-25).<\/p>\n<p>The OT puts a high value on premarital virginity. One of Rebekah’s qualities that made her a suitable bride for Isaac was her virginity (Gn 24:16). The law prescribed that priests, as men whose lives should conform most closely to God’s standards, must marry only virgins (Lv 21:7, 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>Undoubtedly this reflects the whole Bible’s teaching on marriage, with its ideal of exclusive faithfulness. The NT expresses that ideal by its ban on premarital intercourse (1 Cor 6:13, 18), and by its use of “virgin” language to describe Christians who remain faithful to their Lord (Rv 14:4; cf. 2 Cor 11:2).<\/p>\n<p>Negatively, the OT highlights the same principle in the penalties it lays down for the loss of a woman’s virginity. If the man is morally responsible, he must either marry her or compensate her father (Ex 22:16-17). If the woman herself is to blame, the punishment is death (Dt 22:20-21). The OT says little, however, to commend lifelong virginity. Jeremiah was told not to marry, only to reinforce God’s warning of coming judgment (Jer 16:2). From the woman’s point of view, it was a tragedy to remain an unmarried virgin and therefore childless for life (cf. Jgs 11:37).<\/p>\n<p>The NT echoes the value of marriage but brings out more clearly the advantages of a commitment to virginity for Christian men as well as women. Celibacy for some is God’s gift, declared Paul, because it has positive gains for Christian service (1 Cor 7:7, 25-38). Jesus commended those who “make themselves eunuchs” for the kingdom of heaven’s sake (Mt 19:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Family Life and Relations; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin Birth of Jesus; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"VIRGIN Word used only of women and (metaphorically) of places, nations, and the church. Literally, it describes a woman who has reached physical maturity but has not experienced sexual intercourse. Mary, mother of Jesus, is an obvious example (Mt 1:18-25). The OT puts a high value on premarital virginity. One of Rebekah’s qualities that made her a suitable bride for Isaac was her virginity (Gn 24:16). The law prescribed that priests, as men whose lives should conform most closely to God’s sta...","summary_en":"VIRGIN Word used only of women and (metaphorically) of places, nations, and the church. Literally, it describes a woman who has reached physical maturity but has not experienced sexual intercourse. Mary, mother of Jesus, is an obvious example (Mt 1:18-25). The OT puts a high value on premarital virginity. One of Rebekah’s qualities that made her a suitable bride for Isaac was her virginity (Gn 24:16). The law prescribed that priests, as men whose lives should conform most closely to God’s sta...","source":"Articles\/V.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":19810,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jewels Jewelry","title_en":"Jewels Jewelry","content_ro":"<h3>JEWELRY, JEWELS<\/h3>\n<p>Decorated adornments. In the Bible, jewelry was used by both men and women (Ex 11:2; Is 3:18-21). Items of jewelry were given as presents (Gn 24:22, 53) and were regularly seized as spoil in war (2 Chr 20:25). Before coinage came into use, jewels were associated with gold and silver as a measure of wealth (21:3) or as a standard of value (Jb 28:16; Prv 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT a wide variety of jewelry is mentioned—arm bracelets (Gn 24:22, 30, 47; Ez 16:11), ankle ornaments (Is 3:18-20), necklaces (Gn 41:42), crowns (Zec 9:16), earrings (Gn 24:22), nose rings (Is 3:21), and finger rings (Gn 41:42; Est 3:10). In each case a gold or silver mounting was used to hold the precious stones. It would seem that the modern art of faceting was not used but the precious stone was rounded, polished, and sometimes engraved. Many of the precious stones valued in antiquity would hardly be classed as precious today, though they might be classified as semiprecious.<\/p>\n<p>Semiprecious stones were frequently incorporated into necklaces and other pieces of jewelry. Royal headdresses from the graves at Ur near the Persian Gulf give an indication of the skill of jewelers around 2700 <span>BC<\/span>. Hairbands and pins were necessary parts of hair adornment and have been recovered from numerous Near Eastern archaeological sites. Rings, often with delicately carved stones, were extremely popular, and nose rings were also in use by the middle Bronze Age (see Gn 24:47). Fine gold chains were frequently worn. A signet ring and a heavy gold chain were decorative symbols of office (41:42). Bracelets and amulets were worn around the wrist, the upper arm, and the neck. Decorative pins, similar in design and intent to the modern safety pin, were often used to hold clothing together.<\/p>\n<p>An excellent description of women’s clothing and jewelry is found in Isaiah 3:18-23 (<span>nlt<\/span>), where the prophet warns: “The Lord will strip away their artful beauty—their ornaments, headbands, and crescent necklaces; their earrings, bracelets, and veils of shimmering gauze. Gone will be their scarves, ankle chains, sashes, perfumes, and charms; their rings, jewels, party clothes, gowns, capes, and purses; their mirrors, linen garments, head ornaments, and shawls.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Minerals and Metals; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JEWELRY, JEWELS<\/h3>\n<p>Decorated adornments. In the Bible, jewelry was used by both men and women (Ex 11:2; Is 3:18-21). Items of jewelry were given as presents (Gn 24:22, 53) and were regularly seized as spoil in war (2 Chr 20:25). Before coinage came into use, jewels were associated with gold and silver as a measure of wealth (21:3) or as a standard of value (Jb 28:16; Prv 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT a wide variety of jewelry is mentioned—arm bracelets (Gn 24:22, 30, 47; Ez 16:11), ankle ornaments (Is 3:18-20), necklaces (Gn 41:42), crowns (Zec 9:16), earrings (Gn 24:22), nose rings (Is 3:21), and finger rings (Gn 41:42; Est 3:10). In each case a gold or silver mounting was used to hold the precious stones. It would seem that the modern art of faceting was not used but the precious stone was rounded, polished, and sometimes engraved. Many of the precious stones valued in antiquity would hardly be classed as precious today, though they might be classified as semiprecious.<\/p>\n<p>Semiprecious stones were frequently incorporated into necklaces and other pieces of jewelry. Royal headdresses from the graves at Ur near the Persian Gulf give an indication of the skill of jewelers around 2700 <span>BC<\/span>. Hairbands and pins were necessary parts of hair adornment and have been recovered from numerous Near Eastern archaeological sites. Rings, often with delicately carved stones, were extremely popular, and nose rings were also in use by the middle Bronze Age (see Gn 24:47). Fine gold chains were frequently worn. A signet ring and a heavy gold chain were decorative symbols of office (41:42). Bracelets and amulets were worn around the wrist, the upper arm, and the neck. Decorative pins, similar in design and intent to the modern safety pin, were often used to hold clothing together.<\/p>\n<p>An excellent description of women’s clothing and jewelry is found in Isaiah 3:18-23 (<span>nlt<\/span>), where the prophet warns: “The Lord will strip away their artful beauty—their ornaments, headbands, and crescent necklaces; their earrings, bracelets, and veils of shimmering gauze. Gone will be their scarves, ankle chains, sashes, perfumes, and charms; their rings, jewels, party clothes, gowns, capes, and purses; their mirrors, linen garments, head ornaments, and shawls.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Minerals and Metals; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JEWELRY, JEWELS Decorated adornments. In the Bible, jewelry was used by both men and women (Ex 11:2; Is 3:18-21). Items of jewelry were given as presents (Gn 24:22, 53) and were regularly seized as spoil in war (2 Chr 20:25). Before coinage came into use, jewels were associated with gold and silver as a measure of wealth (21:3) or as a standard of value (Jb 28:16; Prv 3:15). In the OT a wide variety of jewelry is mentioned—arm bracelets (Gn 24:22, 30, 47; Ez 16:11), ankle ornaments (Is 3:18-2...","summary_en":"JEWELRY, JEWELS Decorated adornments. In the Bible, jewelry was used by both men and women (Ex 11:2; Is 3:18-21). Items of jewelry were given as presents (Gn 24:22, 53) and were regularly seized as spoil in war (2 Chr 20:25). Before coinage came into use, jewels were associated with gold and silver as a measure of wealth (21:3) or as a standard of value (Jb 28:16; Prv 3:15). In the OT a wide variety of jewelry is mentioned—arm bracelets (Gn 24:22, 30, 47; Ez 16:11), ankle ornaments (Is 3:18-2...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26201,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Money","title_en":"Money","content_ro":"<h3>MONEY<\/h3>\n<p>Medium of exchange, measurement of value, means of payment.<\/p>\n<p>Money was developed as a convenient medium of exchange to supplement and later to replace bartering, although the two systems operated concurrently for many centuries. From the patriarchal period to the present day, wealth has been measured in terms of goods and precious metals, particularly gold and silver, which remain universally acceptable mediums of exchange. Genesis 13:2 describes Abraham as “very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold.”<\/p>\n<p>Wealth in a nomadic or seminomadic society was frequently measured by the number of cattle a person possessed, and because of this, cattle were a readily acceptable and easily valued, if rather large, medium of exchange. The degree to which cattle were commonly recognized as the standard for value, wealth, and exchange is reflected in the Latin form for money, <em>pecunia,<\/em> which is derived directly from <em>pecus,<\/em> meaning “cattle.” For religious purposes, taxes or donations paid in cattle were most acceptable, and this not only increased the general recognition for this medium but also made the temple a repository for large herds of cattle, as well as smaller animals and produce, which, if they could not be used directly in the temple rituals, could be bartered for whatever commodities were required. Perishable foods were less popular for purposes of exchange than animals such as sheep and asses, although timber, wine, and honey were regularly used as a form of currency (1 Sm 8:15; 2 Kgs 3:4; Ez 45:13-16). Both public and private taxes, tribute, and debts of all kinds were settled by this means. Solomon paid Hiram, king of Tyre, in wheat and olive oil for his assistance in the construction of the temple (1 Kgs 5:11), and in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> taxes were commonly paid in jars of wine or olive oil. Tribute in the form of sheep and wool is recorded in 2 Kings 3:4.<\/p>\n<p>All the means of exchange mentioned represented goods that could be measured or counted, and attempts were made to establish a standard rate of exchange for them in relation to each other.<\/p>\n<p>Silver was the precious metal most readily available in the ancient Near East and was therefore the one most frequently mentioned in connection with purchases by weight, and at a later period by coin. The first recorded instance in the Bible of silver being used as a medium of exchange occurs in Genesis 20:14-16, where Abraham received a payment of 1,000 shekels by weight of silver, as well as animals and slaves. Abraham also purchased the field and cave of Machpelah for 400 shekels of silver (Gn 23:15-16), which according to the custom of the day had to be weighed out in front of the vendor and checked by witnesses (cf. Jer 32:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>As these events occurred about the beginning of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the term “shekel” would not represent the coin familiar from later periods but rather a certain weight of silver. At a later time the brothers of Joseph sold him to traveling merchants for 20 shekels of silver (Gn 37:28). Genesis 33:19 mentions another unit of weight for metal, <em>the kesitah<\/em> (<span>nlt<\/span> mg), in connection with the purchase of a field by Jacob; the term occurs again in Joshua 24:32 and Job 42:11. This unit may have represented an amount equivalent to the currency value for a lamb.<\/p>\n<p>In time large animals and material objects came to be considered extremely cumbersome as a means of exchange, and metal became increasingly popular. Transportation of large quantities of precious metal remained a problem, however, and a method had to be devised for easy recognition, accessibility, and storage of particular metals of value.<\/p>\n<p>Over the years, fairly uniform shapes were designed for metals used in transactions. Silver could be piled or tied in bundles, as shown in Egyptian bas-reliefs, and the sons of Jacob took advantage of a similar method in transporting the purchase price of the grain they were buying from Egypt (Gn 42:35). About 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, pieces of metal shaped in the form of ingots, bars, tongues, or heads of animals were in use, as well as gold discs and rings of gold wire. Perhaps the most popular pieces acceptable as currency were those that had also been designed as jewelry. The valuables listed among the spoil of the Midianites included gold chains, bracelets, signet rings, and earrings (Nm 31:50). The bracelets and rings in particular probably represented a standardized weight, and could therefore be used easily as currency. Rebekah received gifts from her fiancé that were in the form of jewelry of specific weight: a gold ring weighing half a shekel and two bracelets weighing ten gold shekels (Gn 24:22). Job was given a fine ring of gold by a number of relatives, and it is unlikely that they would all have given him the same gift if it did not in fact represent a certain monetary value (Jb 42:11).<\/p>\n<p>The requirement in Deuteronomy 14:25 to “bind up your money” would again imply either thin strips of silver that could be bundled together or rings that could be strung. In either event, transportation would be facilitated.<\/p>\n<p>The value for weights of silver mentioned in Mosaic times can best be understood in terms of purchasing power. A ram could be bought for two shekels, while fifty shekels was the price of about four bushels of barley (Lv 27:16). In the time of Elisha, during a good year, one and one-half pecks of fine flour or three pecks of barley could be bought for one shekel (2 Kgs 7:16). Needless to say, monetary valuations of this kind would be affected by such economic considerations as supply and demand.<\/p>\n<p>Estimation by eye was an inaccurate means of judging the value of currency, and there is no doubt that cheating was prevalent in the weighing and examination of metal. The weighing, an essential part of every major transaction, was also very time-consuming. In order to ensure the correct value of the weights, which were usually pieces of bronze, iron, or dressed stones, they carried some sort of stamp. Once this practice was generally established, it was a short step to the stamping of the individual pieces of metal, whether tongues, bars, or bracelets, being used as currency. The next logical development was stamping a piece of silver to authenticate its value for purposes of currency. This was the precursor of the coin, which was not known in the ancient Near East prior to the exilic period. Therefore, any reference to money before that time indicates bars, bracelets, rings, or other metal objects, stamped or unstamped.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest minted coins came from the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor, being credited traditionally to Croesus (560–546 <span>BC<\/span>), the fabulously wealthy ruler of that land. The coins from Lydia were made of electrum, a natural alloy of silver and gold, and they depicted a lion and a bull. Like most of the early coins, the reverse simply contained a punch mark.<\/p>\n<p>Originally a coin not only represented a value, but also its weight was worth the amount of silver or gold of its face value. Thus many of the early coins were slashed heavily by some ancient skeptics, who wished to be sure that the coin was of pure silver and not a less valuable metal coated with silver.<\/p>\n<p>The purity of silver or gold was also a factor in the popularity and acceptance of particular coins. Thus in Greek and Roman times the tetradrachma from Tyre was one of the most widely accepted silver coins because of the purity of its metal content.<\/p>\n<p>The use of coins did not eliminate the necessity for weighing, because the fraudulent clipping of the edges of coins was prevalent from their introduction in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. This particular problem plagued all subsequent issues of coinage, and it was only in the late 18th century in Britain that it was surmounted by a process involving the milling, or reeding, of the edges of the more valuable coins.<\/p>\n<p>In the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, when the Jews returned from exile in Babylonia, coins were donated for the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem, as well as silver and gold in other forms. The gold coin mentioned is a “daric.” The term, apparently derived from the name of the great Persian king Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>), was in wide current use and even appears in biblical passages written at a later date but referring to a period before the reign of Darius (cf. 1 Chr 29:7).<\/p>\n<p>Few craftsmen with the skills required for the manufacture of coins would have been available before the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, so the earliest gold darics were probably minted at Sardis. The mint itself was taken over by the Persians when they occupied the territory, with production continuing as before.<\/p>\n<p>Western sections of the Persian Empire probably used silver coins more frequently than gold. According to some traditions, coinage developed in Greece at Aegina about the time that the Lydians first adopted the concept. The earliest of these silver coins to be excavated so far dates from the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> and was minted in northern Greece.<\/p>\n<p>Also in current use were the popular fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> tetradrachmas from Athens, which had dies on both sides of the coin. These depicted the head of the goddess Athena and the sacred owl.<\/p>\n<p>Although the silver content of many coins in contemporary use was lowered, that of the Athenian tetradrachma remained consistently at its original high standard of purity. This circumstance naturally increased its acceptability, especially in areas caught up in political turmoil where the purity of the local currency was particularly questionable. Because of the stability of the silver content of the coin and the rapidity with which the Greek Empire was expanding, the Athenian tetradrachma was minted and used almost unchanged over a period of 200 years. Many of these coins have been found in hoards all over the eastern Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that by the fourth century <span>BC<\/span> there was a local mint in Judea, for silver coins imitating the Athenian tetradrachma, but also bearing the legend “Jehud,” have been excavated there.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the extent of trade in Greek and Roman times, the coins from the larger centers had a general acceptance in all the Mediterranean coastal areas. They were also favored in the inland areas, especially in those traversed by trading routes or those that were part of a larger empire.<\/p>\n<p>Mints in Gaza, Joppa, and Tyre were established about the end of the fourth century <span>BC<\/span> to produce local currency. At this period Sidon continued to be an important supplier of silver coins, as it had been since the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>As the Seleucids gained control of Judea in 198 <span>BC<\/span>, a period of political turmoil commenced when the Syrians tried to Hellenize the Jewish people. Resentment toward Greek culture and resistance to all tampering with the traditional Jewish faith increased steadily until it found an outlet in the leadership of Mattathias, father of the Maccabees, who began a guerrilla uprising in 167 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When the fortunes of war shifted temporarily to the Maccabeans, King Antiochus of Syria granted Simon Maccabeus the right to mint his own coins (1 Macc 15:6), but before he could take advantage of this prime symbol of independence, the balance of power changed once more. Judea returned to its status as a tributary, and the permission to mint coinage was hastily withdrawn.