Geneza 25
1 Avraam a mai luat o nevastă, numită Chetura.
2 Ea i-a născut pe Zimran, pe Iocşan, pe Medan, pe Madian, pe Işbac şi Şuah.
3 Iocşan a născut pe Seba şi pe Dedan. Fiii lui Dedan au fost Aşurimii, Letuşimii şi Leumimii. -
4 Fiii lui Madian au fost: Efa, Efer, Enoh, Abida şi Eldaa. Toţi aceştia sânt fiii Cheturei.
5 Avraam a dat lui Isaac toate averile sale.
6 Dar a dat daruri fiilor ţiitoarelor sale; şi, pe când era încă în viaţă, i-a îndepărtat de lângă fiul său Isaac înspre răsărit, în ţara Răsăritului.
7 