<\/p>\n<p>Simon’s son, John Hyrcanus, succeeded in overcoming the weakened Syrians and declared independence in 129 <span>BC<\/span>. The small bronze coins minted about 110 <span>BC<\/span> showed a wreath on the obverse bearing the inscription “Johanan the high priest and the community of the Jews.” The reverse displayed a double cornucopia with a poppy head, both of which were Greek symbols of plenty. These were the first genuinely Jewish coins.<\/p>\n<p>With the lack of skilled craftsmen and of a good mint it is hardly surprising that the resulting coins were simple and unpretentious. In consequence they were quite unlike the elaborate, and often delicate, designs of many contemporary coins.<\/p>\n<p>Meanwhile, silver coins continued to be struck in the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon on the orders of the Seleucids, and they remained the most popular silver coins in everyday use in Palestine until Roman times. Even then they continued to circulate side by side with the Roman coinage.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Banker, Banking; Coins; Money Changer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MONEY<\/h3>\n<p>Medium of exchange, measurement of value, means of payment.<\/p>\n<p>Money was developed as a convenient medium of exchange to supplement and later to replace bartering, although the two systems operated concurrently for many centuries. From the patriarchal period to the present day, wealth has been measured in terms of goods and precious metals, particularly gold and silver, which remain universally acceptable mediums of exchange. Genesis 13:2 describes Abraham as “very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold.”<\/p>\n<p>Wealth in a nomadic or seminomadic society was frequently measured by the number of cattle a person possessed, and because of this, cattle were a readily acceptable and easily valued, if rather large, medium of exchange. The degree to which cattle were commonly recognized as the standard for value, wealth, and exchange is reflected in the Latin form for money, <em>pecunia,<\/em> which is derived directly from <em>pecus,<\/em> meaning “cattle.” For religious purposes, taxes or donations paid in cattle were most acceptable, and this not only increased the general recognition for this medium but also made the temple a repository for large herds of cattle, as well as smaller animals and produce, which, if they could not be used directly in the temple rituals, could be bartered for whatever commodities were required. Perishable foods were less popular for purposes of exchange than animals such as sheep and asses, although timber, wine, and honey were regularly used as a form of currency (1 Sm 8:15; 2 Kgs 3:4; Ez 45:13-16). Both public and private taxes, tribute, and debts of all kinds were settled by this means. Solomon paid Hiram, king of Tyre, in wheat and olive oil for his assistance in the construction of the temple (1 Kgs 5:11), and in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> taxes were commonly paid in jars of wine or olive oil. Tribute in the form of sheep and wool is recorded in 2 Kings 3:4.<\/p>\n<p>All the means of exchange mentioned represented goods that could be measured or counted, and attempts were made to establish a standard rate of exchange for them in relation to each other.<\/p>\n<p>Silver was the precious metal most readily available in the ancient Near East and was therefore the one most frequently mentioned in connection with purchases by weight, and at a later period by coin. The first recorded instance in the Bible of silver being used as a medium of exchange occurs in Genesis 20:14-16, where Abraham received a payment of 1,000 shekels by weight of silver, as well as animals and slaves. Abraham also purchased the field and cave of Machpelah for 400 shekels of silver (Gn 23:15-16), which according to the custom of the day had to be weighed out in front of the vendor and checked by witnesses (cf. Jer 32:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>As these events occurred about the beginning of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the term “shekel” would not represent the coin familiar from later periods but rather a certain weight of silver. At a later time the brothers of Joseph sold him to traveling merchants for 20 shekels of silver (Gn 37:28). Genesis 33:19 mentions another unit of weight for metal, <em>the kesitah<\/em> (<span>nlt<\/span> mg), in connection with the purchase of a field by Jacob; the term occurs again in Joshua 24:32 and Job 42:11. This unit may have represented an amount equivalent to the currency value for a lamb.<\/p>\n<p>In time large animals and material objects came to be considered extremely cumbersome as a means of exchange, and metal became increasingly popular. Transportation of large quantities of precious metal remained a problem, however, and a method had to be devised for easy recognition, accessibility, and storage of particular metals of value.<\/p>\n<p>Over the years, fairly uniform shapes were designed for metals used in transactions. Silver could be piled or tied in bundles, as shown in Egyptian bas-reliefs, and the sons of Jacob took advantage of a similar method in transporting the purchase price of the grain they were buying from Egypt (Gn 42:35). About 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, pieces of metal shaped in the form of ingots, bars, tongues, or heads of animals were in use, as well as gold discs and rings of gold wire. Perhaps the most popular pieces acceptable as currency were those that had also been designed as jewelry. The valuables listed among the spoil of the Midianites included gold chains, bracelets, signet rings, and earrings (Nm 31:50). The bracelets and rings in particular probably represented a standardized weight, and could therefore be used easily as currency. Rebekah received gifts from her fiancé that were in the form of jewelry of specific weight: a gold ring weighing half a shekel and two bracelets weighing ten gold shekels (Gn 24:22). Job was given a fine ring of gold by a number of relatives, and it is unlikely that they would all have given him the same gift if it did not in fact represent a certain monetary value (Jb 42:11).<\/p>\n<p>The requirement in Deuteronomy 14:25 to “bind up your money” would again imply either thin strips of silver that could be bundled together or rings that could be strung. In either event, transportation would be facilitated.<\/p>\n<p>The value for weights of silver mentioned in Mosaic times can best be understood in terms of purchasing power. A ram could be bought for two shekels, while fifty shekels was the price of about four bushels of barley (Lv 27:16). In the time of Elisha, during a good year, one and one-half pecks of fine flour or three pecks of barley could be bought for one shekel (2 Kgs 7:16). Needless to say, monetary valuations of this kind would be affected by such economic considerations as supply and demand.<\/p>\n<p>Estimation by eye was an inaccurate means of judging the value of currency, and there is no doubt that cheating was prevalent in the weighing and examination of metal. The weighing, an essential part of every major transaction, was also very time-consuming. In order to ensure the correct value of the weights, which were usually pieces of bronze, iron, or dressed stones, they carried some sort of stamp. Once this practice was generally established, it was a short step to the stamping of the individual pieces of metal, whether tongues, bars, or bracelets, being used as currency. The next logical development was stamping a piece of silver to authenticate its value for purposes of currency. This was the precursor of the coin, which was not known in the ancient Near East prior to the exilic period. Therefore, any reference to money before that time indicates bars, bracelets, rings, or other metal objects, stamped or unstamped.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest minted coins came from the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor, being credited traditionally to Croesus (560–546 <span>BC<\/span>), the fabulously wealthy ruler of that land. The coins from Lydia were made of electrum, a natural alloy of silver and gold, and they depicted a lion and a bull. Like most of the early coins, the reverse simply contained a punch mark.<\/p>\n<p>Originally a coin not only represented a value, but also its weight was worth the amount of silver or gold of its face value. Thus many of the early coins were slashed heavily by some ancient skeptics, who wished to be sure that the coin was of pure silver and not a less valuable metal coated with silver.<\/p>\n<p>The purity of silver or gold was also a factor in the popularity and acceptance of particular coins. Thus in Greek and Roman times the tetradrachma from Tyre was one of the most widely accepted silver coins because of the purity of its metal content.<\/p>\n<p>The use of coins did not eliminate the necessity for weighing, because the fraudulent clipping of the edges of coins was prevalent from their introduction in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. This particular problem plagued all subsequent issues of coinage, and it was only in the late 18th century in Britain that it was surmounted by a process involving the milling, or reeding, of the edges of the more valuable coins.<\/p>\n<p>In the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, when the Jews returned from exile in Babylonia, coins were donated for the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem, as well as silver and gold in other forms. The gold coin mentioned is a “daric.” The term, apparently derived from the name of the great Persian king Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>), was in wide current use and even appears in biblical passages written at a later date but referring to a period before the reign of Darius (cf. 1 Chr 29:7).<\/p>\n<p>Few craftsmen with the skills required for the manufacture of coins would have been available before the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, so the earliest gold darics were probably minted at Sardis. The mint itself was taken over by the Persians when they occupied the territory, with production continuing as before.<\/p>\n<p>Western sections of the Persian Empire probably used silver coins more frequently than gold. According to some traditions, coinage developed in Greece at Aegina about the time that the Lydians first adopted the concept. The earliest of these silver coins to be excavated so far dates from the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> and was minted in northern Greece.<\/p>\n<p>Also in current use were the popular fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> tetradrachmas from Athens, which had dies on both sides of the coin. These depicted the head of the goddess Athena and the sacred owl.<\/p>\n<p>Although the silver content of many coins in contemporary use was lowered, that of the Athenian tetradrachma remained consistently at its original high standard of purity. This circumstance naturally increased its acceptability, especially in areas caught up in political turmoil where the purity of the local currency was particularly questionable. Because of the stability of the silver content of the coin and the rapidity with which the Greek Empire was expanding, the Athenian tetradrachma was minted and used almost unchanged over a period of 200 years. Many of these coins have been found in hoards all over the eastern Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that by the fourth century <span>BC<\/span> there was a local mint in Judea, for silver coins imitating the Athenian tetradrachma, but also bearing the legend “Jehud,” have been excavated there.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the extent of trade in Greek and Roman times, the coins from the larger centers had a general acceptance in all the Mediterranean coastal areas. They were also favored in the inland areas, especially in those traversed by trading routes or those that were part of a larger empire.<\/p>\n<p>Mints in Gaza, Joppa, and Tyre were established about the end of the fourth century <span>BC<\/span> to produce local currency. At this period Sidon continued to be an important supplier of silver coins, as it had been since the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>As the Seleucids gained control of Judea in 198 <span>BC<\/span>, a period of political turmoil commenced when the Syrians tried to Hellenize the Jewish people. Resentment toward Greek culture and resistance to all tampering with the traditional Jewish faith increased steadily until it found an outlet in the leadership of Mattathias, father of the Maccabees, who began a guerrilla uprising in 167 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When the fortunes of war shifted temporarily to the Maccabeans, King Antiochus of Syria granted Simon Maccabeus the right to mint his own coins (1 Macc 15:6), but before he could take advantage of this prime symbol of independence, the balance of power changed once more. Judea returned to its status as a tributary, and the permission to mint coinage was hastily withdrawn.<\/p>\n<p>Simon’s son, John Hyrcanus, succeeded in overcoming the weakened Syrians and declared independence in 129 <span>BC<\/span>. The small bronze coins minted about 110 <span>BC<\/span> showed a wreath on the obverse bearing the inscription “Johanan the high priest and the community of the Jews.” The reverse displayed a double cornucopia with a poppy head, both of which were Greek symbols of plenty. These were the first genuinely Jewish coins.<\/p>\n<p>With the lack of skilled craftsmen and of a good mint it is hardly surprising that the resulting coins were simple and unpretentious. In consequence they were quite unlike the elaborate, and often delicate, designs of many contemporary coins.<\/p>\n<p>Meanwhile, silver coins continued to be struck in the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon on the orders of the Seleucids, and they remained the most popular silver coins in everyday use in Palestine until Roman times. Even then they continued to circulate side by side with the Roman coinage.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Banker, Banking; Coins; Money Changer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MONEY Medium of exchange, measurement of value, means of payment. Money was developed as a convenient medium of exchange to supplement and later to replace bartering, although the two systems operated concurrently for many centuries. From the patriarchal period to the present day, wealth has been measured in terms of goods and precious metals, particularly gold and silver, which remain universally acceptable mediums of exchange. Genesis 13:2 describes Abraham as “very rich in cattle, in silve...","summary_en":"MONEY Medium of exchange, measurement of value, means of payment. Money was developed as a convenient medium of exchange to supplement and later to replace bartering, although the two systems operated concurrently for many centuries. From the patriarchal period to the present day, wealth has been measured in terms of goods and precious metals, particularly gold and silver, which remain universally acceptable mediums of exchange. Genesis 13:2 describes Abraham as “very rich in cattle, in silve...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43187,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:22","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:22<\/strong> The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:22<\/strong> The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:22 The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.","summary_en":"24:22 The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70813,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:22","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:22<\/strong> The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:22<\/strong> The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:22 The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.","summary_en":"24:22 The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98439,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:22","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:22<\/strong> The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:22<\/strong> The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:22 The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.","summary_en":"24:22 The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126065,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:22","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:22<\/strong> The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:22<\/strong> The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:22 The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.","summary_en":"24:22 The servant showed his gratitude by giving the girl expensive jewelry.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":43188,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:23-24<\/strong> God led the servant to Abraham’s family.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:23-24<\/strong> God led the servant to Abraham’s family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:23-24 God led the servant to Abraham’s family.","summary_en":"24:23-24 God led the servant to Abraham’s family.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70814,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:23-24<\/strong> God led the servant to Abraham’s family.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:23-24<\/strong> God led the servant to Abraham’s family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:23-24 God led the servant to Abraham’s family.","summary_en":"24:23-24 God led the servant to Abraham’s family.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98440,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:23-24<\/strong> God led the servant to Abraham’s family.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:23-24<\/strong> God led the servant to Abraham’s family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:23-24 God led the servant to Abraham’s family.","summary_en":"24:23-24 God led the servant to Abraham’s family.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126066,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:23-24<\/strong> God led the servant to Abraham’s family.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:23-24<\/strong> God led the servant to Abraham’s family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:23-24 God led the servant to Abraham’s family.","summary_en":"24:23-24 God led the servant to Abraham’s family.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":40661,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68287,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95913,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123539,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22362,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laban (Person)","title_en":"Laban (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","summary_en":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":43189,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:25","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:25<\/strong> Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:25<\/strong> Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:25 Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.","summary_en":"24:25 Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70815,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:25","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:25<\/strong> Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:25<\/strong> Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:25 Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.","summary_en":"24:25 Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98441,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:25","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:25<\/strong> Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:25<\/strong> Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:25 Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.","summary_en":"24:25 Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126067,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:25","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:25<\/strong> Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:25<\/strong> Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:25 Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.","summary_en":"24:25 Rebekah again showed kindness by offering lodging for the servant and food for his camels.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":43190,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:26","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:26<\/strong> The servant <em>bowed<\/em> to the ground and <em>worshiped the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:26<\/strong> The servant <em>bowed<\/em> to the ground and <em>worshiped the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:26 The servant bowed to the ground and worshiped the Lord for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.","summary_en":"24:26 The servant bowed to the ground and worshiped the Lord for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70816,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:26","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:26<\/strong> The servant <em>bowed<\/em> to the ground and <em>worshiped the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:26<\/strong> The servant <em>bowed<\/em> to the ground and <em>worshiped the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:26 The servant bowed to the ground and worshiped the Lord for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.","summary_en":"24:26 The servant bowed to the ground and worshiped the Lord for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98442,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:26","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:26<\/strong> The servant <em>bowed<\/em> to the ground and <em>worshiped the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:26<\/strong> The servant <em>bowed<\/em> to the ground and <em>worshiped the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:26 The servant bowed to the ground and worshiped the Lord for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.","summary_en":"24:26 The servant bowed to the ground and worshiped the Lord for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126068,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:26","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:26<\/strong> The servant <em>bowed<\/em> to the ground and <em>worshiped the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:26<\/strong> The servant <em>bowed<\/em> to the ground and <em>worshiped the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:26 The servant bowed to the ground and worshiped the Lord for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.","summary_en":"24:26 The servant bowed to the ground and worshiped the Lord for his loyal love and faithfulness in guiding him to the exact family he sought.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":43191,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:27<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master:<\/em> These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:27<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master:<\/em> These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:27 The Lord has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master: These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.","summary_en":"24:27 The Lord has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master: These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70817,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:27<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master:<\/em> These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:27<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master:<\/em> These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:27 The Lord has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master: These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.","summary_en":"24:27 The Lord has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master: These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98443,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:27<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master:<\/em> These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:27<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master:<\/em> These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:27 The Lord has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master: These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.","summary_en":"24:27 The Lord has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master: These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126069,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:27<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master:<\/em> These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:27<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master:<\/em> These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:27 The Lord has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master: These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.","summary_en":"24:27 The Lord has shown unfailing love and faithfulness to my master: These words express this chapter’s message (cp. 24:48). Believers can trust the Lord’s leading because he is sovereign in all things. He never leaves his people to their own resources in carrying out his covenant work.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":22367,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laban (Person)","title_en":"Laban (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","summary_en":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43192,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:29","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:29-31<\/strong> <em>Laban . . . ran:<\/em> He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:29-31<\/strong> <em>Laban . . . ran:<\/em> He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:29-31 Laban . . . ran: He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).","summary_en":"24:29-31 Laban . . . ran: He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70818,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:29","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:29-31<\/strong> <em>Laban . . . ran:<\/em> He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:29-31<\/strong> <em>Laban . . . ran:<\/em> He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:29-31 Laban . . . ran: He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).","summary_en":"24:29-31 Laban . . . ran: He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98444,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:29","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:29-31<\/strong> <em>Laban . . . ran:<\/em> He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:29-31<\/strong> <em>Laban . . . ran:<\/em> He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:29-31 Laban . . . ran: He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).","summary_en":"24:29-31 Laban . . . ran: He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126070,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:29","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:29-31<\/strong> <em>Laban . . . ran:<\/em> He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:29-31<\/strong> <em>Laban . . . ran:<\/em> He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:29-31 Laban . . . ran: He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).","summary_en":"24:29-31 Laban . . . ran: He was not going to miss the chance to marry his sister off and receive more gifts. Laban’s response to the servant’s wealth foreshadows his avaricious character (see 24:54-56 and study note; 29:21-27; 30:27-36; 31:1-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"32":[{"id":3926,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bathing Bathe","title_en":"Bathing Bathe","content_ro":"<h3>BATHE, BATHING<\/h3>\n<p>To cleanse as with water; to wash oneself. In the Bible the terms “bathing” and “washing” translate, often interchangeably, a number of different words. One OT passage uses one Hebrew word for cleaning clothes, another for washing other objects, including the body (Lv 15:8-12).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s dry climate and scarcity of water discouraged bathing except where a stream or pool was available (2 Kgs 5:10; Jn 9:7). Yet people still washed babies at birth (Ez 16:4), dead bodies in preparation for burial (Acts 9:37), and sheep for their shearing (Sg 6:6). Frequent bathing of the whole body was probably reserved for the rich (Ex 2:5), but the prevalence of dust made frequent washing of the face, hands, and feet necessary (Gn 18:4; 19:2; 24:32; 43:24; Jgs 19:21; Sg 5:3). Good grooming for the privileged demanded washing of one’s body before anointing with oil (Ru 3:3; 2 Sm 12:20; Ez 23:41). A good host provided water for a guest’s feet (Gn 18:4; Jgs 19:21; Lk 7:44; Jn 13:4-5). To wash someone’s feet was the task of a servant. For anyone else to do so was a sign of humility (1 Sm 25:41; Lk 7:44-47; Jn 13:3-16; 1 Tm 5:10).<\/p>\n<p>Most biblical references to washing or bathing deal with ritual cleansing. Priests and Levites were required to wash their clothes and faces, and sometimes bodies, before approaching the altar and on ceremonial occasions (Ex 29:4; 30:19-21; 40:7, 12, 30-32; Nm 8:21). Before a slain animal was sacrificed, its legs and intestines were washed (Lv 1:9, 13; 8:21; 9:14). Anyone who was once unclean (e.g., a leper who was healed or someone who had experienced a genital discharge) had to wash his or her clothes and bathe to be ritually pure (Lv 14:8-10; 15:5-11, 21-27). Any garment that became polluted had to be ceremonially cleansed (Lv 6:27; 13:54).<\/p>\n<p>“Washing” is also used figuratively for a cleansing from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 4:4; Jer 2:22; 4:14; 1 Cor 6:11; Heb 10:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BATHE, BATHING<\/h3>\n<p>To cleanse as with water; to wash oneself. In the Bible the terms “bathing” and “washing” translate, often interchangeably, a number of different words. One OT passage uses one Hebrew word for cleaning clothes, another for washing other objects, including the body (Lv 15:8-12).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s dry climate and scarcity of water discouraged bathing except where a stream or pool was available (2 Kgs 5:10; Jn 9:7). Yet people still washed babies at birth (Ez 16:4), dead bodies in preparation for burial (Acts 9:37), and sheep for their shearing (Sg 6:6). Frequent bathing of the whole body was probably reserved for the rich (Ex 2:5), but the prevalence of dust made frequent washing of the face, hands, and feet necessary (Gn 18:4; 19:2; 24:32; 43:24; Jgs 19:21; Sg 5:3). Good grooming for the privileged demanded washing of one’s body before anointing with oil (Ru 3:3; 2 Sm 12:20; Ez 23:41). A good host provided water for a guest’s feet (Gn 18:4; Jgs 19:21; Lk 7:44; Jn 13:4-5). To wash someone’s feet was the task of a servant. For anyone else to do so was a sign of humility (1 Sm 25:41; Lk 7:44-47; Jn 13:3-16; 1 Tm 5:10).<\/p>\n<p>Most biblical references to washing or bathing deal with ritual cleansing. Priests and Levites were required to wash their clothes and faces, and sometimes bodies, before approaching the altar and on ceremonial occasions (Ex 29:4; 30:19-21; 40:7, 12, 30-32; Nm 8:21). Before a slain animal was sacrificed, its legs and intestines were washed (Lv 1:9, 13; 8:21; 9:14). Anyone who was once unclean (e.g., a leper who was healed or someone who had experienced a genital discharge) had to wash his or her clothes and bathe to be ritually pure (Lv 14:8-10; 15:5-11, 21-27). Any garment that became polluted had to be ceremonially cleansed (Lv 6:27; 13:54).<\/p>\n<p>“Washing” is also used figuratively for a cleansing from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 4:4; Jer 2:22; 4:14; 1 Cor 6:11; Heb 10:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BATHE, BATHING To cleanse as with water; to wash oneself. In the Bible the terms “bathing” and “washing” translate, often interchangeably, a number of different words. One OT passage uses one Hebrew word for cleaning clothes, another for washing other objects, including the body (Lv 15:8-12). Israel’s dry climate and scarcity of water discouraged bathing except where a stream or pool was available (2 Kgs 5:10; Jn 9:7). Yet people still washed babies at birth (Ez 16:4), dead bodies in preparat...","summary_en":"BATHE, BATHING To cleanse as with water; to wash oneself. In the Bible the terms “bathing” and “washing” translate, often interchangeably, a number of different words. One OT passage uses one Hebrew word for cleaning clothes, another for washing other objects, including the body (Lv 15:8-12). Israel’s dry climate and scarcity of water discouraged bathing except where a stream or pool was available (2 Kgs 5:10; Jn 9:7). Yet people still washed babies at birth (Ez 16:4), dead bodies in preparat...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"33":[{"id":24502,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Marriage Customs Marriage","title_en":"Marriage Customs Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","summary_en":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43193,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:33","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:33-48<\/strong> The <em>servant<\/em> was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:33-48<\/strong> The <em>servant<\/em> was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:33-48 The servant was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.","summary_en":"24:33-48 The servant was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70819,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:33","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:33-48<\/strong> The <em>servant<\/em> was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:33-48<\/strong> The <em>servant<\/em> was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:33-48 The servant was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.","summary_en":"24:33-48 The servant was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98445,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:33","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:33-48<\/strong> The <em>servant<\/em> was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:33-48<\/strong> The <em>servant<\/em> was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:33-48 The servant was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.","summary_en":"24:33-48 The servant was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126071,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:33","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:33-48<\/strong> The <em>servant<\/em> was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:33-48<\/strong> The <em>servant<\/em> was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:33-48 The servant was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.","summary_en":"24:33-48 The servant was not diverted from his mission; he insisted on telling his story before he would eat. He recounted his mission and acknowledged God’s providence in directing him to Rebekah before attending to his personal needs. The servant wanted everyone to know that this was God’s work, not a chance or humanly arranged meeting.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"34":[{"id":40662,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68288,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95914,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123540,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"35":[{"id":1841,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25880,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Minerals* and Metals","title_en":"Minerals* and Metals","content_ro":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","summary_en":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33074,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Riches","title_en":"Riches","content_ro":"<h3>RICHES<\/h3>\n<p>Wealth measured by money or the amount of property owned, whether land and buildings (Is 5:8-10), livestock (1 Sm 25:2-3), or slaves (8:11-18). Great riches brought great influence and power, as the Hebrew word for wealth implies.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible seems to speak with two voices on the subject of riches, sometimes describing material wealth as a sign of God’s blessing and approval (e.g., Gn 24:35), at other times virtually identifying the rich with the wicked (e.g., Ps 37:7, 16).<\/p>\n<p>God made all things for people to enjoy (1 Tm 6:17). That is why being rich is a matter for thanksgiving, not embarrassment. Every possession that a person can possibly own comes from the Creator (Ps 24:1), so all wealth can rightly be counted as a blessing from God. It was in this spirit that David could pray to God, “Riches and honour come of thee” (1 Chr 29:12, <span>kjv<\/span>). Even when wealth is earned by hard work, the Bible reminds its readers that both their talents and their resources are God-given. Jesus illustrates this important lesson in the parables of the 10 talents (Mt 25:14-30) and the 10 minas (Lk 19:11-26).<\/p>\n<p>Nowhere, then, does the Bible say that having possessions and becoming wealthy are wrong in themselves. There would be no point in the Ten Commandments’ ban on stealing and envy if it was wrong for God’s people to own anything at all. Jesus himself never taught that it was sinful to be rich.<\/p>\n<p>However, Jesus warned that riches could keep a person out of the kingdom: “How hard it is for rich people to get into the Kingdom of God!” (Mk 10:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). Affluence, he taught, can destroy peace (Mt 6:24-34), blind people to the needs of others (Lk 16:19-31), stand between individuals and the gateway to eternal life (Mk 10:17-27), and even bring God’s judgment (Lk 12:16-21). He told his disciples not to accumulate personal wealth (Mt 6:19), and he praised those who gave up their possessions (19:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ warnings against wealth are not, in fact, directed against riches in themselves. What he condemns is the wrong attitudes many people have toward acquiring wealth, and the wrong ways in which they use it. Longing for riches, not having them, chokes the spiritual life like weeds in a field of grain (Mt 13:22). The greedy desire to have more wealth doomed the unforgiving servant (18:23-35). And the rich man’s selfishness, not his wealth, sealed his fate (Lk 16:19-26). Paul captured the main theme in these parables when he said, “The <em>love<\/em> of money is at the root of all kinds of evil” (1 Tm 6:10, <span>nlt<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<p>The greatest danger of all arises when riches gain the mastery in a person’s life. The whole Bible warns against this idolatrous attitude to material things (e.g., Dt 8:17-18; Lk 14:15-24). Satan tempted Jesus to put material wealth and power in God’s place (Mt 4:8-9), and Jesus delivers the clearest warning against making money one’s master (6:24). In this light Jesus instructs the rich young ruler to sell everything (Mk 10:17-22). Here was a wealthy man who had allowed his possessions to possess him. Jesus’ aim was to make him recognize his bondage so he could escape from his self-made prison. The fact that he turned away from Jesus demonstrates the powerful pull of riches.<\/p>\n<p>These blunt warnings are the most striking aspect of Jesus’ teaching on wealth. But alongside his exposure of wrong attitudes he was careful to sketch in the outline of right attitudes. Those who recognize that they are God’s trustees (not owners) of their possessions, he taught, will find many valuable outlets for their riches in the Lord’s service (Lk 12:42-44). Instead of making them tight-fisted, their riches should allow them to express love in many practical ways (2 Cor 8:2). And instead of having their inward peace ruined by anxious greed, they would find the secret of serenity in an increasing sense of dependence on their heavenly Giver (Lk 12:29-31; 1 Tm 6:17).<\/p>\n<p>According to the Bible, then, the morality of riches depends entirely on personal attitudes. And nowhere does this come out more than in the frequent comparisons Scripture draws between material and spiritual wealth. Those who make material riches their goal in life have wrong values. However wealthy they may appear, they are poverty-stricken in God’s sight (Mt 16:26; Rv 3:17). In his view, the truly rich are those whose main aim in life is to serve him as King (Mt 13:44-46). Their wealth lies in the currency of faith and good works (1 Tm 6:18; Jas 2:5)—a heavenly bank balance that no one can steal and nothing can erode: “Wherever your treasure is, there your heart and thoughts will also be” (Mt 6:21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Poor, The; Wages; Wealth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RICHES<\/h3>\n<p>Wealth measured by money or the amount of property owned, whether land and buildings (Is 5:8-10), livestock (1 Sm 25:2-3), or slaves (8:11-18). Great riches brought great influence and power, as the Hebrew word for wealth implies.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible seems to speak with two voices on the subject of riches, sometimes describing material wealth as a sign of God’s blessing and approval (e.g., Gn 24:35), at other times virtually identifying the rich with the wicked (e.g., Ps 37:7, 16).<\/p>\n<p>God made all things for people to enjoy (1 Tm 6:17). That is why being rich is a matter for thanksgiving, not embarrassment. Every possession that a person can possibly own comes from the Creator (Ps 24:1), so all wealth can rightly be counted as a blessing from God. It was in this spirit that David could pray to God, “Riches and honour come of thee” (1 Chr 29:12, <span>kjv<\/span>). Even when wealth is earned by hard work, the Bible reminds its readers that both their talents and their resources are God-given. Jesus illustrates this important lesson in the parables of the 10 talents (Mt 25:14-30) and the 10 minas (Lk 19:11-26).<\/p>\n<p>Nowhere, then, does the Bible say that having possessions and becoming wealthy are wrong in themselves. There would be no point in the Ten Commandments’ ban on stealing and envy if it was wrong for God’s people to own anything at all. Jesus himself never taught that it was sinful to be rich.<\/p>\n<p>However, Jesus warned that riches could keep a person out of the kingdom: “How hard it is for rich people to get into the Kingdom of God!” (Mk 10:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). Affluence, he taught, can destroy peace (Mt 6:24-34), blind people to the needs of others (Lk 16:19-31), stand between individuals and the gateway to eternal life (Mk 10:17-27), and even bring God’s judgment (Lk 12:16-21). He told his disciples not to accumulate personal wealth (Mt 6:19), and he praised those who gave up their possessions (19:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ warnings against wealth are not, in fact, directed against riches in themselves. What he condemns is the wrong attitudes many people have toward acquiring wealth, and the wrong ways in which they use it. Longing for riches, not having them, chokes the spiritual life like weeds in a field of grain (Mt 13:22). The greedy desire to have more wealth doomed the unforgiving servant (18:23-35). And the rich man’s selfishness, not his wealth, sealed his fate (Lk 16:19-26). Paul captured the main theme in these parables when he said, “The <em>love<\/em> of money is at the root of all kinds of evil” (1 Tm 6:10, <span>nlt<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<p>The greatest danger of all arises when riches gain the mastery in a person’s life. The whole Bible warns against this idolatrous attitude to material things (e.g., Dt 8:17-18; Lk 14:15-24). Satan tempted Jesus to put material wealth and power in God’s place (Mt 4:8-9), and Jesus delivers the clearest warning against making money one’s master (6:24). In this light Jesus instructs the rich young ruler to sell everything (Mk 10:17-22). Here was a wealthy man who had allowed his possessions to possess him. Jesus’ aim was to make him recognize his bondage so he could escape from his self-made prison. The fact that he turned away from Jesus demonstrates the powerful pull of riches.<\/p>\n<p>These blunt warnings are the most striking aspect of Jesus’ teaching on wealth. But alongside his exposure of wrong attitudes he was careful to sketch in the outline of right attitudes. Those who recognize that they are God’s trustees (not owners) of their possessions, he taught, will find many valuable outlets for their riches in the Lord’s service (Lk 12:42-44). Instead of making them tight-fisted, their riches should allow them to express love in many practical ways (2 Cor 8:2). And instead of having their inward peace ruined by anxious greed, they would find the secret of serenity in an increasing sense of dependence on their heavenly Giver (Lk 12:29-31; 1 Tm 6:17).<\/p>\n<p>According to the Bible, then, the morality of riches depends entirely on personal attitudes. And nowhere does this come out more than in the frequent comparisons Scripture draws between material and spiritual wealth. Those who make material riches their goal in life have wrong values. However wealthy they may appear, they are poverty-stricken in God’s sight (Mt 16:26; Rv 3:17). In his view, the truly rich are those whose main aim in life is to serve him as King (Mt 13:44-46). Their wealth lies in the currency of faith and good works (1 Tm 6:18; Jas 2:5)—a heavenly bank balance that no one can steal and nothing can erode: “Wherever your treasure is, there your heart and thoughts will also be” (Mt 6:21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Poor, The; Wages; Wealth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RICHES Wealth measured by money or the amount of property owned, whether land and buildings (Is 5:8-10), livestock (1 Sm 25:2-3), or slaves (8:11-18). Great riches brought great influence and power, as the Hebrew word for wealth implies. The Bible seems to speak with two voices on the subject of riches, sometimes describing material wealth as a sign of God’s blessing and approval (e.g., Gn 24:35), at other times virtually identifying the rich with the wicked (e.g., Ps 37:7, 16). God made all ...","summary_en":"RICHES Wealth measured by money or the amount of property owned, whether land and buildings (Is 5:8-10), livestock (1 Sm 25:2-3), or slaves (8:11-18). Great riches brought great influence and power, as the Hebrew word for wealth implies. The Bible seems to speak with two voices on the subject of riches, sometimes describing material wealth as a sign of God’s blessing and approval (e.g., Gn 24:35), at other times virtually identifying the rich with the wicked (e.g., Ps 37:7, 16). God made all ...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"47":[{"id":19820,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jewels Jewelry","title_en":"Jewels Jewelry","content_ro":"<h3>JEWELRY, JEWELS<\/h3>\n<p>Decorated adornments. In the Bible, jewelry was used by both men and women (Ex 11:2; Is 3:18-21). Items of jewelry were given as presents (Gn 24:22, 53) and were regularly seized as spoil in war (2 Chr 20:25). Before coinage came into use, jewels were associated with gold and silver as a measure of wealth (21:3) or as a standard of value (Jb 28:16; Prv 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT a wide variety of jewelry is mentioned—arm bracelets (Gn 24:22, 30, 47; Ez 16:11), ankle ornaments (Is 3:18-20), necklaces (Gn 41:42), crowns (Zec 9:16), earrings (Gn 24:22), nose rings (Is 3:21), and finger rings (Gn 41:42; Est 3:10). In each case a gold or silver mounting was used to hold the precious stones. It would seem that the modern art of faceting was not used but the precious stone was rounded, polished, and sometimes engraved. Many of the precious stones valued in antiquity would hardly be classed as precious today, though they might be classified as semiprecious.<\/p>\n<p>Semiprecious stones were frequently incorporated into necklaces and other pieces of jewelry. Royal headdresses from the graves at Ur near the Persian Gulf give an indication of the skill of jewelers around 2700 <span>BC<\/span>. Hairbands and pins were necessary parts of hair adornment and have been recovered from numerous Near Eastern archaeological sites. Rings, often with delicately carved stones, were extremely popular, and nose rings were also in use by the middle Bronze Age (see Gn 24:47). Fine gold chains were frequently worn. A signet ring and a heavy gold chain were decorative symbols of office (41:42). Bracelets and amulets were worn around the wrist, the upper arm, and the neck. Decorative pins, similar in design and intent to the modern safety pin, were often used to hold clothing together.<\/p>\n<p>An excellent description of women’s clothing and jewelry is found in Isaiah 3:18-23 (<span>nlt<\/span>), where the prophet warns: “The Lord will strip away their artful beauty—their ornaments, headbands, and crescent necklaces; their earrings, bracelets, and veils of shimmering gauze. Gone will be their scarves, ankle chains, sashes, perfumes, and charms; their rings, jewels, party clothes, gowns, capes, and purses; their mirrors, linen garments, head ornaments, and shawls.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Minerals and Metals; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JEWELRY, JEWELS<\/h3>\n<p>Decorated adornments. In the Bible, jewelry was used by both men and women (Ex 11:2; Is 3:18-21). Items of jewelry were given as presents (Gn 24:22, 53) and were regularly seized as spoil in war (2 Chr 20:25). Before coinage came into use, jewels were associated with gold and silver as a measure of wealth (21:3) or as a standard of value (Jb 28:16; Prv 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT a wide variety of jewelry is mentioned—arm bracelets (Gn 24:22, 30, 47; Ez 16:11), ankle ornaments (Is 3:18-20), necklaces (Gn 41:42), crowns (Zec 9:16), earrings (Gn 24:22), nose rings (Is 3:21), and finger rings (Gn 41:42; Est 3:10). In each case a gold or silver mounting was used to hold the precious stones. It would seem that the modern art of faceting was not used but the precious stone was rounded, polished, and sometimes engraved. Many of the precious stones valued in antiquity would hardly be classed as precious today, though they might be classified as semiprecious.<\/p>\n<p>Semiprecious stones were frequently incorporated into necklaces and other pieces of jewelry. Royal headdresses from the graves at Ur near the Persian Gulf give an indication of the skill of jewelers around 2700 <span>BC<\/span>. Hairbands and pins were necessary parts of hair adornment and have been recovered from numerous Near Eastern archaeological sites. Rings, often with delicately carved stones, were extremely popular, and nose rings were also in use by the middle Bronze Age (see Gn 24:47). Fine gold chains were frequently worn. A signet ring and a heavy gold chain were decorative symbols of office (41:42). Bracelets and amulets were worn around the wrist, the upper arm, and the neck. Decorative pins, similar in design and intent to the modern safety pin, were often used to hold clothing together.<\/p>\n<p>An excellent description of women’s clothing and jewelry is found in Isaiah 3:18-23 (<span>nlt<\/span>), where the prophet warns: “The Lord will strip away their artful beauty—their ornaments, headbands, and crescent necklaces; their earrings, bracelets, and veils of shimmering gauze. Gone will be their scarves, ankle chains, sashes, perfumes, and charms; their rings, jewels, party clothes, gowns, capes, and purses; their mirrors, linen garments, head ornaments, and shawls.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Minerals and Metals; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JEWELRY, JEWELS Decorated adornments. In the Bible, jewelry was used by both men and women (Ex 11:2; Is 3:18-21). Items of jewelry were given as presents (Gn 24:22, 53) and were regularly seized as spoil in war (2 Chr 20:25). Before coinage came into use, jewels were associated with gold and silver as a measure of wealth (21:3) or as a standard of value (Jb 28:16; Prv 3:15). In the OT a wide variety of jewelry is mentioned—arm bracelets (Gn 24:22, 30, 47; Ez 16:11), ankle ornaments (Is 3:18-2...","summary_en":"JEWELRY, JEWELS Decorated adornments. In the Bible, jewelry was used by both men and women (Ex 11:2; Is 3:18-21). Items of jewelry were given as presents (Gn 24:22, 53) and were regularly seized as spoil in war (2 Chr 20:25). Before coinage came into use, jewels were associated with gold and silver as a measure of wealth (21:3) or as a standard of value (Jb 28:16; Prv 3:15). In the OT a wide variety of jewelry is mentioned—arm bracelets (Gn 24:22, 30, 47; Ez 16:11), ankle ornaments (Is 3:18-2...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"48":[{"id":43194,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:48","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:48","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:48<\/strong> The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:48<\/strong> The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:48 The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.","summary_en":"24:48 The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70820,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:48","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:48","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:48<\/strong> The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:48<\/strong> The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:48 The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.","summary_en":"24:48 The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98446,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:48","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:48","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:48<\/strong> The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:48<\/strong> The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:48 The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.","summary_en":"24:48 The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126072,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:48","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:48","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:48<\/strong> The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:48<\/strong> The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:48 The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.","summary_en":"24:48 The way that God directed this event from behind the scenes is different than in most of Genesis, but it is true to how the life of faith normally works. Faith, expressed in personal prayer and obedience, looks for evidence of God’s working. Believers usually have to make wise choices and remain faithful to the covenant, trusting that God will guide them through the circumstances of life to accomplish his will.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"50":[{"id":40663,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68289,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95915,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123541,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22368,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laban (Person)","title_en":"Laban (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","summary_en":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43195,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:50","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:50","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:50-51<\/strong> Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take <em>Rebekah<\/em> to his master’s son Isaac.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:50-51<\/strong> Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take <em>Rebekah<\/em> to his master’s son Isaac.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:50-51 Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take Rebekah to his master’s son Isaac.","summary_en":"24:50-51 Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take Rebekah to his master’s son Isaac.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70821,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:50","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:50","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:50-51<\/strong> Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take <em>Rebekah<\/em> to his master’s son Isaac.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:50-51<\/strong> Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take <em>Rebekah<\/em> to his master’s son Isaac.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:50-51 Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take Rebekah to his master’s son Isaac.","summary_en":"24:50-51 Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take Rebekah to his master’s son Isaac.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98447,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:50","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:50","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:50-51<\/strong> Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take <em>Rebekah<\/em> to his master’s son Isaac.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:50-51<\/strong> Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take <em>Rebekah<\/em> to his master’s son Isaac.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:50-51 Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take Rebekah to his master’s son Isaac.","summary_en":"24:50-51 Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take Rebekah to his master’s son Isaac.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126073,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:50","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:50","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:50-51<\/strong> Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take <em>Rebekah<\/em> to his master’s son Isaac.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:50-51<\/strong> Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take <em>Rebekah<\/em> to his master’s son Isaac.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:50-51 Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take Rebekah to his master’s son Isaac.","summary_en":"24:50-51 Following his testimony about God’s guidance, the servant secured the family’s blessing and permission to take Rebekah to his master’s son Isaac.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"53":[{"id":22369,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laban (Person)","title_en":"Laban (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","summary_en":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25806,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Minerals* and Metals","title_en":"Minerals* and Metals","content_ro":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","summary_en":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43196,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:53","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:53","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:53<\/strong> The servant gave expensive gifts to <em>Rebekah<\/em>, her <em>mother<\/em>, and <em>her brother<\/em> to conclude the arrangements.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:53<\/strong> The servant gave expensive gifts to <em>Rebekah<\/em>, her <em>mother<\/em>, and <em>her brother<\/em> to conclude the arrangements.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:53 The servant gave expensive gifts to Rebekah, her mother, and her brother to conclude the arrangements.","summary_en":"24:53 The servant gave expensive gifts to Rebekah, her mother, and her brother to conclude the arrangements.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70822,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:53","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:53","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:53<\/strong> The servant gave expensive gifts to <em>Rebekah<\/em>, her <em>mother<\/em>, and <em>her brother<\/em> to conclude the arrangements.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:53<\/strong> The servant gave expensive gifts to <em>Rebekah<\/em>, her <em>mother<\/em>, and <em>her brother<\/em> to conclude the arrangements.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:53 The servant gave expensive gifts to Rebekah, her mother, and her brother to conclude the arrangements.","summary_en":"24:53 The servant gave expensive gifts to Rebekah, her mother, and her brother to conclude the arrangements.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98448,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:53","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:53","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:53<\/strong> The servant gave expensive gifts to <em>Rebekah<\/em>, her <em>mother<\/em>, and <em>her brother<\/em> to conclude the arrangements.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:53<\/strong> The servant gave expensive gifts to <em>Rebekah<\/em>, her <em>mother<\/em>, and <em>her brother<\/em> to conclude the arrangements.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:53 The servant gave expensive gifts to Rebekah, her mother, and her brother to conclude the arrangements.","summary_en":"24:53 The servant gave expensive gifts to Rebekah, her mother, and her brother to conclude the arrangements.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126074,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:53","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:53","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:53<\/strong> The servant gave expensive gifts to <em>Rebekah<\/em>, her <em>mother<\/em>, and <em>her brother<\/em> to conclude the arrangements.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:53<\/strong> The servant gave expensive gifts to <em>Rebekah<\/em>, her <em>mother<\/em>, and <em>her brother<\/em> to conclude the arrangements.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:53 The servant gave expensive gifts to Rebekah, her mother, and her brother to conclude the arrangements.","summary_en":"24:53 The servant gave expensive gifts to Rebekah, her mother, and her brother to conclude the arrangements.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"54":[{"id":43197,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:54","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:54","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:54-56<\/strong> It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:54-56<\/strong> It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:54-56 It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.","summary_en":"24:54-56 It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70823,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:54","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:54","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:54-56<\/strong> It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:54-56<\/strong> It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:54-56 It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.","summary_en":"24:54-56 It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98449,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:54","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:54","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:54-56<\/strong> It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:54-56<\/strong> It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:54-56 It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.","summary_en":"24:54-56 It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126075,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:54","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:54","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:54-56<\/strong> It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:54-56<\/strong> It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:54-56 It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.","summary_en":"24:54-56 It was hard for Rebekah’s family to let her go so suddenly, and Laban may have hoped to gain more wealth. However, the servant had sworn an oath and would not rest until it was completed. There was no reason for him to stay.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"57":[{"id":40664,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68290,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95916,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123542,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24503,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Marriage Customs Marriage","title_en":"Marriage Customs Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","summary_en":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43198,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:57","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:57","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:57-58<\/strong> Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. <em>Rebekah<\/em> submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:57-58<\/strong> Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. <em>Rebekah<\/em> submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:57-58 Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. Rebekah submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.","summary_en":"24:57-58 Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. Rebekah submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70824,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:57","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:57","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:57-58<\/strong> Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. <em>Rebekah<\/em> submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:57-58<\/strong> Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. <em>Rebekah<\/em> submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:57-58 Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. Rebekah submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.","summary_en":"24:57-58 Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. Rebekah submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98450,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:57","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:57","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:57-58<\/strong> Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. <em>Rebekah<\/em> submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:57-58<\/strong> Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. <em>Rebekah<\/em> submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:57-58 Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. Rebekah submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.","summary_en":"24:57-58 Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. Rebekah submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126076,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:57","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:57","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:57-58<\/strong> Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. <em>Rebekah<\/em> submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:57-58<\/strong> Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. <em>Rebekah<\/em> submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:57-58 Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. Rebekah submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.","summary_en":"24:57-58 Rebekah’s decision to leave immediately to be with her new husband settled the impasse. Rebekah submitted to the Lord’s obvious leading. Young women were normally eager to marry (not to marry was a catastrophe), and later accounts of Laban suggest why Rebekah preferred to leave (cp. 31:14-15). Rebekah displayed faithful love to the servant, Abraham’s family, and Isaac by going to be Isaac’s wife.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"58":[{"id":24454,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Marriage Customs Marriage","title_en":"Marriage Customs Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","summary_en":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"59":[{"id":40665,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68291,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95917,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123543,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9119,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Deborah","title_en":"Deborah","content_ro":"<h3>DEBORAH<\/h3>\n<p>Name of two OT women. The word in Hebrew means “honeybee” (Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>1. Rebekah’s nurse (Gn 35:8). Deborah died as she was traveling to Bethel with her master Jacob’s household. She was buried in a spot remembered as Allon-bacuth (“the oak of weeping”), indicating that she had been well loved. She was probably Rebekah’s longtime companion (see 24:59-61).<\/p>\n<li>2. Prophetess and judge (Jgs 4–5). Deborah’s position as a prophetess, indicating that her message was from God, is not unique in the Bible, but it was unusual. Other prophetesses included Miriam (Ex 15:20), Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14), and Anna (Lk 2:36). Deborah was unique in that only she is said to have “judged Israel” <em>before<\/em> the major event that marks her narrative (Jgs 4:4). Her husband, Lappidoth, is otherwise unknown.<\/li>\n<p>Deborah, heralded as a “mother in Israel” (Jgs 5:7), remained in one location and the people came to her for guidance. Evidently over 200 years later, when the book of Judges was compiled, a giant palm tree still marked the spot. Though residing within the boundary of Benjamin (Jgs 4:5; cf. Jos 16:2; 18:13), Deborah was probably from the tribe of Ephraim, the most prominent tribe of northern Israel. Some scholars, however, place her in the tribe of Issachar (Jgs 5:14-15). At that early time, the tribes were loosely organized and did not always occupy the territory they had been allotted.<\/p>\n<p>Under Deborah’s inspired leadership, the poorly equipped Israelites defeated the Canaanites in the plain of Esdraelon (Jgs 4:15); flooding of the Kishon River evidently interfered with the enemy’s impressive chariotry (5:21-22). The Canaanites retreated to the north, perhaps to Taanach near Megiddo (v 19), and never reappeared as an enemy within Israel. The Song of Deborah (ch 5) is a poetic version of the prose narrative in Judges 4.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Barak; Deborah, Song of; Judges, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEBORAH<\/h3>\n<p>Name of two OT women. The word in Hebrew means “honeybee” (Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>1. Rebekah’s nurse (Gn 35:8). Deborah died as she was traveling to Bethel with her master Jacob’s household. She was buried in a spot remembered as Allon-bacuth (“the oak of weeping”), indicating that she had been well loved. She was probably Rebekah’s longtime companion (see 24:59-61).<\/p>\n<li>2. Prophetess and judge (Jgs 4–5). Deborah’s position as a prophetess, indicating that her message was from God, is not unique in the Bible, but it was unusual. Other prophetesses included Miriam (Ex 15:20), Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14), and Anna (Lk 2:36). Deborah was unique in that only she is said to have “judged Israel” <em>before<\/em> the major event that marks her narrative (Jgs 4:4). Her husband, Lappidoth, is otherwise unknown.<\/li>\n<p>Deborah, heralded as a “mother in Israel” (Jgs 5:7), remained in one location and the people came to her for guidance. Evidently over 200 years later, when the book of Judges was compiled, a giant palm tree still marked the spot. Though residing within the boundary of Benjamin (Jgs 4:5; cf. Jos 16:2; 18:13), Deborah was probably from the tribe of Ephraim, the most prominent tribe of northern Israel. Some scholars, however, place her in the tribe of Issachar (Jgs 5:14-15). At that early time, the tribes were loosely organized and did not always occupy the territory they had been allotted.<\/p>\n<p>Under Deborah’s inspired leadership, the poorly equipped Israelites defeated the Canaanites in the plain of Esdraelon (Jgs 4:15); flooding of the Kishon River evidently interfered with the enemy’s impressive chariotry (5:21-22). The Canaanites retreated to the north, perhaps to Taanach near Megiddo (v 19), and never reappeared as an enemy within Israel. The Song of Deborah (ch 5) is a poetic version of the prose narrative in Judges 4.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Barak; Deborah, Song of; Judges, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEBORAH Name of two OT women. The word in Hebrew means “honeybee” (Ps 118:12; Is 7:18). 1. Rebekah’s nurse (Gn 35:8). Deborah died as she was traveling to Bethel with her master Jacob’s household. She was buried in a spot remembered as Allon-bacuth (“the oak of weeping”), indicating that she had been well loved. She was probably Rebekah’s longtime companion (see 24:59-61). 2. Prophetess and judge (Jgs 4–5). Deborah’s position as a prophetess, indicating that her message was from God, is not u...","summary_en":"DEBORAH Name of two OT women. The word in Hebrew means “honeybee” (Ps 118:12; Is 7:18). 1. Rebekah’s nurse (Gn 35:8). Deborah died as she was traveling to Bethel with her master Jacob’s household. She was buried in a spot remembered as Allon-bacuth (“the oak of weeping”), indicating that she had been well loved. She was probably Rebekah’s longtime companion (see 24:59-61). 2. Prophetess and judge (Jgs 4–5). Deborah’s position as a prophetess, indicating that her message was from God, is not u...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60047,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Blessing","title_en":"Blessing","content_ro":"<h3>Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev 26:3-13). Obedience leads to blessing, whereas rebellion brings a curse (see Deut 28).<\/p>\n<p>The initial realm of blessing is creation, in which God as Creator is the ultimate granter of blessing for animals (Gen 1:22) and humans (1:28; see Pss 104; 128:3-4). Humans also serve as channels of divine blessing. Abraham was called to be a blessing to the nations (Gen 12:2-3). The institutions of family (27:27-29), government (1 Kgs 8:14, 52, 66), and religion (Gen 14:19; Lev 9:22) are nurtured, commissioned, and purified through blessing. Israel’s priests mediated God’s blessing to Israel (Num 6:24-26; Deut 10:8).<\/p>\n<p>Three basic characteristics can be observed in Old Testament blessings: (1) They are conveyed from a greater party to a lesser one (Gen 32:26; Heb 7:6-7); (2) they are signs of favor that result in well-being and productivity (Deut 28:3-7); and (3) they acknowledge that all power and blessing stems from the Creator. All blessings have their source in God’s love (Deut 7:7-8, 12-15).<\/p>\n<p>God’s blessings in the Old Testament are in striking contrast with those of the pagan religions of antiquity. For pagan religions, fortunes and fertility of flock, family, and fields came about through sympathetic magic in ceremonial observances at their shrines—profane customs that were designed to manipulate the deities to act on their behalf so that the cycle of life could be maintained. In the Old Testament, all life, fertility, and blessing came by God’s decree, for he is the only true and living God.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, the emphasis of blessing shifts from the material to the spiritual, from the nation to the church, and from the temporal to the eternal (Matt 6:25; Eph 1:3; 1 Pet 3:9). In his death, Jesus carried the consequences of sin’s curse (Gal 3:13), established God’s Kingdom (Matt 3:2; 5:3-20; John 3:3-5), and blessed its citizens with forgiveness of sin (Rom 4:6-25). Now believers are called to bless the world (Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; see also Isa 19:24; Zech 8:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:22, 28; 9:26-27; 12:2-3; 14:19-20; 24:59-60; 27:1-41; 28:1-4; 32:24-30; 46:1–50:26; Lev 26:3-13; Num 6:22-27; Deut 7:12-15; 10:8; 28:1-14; 33:1-29; 1 Sam 2:20-21; Ps 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-12; Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; Gal 3:13-14; Eph 1:3; Heb 7:6-7; 1 Pet 3:9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev 26:3-13). Obedience leads to blessing, whereas rebellion brings a curse (see Deut 28).<\/p>\n<p>The initial realm of blessing is creation, in which God as Creator is the ultimate granter of blessing for animals (Gen 1:22) and humans (1:28; see Pss 104; 128:3-4). Humans also serve as channels of divine blessing. Abraham was called to be a blessing to the nations (Gen 12:2-3). The institutions of family (27:27-29), government (1 Kgs 8:14, 52, 66), and religion (Gen 14:19; Lev 9:22) are nurtured, commissioned, and purified through blessing. Israel’s priests mediated God’s blessing to Israel (Num 6:24-26; Deut 10:8).<\/p>\n<p>Three basic characteristics can be observed in Old Testament blessings: (1) They are conveyed from a greater party to a lesser one (Gen 32:26; Heb 7:6-7); (2) they are signs of favor that result in well-being and productivity (Deut 28:3-7); and (3) they acknowledge that all power and blessing stems from the Creator. All blessings have their source in God’s love (Deut 7:7-8, 12-15).<\/p>\n<p>God’s blessings in the Old Testament are in striking contrast with those of the pagan religions of antiquity. For pagan religions, fortunes and fertility of flock, family, and fields came about through sympathetic magic in ceremonial observances at their shrines—profane customs that were designed to manipulate the deities to act on their behalf so that the cycle of life could be maintained. In the Old Testament, all life, fertility, and blessing came by God’s decree, for he is the only true and living God.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, the emphasis of blessing shifts from the material to the spiritual, from the nation to the church, and from the temporal to the eternal (Matt 6:25; Eph 1:3; 1 Pet 3:9). In his death, Jesus carried the consequences of sin’s curse (Gal 3:13), established God’s Kingdom (Matt 3:2; 5:3-20; John 3:3-5), and blessed its citizens with forgiveness of sin (Rom 4:6-25). Now believers are called to bless the world (Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; see also Isa 19:24; Zech 8:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:22, 28; 9:26-27; 12:2-3; 14:19-20; 24:59-60; 27:1-41; 28:1-4; 32:24-30; 46:1–50:26; Lev 26:3-13; Num 6:22-27; Deut 7:12-15; 10:8; 28:1-14; 33:1-29; 1 Sam 2:20-21; Ps 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-12; Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; Gal 3:13-14; Eph 1:3; Heb 7:6-7; 1 Pet 3:9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Blessing Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev...","summary_en":"Blessing Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87673,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Blessing","title_en":"Blessing","content_ro":"<h3>Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev 26:3-13). Obedience leads to blessing, whereas rebellion brings a curse (see Deut 28).<\/p>\n<p>The initial realm of blessing is creation, in which God as Creator is the ultimate granter of blessing for animals (Gen 1:22) and humans (1:28; see Pss 104; 128:3-4). Humans also serve as channels of divine blessing. Abraham was called to be a blessing to the nations (Gen 12:2-3). The institutions of family (27:27-29), government (1 Kgs 8:14, 52, 66), and religion (Gen 14:19; Lev 9:22) are nurtured, commissioned, and purified through blessing. Israel’s priests mediated God’s blessing to Israel (Num 6:24-26; Deut 10:8).<\/p>\n<p>Three basic characteristics can be observed in Old Testament blessings: (1) They are conveyed from a greater party to a lesser one (Gen 32:26; Heb 7:6-7); (2) they are signs of favor that result in well-being and productivity (Deut 28:3-7); and (3) they acknowledge that all power and blessing stems from the Creator. All blessings have their source in God’s love (Deut 7:7-8, 12-15).<\/p>\n<p>God’s blessings in the Old Testament are in striking contrast with those of the pagan religions of antiquity. For pagan religions, fortunes and fertility of flock, family, and fields came about through sympathetic magic in ceremonial observances at their shrines—profane customs that were designed to manipulate the deities to act on their behalf so that the cycle of life could be maintained. In the Old Testament, all life, fertility, and blessing came by God’s decree, for he is the only true and living God.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, the emphasis of blessing shifts from the material to the spiritual, from the nation to the church, and from the temporal to the eternal (Matt 6:25; Eph 1:3; 1 Pet 3:9). In his death, Jesus carried the consequences of sin’s curse (Gal 3:13), established God’s Kingdom (Matt 3:2; 5:3-20; John 3:3-5), and blessed its citizens with forgiveness of sin (Rom 4:6-25). Now believers are called to bless the world (Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; see also Isa 19:24; Zech 8:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:22, 28; 9:26-27; 12:2-3; 14:19-20; 24:59-60; 27:1-41; 28:1-4; 32:24-30; 46:1–50:26; Lev 26:3-13; Num 6:22-27; Deut 7:12-15; 10:8; 28:1-14; 33:1-29; 1 Sam 2:20-21; Ps 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-12; Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; Gal 3:13-14; Eph 1:3; Heb 7:6-7; 1 Pet 3:9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev 26:3-13). Obedience leads to blessing, whereas rebellion brings a curse (see Deut 28).<\/p>\n<p>The initial realm of blessing is creation, in which God as Creator is the ultimate granter of blessing for animals (Gen 1:22) and humans (1:28; see Pss 104; 128:3-4). Humans also serve as channels of divine blessing. Abraham was called to be a blessing to the nations (Gen 12:2-3). The institutions of family (27:27-29), government (1 Kgs 8:14, 52, 66), and religion (Gen 14:19; Lev 9:22) are nurtured, commissioned, and purified through blessing. Israel’s priests mediated God’s blessing to Israel (Num 6:24-26; Deut 10:8).<\/p>\n<p>Three basic characteristics can be observed in Old Testament blessings: (1) They are conveyed from a greater party to a lesser one (Gen 32:26; Heb 7:6-7); (2) they are signs of favor that result in well-being and productivity (Deut 28:3-7); and (3) they acknowledge that all power and blessing stems from the Creator. All blessings have their source in God’s love (Deut 7:7-8, 12-15).<\/p>\n<p>God’s blessings in the Old Testament are in striking contrast with those of the pagan religions of antiquity. For pagan religions, fortunes and fertility of flock, family, and fields came about through sympathetic magic in ceremonial observances at their shrines—profane customs that were designed to manipulate the deities to act on their behalf so that the cycle of life could be maintained. In the Old Testament, all life, fertility, and blessing came by God’s decree, for he is the only true and living God.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, the emphasis of blessing shifts from the material to the spiritual, from the nation to the church, and from the temporal to the eternal (Matt 6:25; Eph 1:3; 1 Pet 3:9). In his death, Jesus carried the consequences of sin’s curse (Gal 3:13), established God’s Kingdom (Matt 3:2; 5:3-20; John 3:3-5), and blessed its citizens with forgiveness of sin (Rom 4:6-25). Now believers are called to bless the world (Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; see also Isa 19:24; Zech 8:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:22, 28; 9:26-27; 12:2-3; 14:19-20; 24:59-60; 27:1-41; 28:1-4; 32:24-30; 46:1–50:26; Lev 26:3-13; Num 6:22-27; Deut 7:12-15; 10:8; 28:1-14; 33:1-29; 1 Sam 2:20-21; Ps 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-12; Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; Gal 3:13-14; Eph 1:3; Heb 7:6-7; 1 Pet 3:9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Blessing Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev...","summary_en":"Blessing Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115299,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Blessing","title_en":"Blessing","content_ro":"<h3>Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev 26:3-13). Obedience leads to blessing, whereas rebellion brings a curse (see Deut 28).<\/p>\n<p>The initial realm of blessing is creation, in which God as Creator is the ultimate granter of blessing for animals (Gen 1:22) and humans (1:28; see Pss 104; 128:3-4). Humans also serve as channels of divine blessing. Abraham was called to be a blessing to the nations (Gen 12:2-3). The institutions of family (27:27-29), government (1 Kgs 8:14, 52, 66), and religion (Gen 14:19; Lev 9:22) are nurtured, commissioned, and purified through blessing. Israel’s priests mediated God’s blessing to Israel (Num 6:24-26; Deut 10:8).<\/p>\n<p>Three basic characteristics can be observed in Old Testament blessings: (1) They are conveyed from a greater party to a lesser one (Gen 32:26; Heb 7:6-7); (2) they are signs of favor that result in well-being and productivity (Deut 28:3-7); and (3) they acknowledge that all power and blessing stems from the Creator. All blessings have their source in God’s love (Deut 7:7-8, 12-15).<\/p>\n<p>God’s blessings in the Old Testament are in striking contrast with those of the pagan religions of antiquity. For pagan religions, fortunes and fertility of flock, family, and fields came about through sympathetic magic in ceremonial observances at their shrines—profane customs that were designed to manipulate the deities to act on their behalf so that the cycle of life could be maintained. In the Old Testament, all life, fertility, and blessing came by God’s decree, for he is the only true and living God.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, the emphasis of blessing shifts from the material to the spiritual, from the nation to the church, and from the temporal to the eternal (Matt 6:25; Eph 1:3; 1 Pet 3:9). In his death, Jesus carried the consequences of sin’s curse (Gal 3:13), established God’s Kingdom (Matt 3:2; 5:3-20; John 3:3-5), and blessed its citizens with forgiveness of sin (Rom 4:6-25). Now believers are called to bless the world (Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; see also Isa 19:24; Zech 8:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:22, 28; 9:26-27; 12:2-3; 14:19-20; 24:59-60; 27:1-41; 28:1-4; 32:24-30; 46:1–50:26; Lev 26:3-13; Num 6:22-27; Deut 7:12-15; 10:8; 28:1-14; 33:1-29; 1 Sam 2:20-21; Ps 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-12; Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; Gal 3:13-14; Eph 1:3; Heb 7:6-7; 1 Pet 3:9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev 26:3-13). Obedience leads to blessing, whereas rebellion brings a curse (see Deut 28).<\/p>\n<p>The initial realm of blessing is creation, in which God as Creator is the ultimate granter of blessing for animals (Gen 1:22) and humans (1:28; see Pss 104; 128:3-4). Humans also serve as channels of divine blessing. Abraham was called to be a blessing to the nations (Gen 12:2-3). The institutions of family (27:27-29), government (1 Kgs 8:14, 52, 66), and religion (Gen 14:19; Lev 9:22) are nurtured, commissioned, and purified through blessing. Israel’s priests mediated God’s blessing to Israel (Num 6:24-26; Deut 10:8).<\/p>\n<p>Three basic characteristics can be observed in Old Testament blessings: (1) They are conveyed from a greater party to a lesser one (Gen 32:26; Heb 7:6-7); (2) they are signs of favor that result in well-being and productivity (Deut 28:3-7); and (3) they acknowledge that all power and blessing stems from the Creator. All blessings have their source in God’s love (Deut 7:7-8, 12-15).<\/p>\n<p>God’s blessings in the Old Testament are in striking contrast with those of the pagan religions of antiquity. For pagan religions, fortunes and fertility of flock, family, and fields came about through sympathetic magic in ceremonial observances at their shrines—profane customs that were designed to manipulate the deities to act on their behalf so that the cycle of life could be maintained. In the Old Testament, all life, fertility, and blessing came by God’s decree, for he is the only true and living God.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, the emphasis of blessing shifts from the material to the spiritual, from the nation to the church, and from the temporal to the eternal (Matt 6:25; Eph 1:3; 1 Pet 3:9). In his death, Jesus carried the consequences of sin’s curse (Gal 3:13), established God’s Kingdom (Matt 3:2; 5:3-20; John 3:3-5), and blessed its citizens with forgiveness of sin (Rom 4:6-25). Now believers are called to bless the world (Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; see also Isa 19:24; Zech 8:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:22, 28; 9:26-27; 12:2-3; 14:19-20; 24:59-60; 27:1-41; 28:1-4; 32:24-30; 46:1–50:26; Lev 26:3-13; Num 6:22-27; Deut 7:12-15; 10:8; 28:1-14; 33:1-29; 1 Sam 2:20-21; Ps 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-12; Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; Gal 3:13-14; Eph 1:3; Heb 7:6-7; 1 Pet 3:9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Blessing Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev...","summary_en":"Blessing Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142925,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Blessing","title_en":"Blessing","content_ro":"<h3>Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev 26:3-13). Obedience leads to blessing, whereas rebellion brings a curse (see Deut 28).<\/p>\n<p>The initial realm of blessing is creation, in which God as Creator is the ultimate granter of blessing for animals (Gen 1:22) and humans (1:28; see Pss 104; 128:3-4). Humans also serve as channels of divine blessing. Abraham was called to be a blessing to the nations (Gen 12:2-3). The institutions of family (27:27-29), government (1 Kgs 8:14, 52, 66), and religion (Gen 14:19; Lev 9:22) are nurtured, commissioned, and purified through blessing. Israel’s priests mediated God’s blessing to Israel (Num 6:24-26; Deut 10:8).<\/p>\n<p>Three basic characteristics can be observed in Old Testament blessings: (1) They are conveyed from a greater party to a lesser one (Gen 32:26; Heb 7:6-7); (2) they are signs of favor that result in well-being and productivity (Deut 28:3-7); and (3) they acknowledge that all power and blessing stems from the Creator. All blessings have their source in God’s love (Deut 7:7-8, 12-15).<\/p>\n<p>God’s blessings in the Old Testament are in striking contrast with those of the pagan religions of antiquity. For pagan religions, fortunes and fertility of flock, family, and fields came about through sympathetic magic in ceremonial observances at their shrines—profane customs that were designed to manipulate the deities to act on their behalf so that the cycle of life could be maintained. In the Old Testament, all life, fertility, and blessing came by God’s decree, for he is the only true and living God.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, the emphasis of blessing shifts from the material to the spiritual, from the nation to the church, and from the temporal to the eternal (Matt 6:25; Eph 1:3; 1 Pet 3:9). In his death, Jesus carried the consequences of sin’s curse (Gal 3:13), established God’s Kingdom (Matt 3:2; 5:3-20; John 3:3-5), and blessed its citizens with forgiveness of sin (Rom 4:6-25). Now believers are called to bless the world (Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; see also Isa 19:24; Zech 8:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:22, 28; 9:26-27; 12:2-3; 14:19-20; 24:59-60; 27:1-41; 28:1-4; 32:24-30; 46:1–50:26; Lev 26:3-13; Num 6:22-27; Deut 7:12-15; 10:8; 28:1-14; 33:1-29; 1 Sam 2:20-21; Ps 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-12; Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; Gal 3:13-14; Eph 1:3; Heb 7:6-7; 1 Pet 3:9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev 26:3-13). Obedience leads to blessing, whereas rebellion brings a curse (see Deut 28).<\/p>\n<p>The initial realm of blessing is creation, in which God as Creator is the ultimate granter of blessing for animals (Gen 1:22) and humans (1:28; see Pss 104; 128:3-4). Humans also serve as channels of divine blessing. Abraham was called to be a blessing to the nations (Gen 12:2-3). The institutions of family (27:27-29), government (1 Kgs 8:14, 52, 66), and religion (Gen 14:19; Lev 9:22) are nurtured, commissioned, and purified through blessing. Israel’s priests mediated God’s blessing to Israel (Num 6:24-26; Deut 10:8).<\/p>\n<p>Three basic characteristics can be observed in Old Testament blessings: (1) They are conveyed from a greater party to a lesser one (Gen 32:26; Heb 7:6-7); (2) they are signs of favor that result in well-being and productivity (Deut 28:3-7); and (3) they acknowledge that all power and blessing stems from the Creator. All blessings have their source in God’s love (Deut 7:7-8, 12-15).<\/p>\n<p>God’s blessings in the Old Testament are in striking contrast with those of the pagan religions of antiquity. For pagan religions, fortunes and fertility of flock, family, and fields came about through sympathetic magic in ceremonial observances at their shrines—profane customs that were designed to manipulate the deities to act on their behalf so that the cycle of life could be maintained. In the Old Testament, all life, fertility, and blessing came by God’s decree, for he is the only true and living God.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, the emphasis of blessing shifts from the material to the spiritual, from the nation to the church, and from the temporal to the eternal (Matt 6:25; Eph 1:3; 1 Pet 3:9). In his death, Jesus carried the consequences of sin’s curse (Gal 3:13), established God’s Kingdom (Matt 3:2; 5:3-20; John 3:3-5), and blessed its citizens with forgiveness of sin (Rom 4:6-25). Now believers are called to bless the world (Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; see also Isa 19:24; Zech 8:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:22, 28; 9:26-27; 12:2-3; 14:19-20; 24:59-60; 27:1-41; 28:1-4; 32:24-30; 46:1–50:26; Lev 26:3-13; Num 6:22-27; Deut 7:12-15; 10:8; 28:1-14; 33:1-29; 1 Sam 2:20-21; Ps 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-12; Luke 6:27-28; Rom 12:14; Gal 3:13-14; Eph 1:3; Heb 7:6-7; 1 Pet 3:9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Blessing Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev...","summary_en":"Blessing Before his death, Jacob offered a blessing to each of his sons (49:1-28), as well as to Joseph’s sons (Gen 48:3-20), just as his father Isaac had blessed him (27:27-29). Blessing enables, enhances, and enriches life, whereas a curse diminishes it (Lev 26:14-39). A blessing is issued publicly by a benefactor and provides power for prosperity and success. Blessing is essential to covenant relationships in that it guides and motivates the parties to obey the covenant’s stipulations (Lev...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"60":[{"id":43199,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:60","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:60","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:60<\/strong> At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a <em>mother of many millions<\/em> and that her descendants would <em>conquer . . . their enemies.<\/em> Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:60<\/strong> At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a <em>mother of many millions<\/em> and that her descendants would <em>conquer . . . their enemies.<\/em> Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:60 At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a mother of many millions and that her descendants would conquer . . . their enemies. Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).","summary_en":"24:60 At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a mother of many millions and that her descendants would conquer . . . their enemies. Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70825,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:60","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:60","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:60<\/strong> At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a <em>mother of many millions<\/em> and that her descendants would <em>conquer . . . their enemies.<\/em> Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:60<\/strong> At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a <em>mother of many millions<\/em> and that her descendants would <em>conquer . . . their enemies.<\/em> Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:60 At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a mother of many millions and that her descendants would conquer . . . their enemies. Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).","summary_en":"24:60 At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a mother of many millions and that her descendants would conquer . . . their enemies. Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98451,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:60","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:60","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:60<\/strong> At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a <em>mother of many millions<\/em> and that her descendants would <em>conquer . . . their enemies.<\/em> Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:60<\/strong> At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a <em>mother of many millions<\/em> and that her descendants would <em>conquer . . . their enemies.<\/em> Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:60 At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a mother of many millions and that her descendants would conquer . . . their enemies. Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).","summary_en":"24:60 At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a mother of many millions and that her descendants would conquer . . . their enemies. Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126077,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:60","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:60","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:60<\/strong> At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a <em>mother of many millions<\/em> and that her descendants would <em>conquer . . . their enemies.<\/em> Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:60<\/strong> At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a <em>mother of many millions<\/em> and that her descendants would <em>conquer . . . their enemies.<\/em> Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:60 At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a mother of many millions and that her descendants would conquer . . . their enemies. Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).","summary_en":"24:60 At Rebekah’s departure, her family invoked the blessing that she would be a mother of many millions and that her descendants would conquer . . . their enemies. Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac was part of God’s plan to bless all humankind (12:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"62":[{"id":40632,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68258,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95884,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123510,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4111,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beer-Lahairoi","title_en":"Beer-Lahairoi","content_ro":"<h3>BEER-LAHAIROI<\/h3>\n<p>Well between Kadesh and Bered where Hagar, pregnant with Ishmael, was confronted by the angel of the Lord (Gn 16:7-14). The name given to the site means “the well of the Living One who sees me,” referring to God’s appearance to Sarai’s servant girl. Later, it became a frequent watering place for Isaac on his travels (Gn 24:62; 25:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BEER-LAHAIROI<\/h3>\n<p>Well between Kadesh and Bered where Hagar, pregnant with Ishmael, was confronted by the angel of the Lord (Gn 16:7-14). The name given to the site means “the well of the Living One who sees me,” referring to God’s appearance to Sarai’s servant girl. Later, it became a frequent watering place for Isaac on his travels (Gn 24:62; 25:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BEER-LAHAIROI Well between Kadesh and Bered where Hagar, pregnant with Ishmael, was confronted by the angel of the Lord (Gn 16:7-14). The name given to the site means “the well of the Living One who sees me,” referring to God’s appearance to Sarai’s servant girl. Later, it became a frequent watering place for Isaac on his travels (Gn 24:62; 25:11).","summary_en":"BEER-LAHAIROI Well between Kadesh and Bered where Hagar, pregnant with Ishmael, was confronted by the angel of the Lord (Gn 16:7-14). The name given to the site means “the well of the Living One who sees me,” referring to God’s appearance to Sarai’s servant girl. Later, it became a frequent watering place for Isaac on his travels (Gn 24:62; 25:11).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22393,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lahai-Roi*","title_en":"Lahai-Roi*","content_ro":"<h3>LAHAI-ROI*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Beer-lahairoi, the name of a well mentioned in Genesis 24:62 and 25:11. <em>See<\/em> Beer-lahairoi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAHAI-ROI*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Beer-lahairoi, the name of a well mentioned in Genesis 24:62 and 25:11. <em>See<\/em> Beer-lahairoi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAHAI-ROI* KJV form of Beer-lahairoi, the name of a well mentioned in Genesis 24:62 and 25:11. See Beer-lahairoi.","summary_en":"LAHAI-ROI* KJV form of Beer-lahairoi, the name of a well mentioned in Genesis 24:62 and 25:11. See Beer-lahairoi.","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43200,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:62","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:62","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:62<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> lived <em>in the Negev,<\/em> in the southern part of Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:62<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> lived <em>in the Negev,<\/em> in the southern part of Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:62 Isaac lived in the Negev, in the southern part of Canaan.","summary_en":"24:62 Isaac lived in the Negev, in the southern part of Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70826,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:62","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:62","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:62<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> lived <em>in the Negev,<\/em> in the southern part of Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:62<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> lived <em>in the Negev,<\/em> in the southern part of Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:62 Isaac lived in the Negev, in the southern part of Canaan.","summary_en":"24:62 Isaac lived in the Negev, in the southern part of Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98452,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:62","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:62","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:62<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> lived <em>in the Negev,<\/em> in the southern part of Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:62<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> lived <em>in the Negev,<\/em> in the southern part of Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:62 Isaac lived in the Negev, in the southern part of Canaan.","summary_en":"24:62 Isaac lived in the Negev, in the southern part of Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126078,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:62","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:62","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:62<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> lived <em>in the Negev,<\/em> in the southern part of Canaan.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:62<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> lived <em>in the Negev,<\/em> in the southern part of Canaan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:62 Isaac lived in the Negev, in the southern part of Canaan.","summary_en":"24:62 Isaac lived in the Negev, in the southern part of Canaan.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"65":[{"id":11937,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24528,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Marriage Customs Marriage","title_en":"Marriage Customs Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS<\/h3>\n<p>The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the early monarchy, it is difficult to be certain about the matter, despite the importance in Egypt, and perhaps elsewhere, of the role of the mother in determining descent.<\/p>\n<p>Generally, the bride left her parents when she married and went to live with her husband’s clan, as Rebekah did (Gn 24:58-59). The phrase “to marry a wife” is from a root meaning to “become master” (Dt 21:13), and the wife frequently treated her husband as, and referred to him as, master.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew genealogical lists indicate that descent was reckoned through the male line (Gn 5:10; 36:9-43; Nm 1:1-15; Ru 4:18-22; 1 Chr 1:1-9). The important right of naming a child, indicating power and authority over that child, was exercised almost equally between father and mother in biblical references (cf. Gn 4:1, 25-26; 5:29; 35:18; 1 Sm 1:20; 4:21; Is 8:3; Hos 1:4-9). Sons were frequently named after their fathers and were identified with them.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the authority figure in the home in a patriarchal society. His wife and children were regarded as his possessions in somewhat the same way as his fields and livestock (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). He had the right to sell his daughters (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5), and even had the power of life and death over his children.<\/p>\n<p>The ease with which a man could terminate a marriage by divorcing his wife also shows the measure of his authority in the family (Dt 24:1-4; cf. 22:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>A levirate marriage was instituted to preserve a family name and inheritance. When a man died, the responsibility for maintaining his widow and any children that she might have fell upon her husband’s closest male relative. The order of responsibility is set out in Deuteronomy 25:5-10. Normally, the brother of the deceased husband living with the clan was expected to enter into a levirate marriage with the widow. If she was childless, the firstborn of the new marriage was regarded as a child of the deceased. Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar levirate situation in the OT, although not conforming strictly to the law of Deuteronomy 25, is described in the book of Ruth. It was essential for Ruth to find some close male relative to marry her so that the family name and property could be preserved. The closest male relative declined the responsibility, feeling that it was a double imposition, first, to have to purchase the land and support Ruth, and second, to know that the first son would be regarded as her dead husband’s child, bearing his name and inheriting the land. Boaz agreed to undertake the responsibility (Ru 2:20–4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Despite numerous examples of polygamy cited in the OT, there is no doubt that the vast majority of the Israelites were monogamous. There are no examples given of large polygamous marriages in the families of commoners.<\/p>\n<p>The original instruction to Adam was that a “man . . . cleaves to his wife” (Gn 2:24). Hebrew laws generally imply that a marriage with one wife is the most acceptable form of marriage (Ex 20:17; 21:5; Lv 18:8, 16-20; 20:10; Nm 5:12; Dt 5:21). Although this seems to have become the norm by the time of the monarchy, a king such as Solomon did not follow Hebrew traditions in this matter. In the postexilic period marriages were predominantly monogamous, although they were being terminated increasingly by divorce. In the NT period monogamy seems to have been the rule, although persons such as Herod the Great were polygamous. Christ taught that marriage should last the lifetime of the partners, and if a man divorced his wife and married another woman during his previous spouse’s lifetime, he committed adultery (Mt 5:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage generally took place with those who were close to the immediate family circle, and it was imperative, therefore, that limits on acceptable consanguinity should be imposed. In patriarchal times a man could marry his half sister on his father’s side (Gn 20:12), and this continued to be the case even under David (2 Sm 13:13), although it was specifically forbidden in Leviticus 20:17. As there is some contradiction between the marriage laws of Deuteronomy and those in the Law of Holiness (Dt 25:5; Lv 18:16), it is possible that there was some modification of the stricter Levitical regulations. Marriages between cousins, such as Isaac with Rebekah, and Jacob with Rachel and Leah, were common. When a close relative was interested in marriage, it was almost impossible to refuse (Tb 6:13; 7:11-12). Moses was the offspring of a marriage between nephew and aunt (Ex 6:20; Nm 26:59), which would have been forbidden in Leviticus 18:12-13 and 20:19, as would Jacob’s marriage with two sisters at the same time (Gn 29:30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites settled in Canaan, many of them married Canaanite women, much to the consternation of those who desired to maintain the purity of the Hebrew religion (1 Kgs 11:4). Such intermarriage was prohibited under Mosaic law (Ex 34:15-16; Dt 7:3-4), although many Israelites ignored these regulations and continued to indulge in mixed marriages. If a woman was captured in war and was prepared to abandon her native country, an exception could be made (Dt 21:10-14). By contrast, Samson married a Philistine woman who remained with her own people, but who received conjugal visits from her husband periodically (Jgs 14:8–15:2).<\/p>\n<p>The danger of intermarriage affecting the purity of Hebrew religion was considered so great that in the postexilic period wholesale divorce was ordered where Jews had married foreign wives (Ezr 9:2; 10:3, 16-17). The intent was that the national religion should remain pure, even though homes and families were destroyed. Even in NT times, Paul denounced marriage with non-Christians (2 Cor 6:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to estimate at what age young people married. A boy was considered to be a man by his early teens, and late in Jewish tradition this transition was celebrated by the bar mitzvah, which generally occurred when the boy was 13.<\/p>\n<p>Normally the young man’s parents chose the bride. The resulting discussion about the marriage occurred between the groom’s parents and the bride’s parents, and often neither of the young people was consulted. It was not essential for the eldest in the family to be married first (Gn 29:26). When Abraham decided that Isaac should be married, a servant was sent to choose a bride from among Abraham’s relatives in Mesopotamia. The servant made contact with the bride’s brother and mother (24:33-53), and it was only afterward that Rebekah was asked to give her consent (vv 57-58). Her father was possibly incapacitated; otherwise, it would have been unlikely that her consent would have been asked at all.<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons why the average young man would not have been able to afford more than one wife was the practice of the bride-price, which had to be paid to the bride’s father. It was possible to substitute service for the bride-price (Gn 29:15-30), or the completion of an appointed task (1 Sm 18:25-27). A specific sum is mentioned for the bride-price in the case of a virgin who had been raped and who had to be purchased by her seducer. The price was set at 50 shekels, but this was considered to be a punishment; it is probable that the normal amount was between 10 and 320 shekels (Lv 27:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the second temple, a virgin bride was considered to be worth 50 shekels, and a widow or divorced woman about half that sum. During this period, a virgin bride was normally married in midweek so that, if her husband found her not to be a virgin, he could bring proof to the court the following day, which would still be in advance of the Sabbath. A widow or a divorced woman normally married on the equivalent of a Thursday, giving her a full day with her husband before the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage was a covenant or alliance between two families. It thus united them, and by extending the kinship, the overall size of the group was increased. This was important in a society where responsibilities for relatives, however distant, were accepted unhesitatingly. The covenant concept also could have political overtones, as with the marriage between Solomon and the Egyptian princess (1 Kgs 11:1) or Ahab of Israel and Jezebel of Tyre (16:31).<\/p>\n<p>The sealing of the covenant included the transfer of gifts, which would establish the wealth and status of the donor and of the bride (Gn 34:12). In the ancient Near East, the giving of a gift was thought to include a part of the donor, so that the giver was actually offering a portion of himself. The gift that sealed the covenant also established the donor’s authority over the bride.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in the marriage procedure was the betrothal. First mentioned in Exodus 22:16, the term is used several times in Deuteronomy (Dt 20:7; 22:23-24). The betrothal had the legal status of a marriage (Dt 28:30; 2 Sm 3:14), and anyone violating a betrothed virgin would be stoned, according to the law of Deuteronomy, for violating his neighbor’s “wife” (Dt 22:23-24). The meaning of a betrothal involved taking possession, in a manner similar to that of receiving tribute. Nevertheless, there remained a distinction between betrothing a woman and taking her as a wife (20:7). During the period of betrothal, the prospective groom was exempt from military service. It was assumed that the betrothal was a formal part of a permanent relationship (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:27; 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>A man who was to marry another’s daughter was already regarded as a son-in-law at the time of betrothal (Gn 19:14). Mary, as Joseph’s betrothed, was actually considered his wife, although he did not have intercourse with her until after the birth of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical record of a wedding being celebrated by a feast is in the story of Jacob (Gn 29:22). There was no actual marriage contract recorded until its mention in the book of Tobit (Tb 7:12). This contract was not considered valid until the couple had cohabited for a week (Gn 29:27; Jgs 14:12, 18). When Samson left his bride before the end of the seven-day period, the bride’s parents considered the marriage void and gave her to another man (Jgs 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>The wedding was an occasion of great family rejoicing. The special clothing of the bride and groom (Is 61:10; Ez 16:9-13) included for the bride a fine dress often adorned with jewels (Ps 45:14-15; Is 61:10) and other ornaments, while the bridegroom had fine clothing and wore a diadem (Sg 3:11; Is 61:10). The bride wore a veil (Gn 24:65; Sg 4:3), which was removed in the bridal chamber. This would account for Rebekah’s need to veil herself in the presence of Isaac, her fiancé (Gn 24:65), and also for the ease with which Laban was able to replace Rachel with Leah on Jacob’s wedding night (29:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic ceremonies may sometimes have been included as part of the betrothal or wedding ceremonies, such as Ruth’s request that Boaz spread his skirt over her to indicate that he was taking her to wife (Ru 3:9). Another ritual may have been the ceremonial removal of the bride’s girdle by the groom in the nuptial chamber, which was a room or tent specially prepared for the newly married couple. The marriage was normally consummated on the first night (Gn 29:23; Tb 8:1), and the stained linen would be retained as evidence of the bride’s virginity.<\/p>\n<p>In a contrast to the elaborate procession and feasting of the marriage, divorce was simple. A man could divorce his wife if he found fault with her in any particular matter, and this right was not abolished until the 11th century <span>AD<\/span>. Divorce was discouraged, however, and gradually the procedure became more complex, being hedged about with a number of deterrents.<\/p>\n<p>As the laws regarding divorce became more complex, so the procedure became increasingly expensive. At a later time a lawyer, or sometimes a rabbi, would give advice, especially on such matters as the return of property rightly belonging to the bride or her family.<\/p>\n<p>If a bride was found to have committed adultery, the husband was thought to be entitled to a divorce. This was also the case if he even suspected her of infidelity. He could also divorce his wife if he felt that she had violated normal morality, had become apostate, or had been less than efficient in the management of her household. If a woman refused her husband his conjugal rights for a period of at least one year, she could be divorced. Other grounds for divorcing a wife included insulting behavior to a husband or his relatives, contracting an incurable disease, or refusing to accompany her husband when he moved the domicile to a new area.<\/p>\n<p>In general, the status of the wife was low. Despite the fact that she gave advice, managed the household, educated the young children, and worked alongside her husband when necessary, he was still her master, and her role was to obey. She was little more than a servant, although better than a slave, for she could not be sold even though she could be divorced.<\/p>\n<p>In the frequent figurative uses of marriage in the OT, the Hebrew people and God are referred to in terms of bride and bridegroom (Is 62:4-5; Jer 2:2). The desolation that is about to overtake Judah is contrasted by Jeremiah with the celebration of a wedding feast (Jer 7:34; 16:9; 25:10). Figurative forms are used again in Hosea, where God rejects the relationship with his wife, Israel (Hos 2:2), but is prepared to accept her again if she resumes her faithful practices (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist compares his sense of joy with that of a friend of the groom at a wedding (Jn 3:29), while Jesus himself made reference to the wedding preparations in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-12). In the story of the marriage feast (22:1-14) Christ mentions quite incidentally the fact that wedding robes were provided for the guests at such ceremonies. The theme of the Christian church as the bride of Christ occurs in such books as 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Revelation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusTeachingsonMarriageandAdultery\">Jesus’ Teachings on Marriage and Adultery<\/p>\n<p>In the realm of civil law there are changes of emphasis in Jesus’ teaching over against the OT. For example, the OT did not regard infidelity by a husband as adultery against his wife. When challenged by the Jews, Jesus said that originally God had made one wife for a man; therefore, there should be no divorce (Mk 10:2-9). Further, he stated if a man does divorce his wife and marry again, he “commits adultery against her” (v 11). Thus, Jesus made man and woman equal as regards adultery. An unfaithful husband is just as adulterous as an unfaithful wife. This revolutionary teaching struck the disciples as severe (see Mt 19:10), but it illustrates what Jesus meant when he said their righteousness must be greater than that of the Jewish leaders (5:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is a slight difference in Matthew’s account of Jesus’ teaching, which has led some scholars to argue that Jesus was not quite as strict as the above summary suggests. According to Matthew 19:9, a wife’s “unchastity” (probably some sexual misconduct) allows an aggrieved husband to divorce her and marry again. If this remark concluded the passage, this interpretation would be the simplest. However, from the context it is more likely that Jesus allowed innocent spouses to separate from their wives but not to remarry. This explains why the disciples were so shocked and why Jesus went on to speak about some who refuse to marry for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 19:12). This was also the way the church interpreted the passage for the first five centuries. They allowed Christians to separate but not to remarry (cf. 1 Cor 7:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adultery; Civil Law and Justice; Concubinage, Concubines; Divorce; Family Life and Relations; Sex, Sexuality; Virgin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","summary_en":"MARRIAGE, MARRIAGE CUSTOMS The joining together of male and female in matrimony, as practiced by various cultures. The idea of marriage was ordained by God in his instruction to Adam that a man should leave his father and mother, and that he and his wife should be as one flesh (Gn 2:24). Several forms of marriage are referred to in the OT, the earliest of which seems to be based on a matrilineal principle. Although there appears to be some evidence for this in the middle Bronze Age and in the...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59723,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Biblical Marriage","title_en":"Biblical Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>Biblical Marriage<\/h3>\n<p>At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not private. It is legally declared in public, with community recognition, witnesses, and accountability (see Lev 20:10-12; Deut 22:22; Jer 29:20-23).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage is also a metaphor of the Lord’s relationship with his people, first with Israel (see Exod 19:3-6; 20:2-6; 34:14; Isa 54:5; Ezek 16; Hos 2:19-20), and then with the church (see 2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:21-33). A marriage points to something greater than itself—God’s people (Christ’s “bride”) await the return of Christ (the “groom”). Married Christians are called to live in unity and dignity as they anticipate the wedding feast of the Lamb (Rev 19:6-9). Christ will live forever with his faithful people in glory (Rev 19:7; 21:2, 9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:18-25; 24:65-67; Ps 45:8-15; Isa 54:5; Hos 2:19-20; Mal 2:10-16; 1 Cor 7:1-40; 2 Cor 6:14-16; Eph 5:21-33; Heb 13:4; 1 Pet 3:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Biblical Marriage<\/h3>\n<p>At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not private. It is legally declared in public, with community recognition, witnesses, and accountability (see Lev 20:10-12; Deut 22:22; Jer 29:20-23).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage is also a metaphor of the Lord’s relationship with his people, first with Israel (see Exod 19:3-6; 20:2-6; 34:14; Isa 54:5; Ezek 16; Hos 2:19-20), and then with the church (see 2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:21-33). A marriage points to something greater than itself—God’s people (Christ’s “bride”) await the return of Christ (the “groom”). Married Christians are called to live in unity and dignity as they anticipate the wedding feast of the Lamb (Rev 19:6-9). Christ will live forever with his faithful people in glory (Rev 19:7; 21:2, 9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:18-25; 24:65-67; Ps 45:8-15; Isa 54:5; Hos 2:19-20; Mal 2:10-16; 1 Cor 7:1-40; 2 Cor 6:14-16; Eph 5:21-33; Heb 13:4; 1 Pet 3:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Biblical Marriage At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not pr...","summary_en":"Biblical Marriage At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not pr...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87349,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Biblical Marriage","title_en":"Biblical Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>Biblical Marriage<\/h3>\n<p>At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not private. It is legally declared in public, with community recognition, witnesses, and accountability (see Lev 20:10-12; Deut 22:22; Jer 29:20-23).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage is also a metaphor of the Lord’s relationship with his people, first with Israel (see Exod 19:3-6; 20:2-6; 34:14; Isa 54:5; Ezek 16; Hos 2:19-20), and then with the church (see 2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:21-33). A marriage points to something greater than itself—God’s people (Christ’s “bride”) await the return of Christ (the “groom”). Married Christians are called to live in unity and dignity as they anticipate the wedding feast of the Lamb (Rev 19:6-9). Christ will live forever with his faithful people in glory (Rev 19:7; 21:2, 9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:18-25; 24:65-67; Ps 45:8-15; Isa 54:5; Hos 2:19-20; Mal 2:10-16; 1 Cor 7:1-40; 2 Cor 6:14-16; Eph 5:21-33; Heb 13:4; 1 Pet 3:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Biblical Marriage<\/h3>\n<p>At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not private. It is legally declared in public, with community recognition, witnesses, and accountability (see Lev 20:10-12; Deut 22:22; Jer 29:20-23).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage is also a metaphor of the Lord’s relationship with his people, first with Israel (see Exod 19:3-6; 20:2-6; 34:14; Isa 54:5; Ezek 16; Hos 2:19-20), and then with the church (see 2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:21-33). A marriage points to something greater than itself—God’s people (Christ’s “bride”) await the return of Christ (the “groom”). Married Christians are called to live in unity and dignity as they anticipate the wedding feast of the Lamb (Rev 19:6-9). Christ will live forever with his faithful people in glory (Rev 19:7; 21:2, 9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:18-25; 24:65-67; Ps 45:8-15; Isa 54:5; Hos 2:19-20; Mal 2:10-16; 1 Cor 7:1-40; 2 Cor 6:14-16; Eph 5:21-33; Heb 13:4; 1 Pet 3:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Biblical Marriage At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not pr...","summary_en":"Biblical Marriage At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not pr...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":114975,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Biblical Marriage","title_en":"Biblical Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>Biblical Marriage<\/h3>\n<p>At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not private. It is legally declared in public, with community recognition, witnesses, and accountability (see Lev 20:10-12; Deut 22:22; Jer 29:20-23).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage is also a metaphor of the Lord’s relationship with his people, first with Israel (see Exod 19:3-6; 20:2-6; 34:14; Isa 54:5; Ezek 16; Hos 2:19-20), and then with the church (see 2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:21-33). A marriage points to something greater than itself—God’s people (Christ’s “bride”) await the return of Christ (the “groom”). Married Christians are called to live in unity and dignity as they anticipate the wedding feast of the Lamb (Rev 19:6-9). Christ will live forever with his faithful people in glory (Rev 19:7; 21:2, 9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:18-25; 24:65-67; Ps 45:8-15; Isa 54:5; Hos 2:19-20; Mal 2:10-16; 1 Cor 7:1-40; 2 Cor 6:14-16; Eph 5:21-33; Heb 13:4; 1 Pet 3:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Biblical Marriage<\/h3>\n<p>At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not private. It is legally declared in public, with community recognition, witnesses, and accountability (see Lev 20:10-12; Deut 22:22; Jer 29:20-23).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage is also a metaphor of the Lord’s relationship with his people, first with Israel (see Exod 19:3-6; 20:2-6; 34:14; Isa 54:5; Ezek 16; Hos 2:19-20), and then with the church (see 2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:21-33). A marriage points to something greater than itself—God’s people (Christ’s “bride”) await the return of Christ (the “groom”). Married Christians are called to live in unity and dignity as they anticipate the wedding feast of the Lamb (Rev 19:6-9). Christ will live forever with his faithful people in glory (Rev 19:7; 21:2, 9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:18-25; 24:65-67; Ps 45:8-15; Isa 54:5; Hos 2:19-20; Mal 2:10-16; 1 Cor 7:1-40; 2 Cor 6:14-16; Eph 5:21-33; Heb 13:4; 1 Pet 3:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Biblical Marriage At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not pr...","summary_en":"Biblical Marriage At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not pr...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142601,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Biblical Marriage","title_en":"Biblical Marriage","content_ro":"<h3>Biblical Marriage<\/h3>\n<p>At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not private. It is legally declared in public, with community recognition, witnesses, and accountability (see Lev 20:10-12; Deut 22:22; Jer 29:20-23).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage is also a metaphor of the Lord’s relationship with his people, first with Israel (see Exod 19:3-6; 20:2-6; 34:14; Isa 54:5; Ezek 16; Hos 2:19-20), and then with the church (see 2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:21-33). A marriage points to something greater than itself—God’s people (Christ’s “bride”) await the return of Christ (the “groom”). Married Christians are called to live in unity and dignity as they anticipate the wedding feast of the Lamb (Rev 19:6-9). Christ will live forever with his faithful people in glory (Rev 19:7; 21:2, 9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:18-25; 24:65-67; Ps 45:8-15; Isa 54:5; Hos 2:19-20; Mal 2:10-16; 1 Cor 7:1-40; 2 Cor 6:14-16; Eph 5:21-33; Heb 13:4; 1 Pet 3:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Biblical Marriage<\/h3>\n<p>At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not private. It is legally declared in public, with community recognition, witnesses, and accountability (see Lev 20:10-12; Deut 22:22; Jer 29:20-23).<\/p>\n<p>Marriage is also a metaphor of the Lord’s relationship with his people, first with Israel (see Exod 19:3-6; 20:2-6; 34:14; Isa 54:5; Ezek 16; Hos 2:19-20), and then with the church (see 2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:21-33). A marriage points to something greater than itself—God’s people (Christ’s “bride”) await the return of Christ (the “groom”). Married Christians are called to live in unity and dignity as they anticipate the wedding feast of the Lamb (Rev 19:6-9). Christ will live forever with his faithful people in glory (Rev 19:7; 21:2, 9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:18-25; 24:65-67; Ps 45:8-15; Isa 54:5; Hos 2:19-20; Mal 2:10-16; 1 Cor 7:1-40; 2 Cor 6:14-16; Eph 5:21-33; Heb 13:4; 1 Pet 3:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Biblical Marriage At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not pr...","summary_en":"Biblical Marriage At the first wedding, God the Father gave the bride away to the groom and witnessed the couple’s interaction in his sanctuary-garden (Gen 2:18-25). Biblical marriage is a binding covenant commitment before God. Breaching that covenant (e.g., through adultery) is a sin against people and against God, who is a divine witness to and guarantor of the marriage covenant (see Mal 2:10-16; cp. Gen 39:6-9; Jer 3:1; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Heb 13:4). Although marriage is exclusive, it is not pr...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"67":[{"id":25674,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Midianite Midian","title_en":"Midianite Midian","content_ro":"<h3>MIDIAN, MIDIANITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements.<\/p>\n<p>Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28).<\/p>\n<p>Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraham married as an old man (Gn 25:1-2; cf. 23:1-2; 24:67; 1 Chr 1:32). By calling Midian and his full brothers “the sons of Keturah” (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:32-33), the Bible carefully distinguishes them from Isaac, the son of Sarah, who was the one through whom God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled (Gn 12:1-3; 17:15-21). In fact, Abraham and the Israelites regarded these other sons as having no more inheritance rights than a concubine’s sons (Gn 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Expelled from Abraham’s family, for Isaac’s sake, they became seminomadic peoples of the deserts east and south of Palestine (Gn 25:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandofMidian\">The Land of Midian<\/p>\n<p>Of uncertain location, Midian was probably far south of Edom on the eastern side of what is today called the Gulf of Aqaba. The Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy (second century <span>AD<\/span>) mentions a city named Modiana on the coast and a Madiana 26 miles (41.8 kilometers) inland (modern el-Bed’) in this region, an identification supported by the Jewish historian Josephus (first century <span>AD<\/span>) and the Christian church historian Eusebius (early fourth century).<\/p>\n\n<p>In early OT times Midian seems to have been the land on the edge of the deserts bordering Gilead, Moab, and Edom south even into eastern Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>In Joseph’s day, some Midianite clans must have lived in the northern Transjordanian desert adjacent to Gilead or Bashan because they were part of an Ishmaelite caravan traveling the trade route from Damascus across Gilead past Dothan to Egypt (Gn 37:17, 25-28, 36).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses fled from Pharaoh, he settled in Midian and eventually married Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest (Ex 2:15-22). Moses asked his Midianite relative Hobab to act as a guide from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:19); Hobab was familiar with the wilderness of Paran (Nm 10:11-12, 29-31), even though his own land and relatives were elsewhere (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Balaam episode and its bloody aftermath (Nm 22:31), a substantial group of Midianites appears to have been living on the eastern frontier of Moab. The Moabite king Balak, who was subject to the Amorite king named Sihon (21:26-30; Jer 48:45), discussed the Israelite threat with the elders of Midian, and a joint delegation was sent to Balaam (Nm 22:2-7). At Acacia in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 25:1), an Israelite met and married a Midianite princess (Nm 25:6-18; 31:8). The Midianite kings were considered puppet kings of King Sihon (Jos 13:21). All the indications are that Midianite clans lived nearby, on the borders of Moab. Since Moab is north of Edom, the reference to an Edomite victory over Midian (Gn 36:35) might indicate a northern encroachment by the Midianites on Edomite territory.<\/p>\n<p>The Midianite invasion that Gideon repulsed had all the appearances of an invasion from the east. It would therefore seem that while “the land of Midian” is a term that may refer to a territory south of Edom, Midianites were living over a much wider area—on marginal land—east of Moab and Edom and south of Edom into east Sinai and northwest Arabia.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIDIAN, MIDIANITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements.<\/p>\n<p>Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28).<\/p>\n<p>Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraham married as an old man (Gn 25:1-2; cf. 23:1-2; 24:67; 1 Chr 1:32). By calling Midian and his full brothers “the sons of Keturah” (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:32-33), the Bible carefully distinguishes them from Isaac, the son of Sarah, who was the one through whom God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled (Gn 12:1-3; 17:15-21). In fact, Abraham and the Israelites regarded these other sons as having no more inheritance rights than a concubine’s sons (Gn 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Expelled from Abraham’s family, for Isaac’s sake, they became seminomadic peoples of the deserts east and south of Palestine (Gn 25:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandofMidian\">The Land of Midian<\/p>\n<p>Of uncertain location, Midian was probably far south of Edom on the eastern side of what is today called the Gulf of Aqaba. The Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy (second century <span>AD<\/span>) mentions a city named Modiana on the coast and a Madiana 26 miles (41.8 kilometers) inland (modern el-Bed’) in this region, an identification supported by the Jewish historian Josephus (first century <span>AD<\/span>) and the Christian church historian Eusebius (early fourth century).<\/p>\n\n<p>In early OT times Midian seems to have been the land on the edge of the deserts bordering Gilead, Moab, and Edom south even into eastern Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>In Joseph’s day, some Midianite clans must have lived in the northern Transjordanian desert adjacent to Gilead or Bashan because they were part of an Ishmaelite caravan traveling the trade route from Damascus across Gilead past Dothan to Egypt (Gn 37:17, 25-28, 36).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses fled from Pharaoh, he settled in Midian and eventually married Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest (Ex 2:15-22). Moses asked his Midianite relative Hobab to act as a guide from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:19); Hobab was familiar with the wilderness of Paran (Nm 10:11-12, 29-31), even though his own land and relatives were elsewhere (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Balaam episode and its bloody aftermath (Nm 22:31), a substantial group of Midianites appears to have been living on the eastern frontier of Moab. The Moabite king Balak, who was subject to the Amorite king named Sihon (21:26-30; Jer 48:45), discussed the Israelite threat with the elders of Midian, and a joint delegation was sent to Balaam (Nm 22:2-7). At Acacia in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 25:1), an Israelite met and married a Midianite princess (Nm 25:6-18; 31:8). The Midianite kings were considered puppet kings of King Sihon (Jos 13:21). All the indications are that Midianite clans lived nearby, on the borders of Moab. Since Moab is north of Edom, the reference to an Edomite victory over Midian (Gn 36:35) might indicate a northern encroachment by the Midianites on Edomite territory.<\/p>\n<p>The Midianite invasion that Gideon repulsed had all the appearances of an invasion from the east. It would therefore seem that while “the land of Midian” is a term that may refer to a territory south of Edom, Midianites were living over a much wider area—on marginal land—east of Moab and Edom and south of Edom into east Sinai and northwest Arabia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIDIAN, MIDIANITE Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements. Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28). Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraha...","summary_en":"MIDIAN, MIDIANITE Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements. Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28). Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraha...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43201,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:67","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:67","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:67<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> was 40 years old when he married <em>Rebekah<\/em> (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:67<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> was 40 years old when he married <em>Rebekah<\/em> (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:67 Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebekah (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).","summary_en":"24:67 Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebekah (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70827,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:67","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:67","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:67<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> was 40 years old when he married <em>Rebekah<\/em> (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:67<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> was 40 years old when he married <em>Rebekah<\/em> (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:67 Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebekah (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).","summary_en":"24:67 Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebekah (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98453,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:67","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:67","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:67<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> was 40 years old when he married <em>Rebekah<\/em> (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:67<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> was 40 years old when he married <em>Rebekah<\/em> (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:67 Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebekah (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).","summary_en":"24:67 Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebekah (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126079,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 24:67","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 24:67","content_ro":"<p><strong>24:67<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> was 40 years old when he married <em>Rebekah<\/em> (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>24:67<\/strong> <em>Isaac<\/em> was 40 years old when he married <em>Rebekah<\/em> (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"24:67 Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebekah (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).","summary_en":"24:67 Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebekah (25:20), so Abraham was 140 (21:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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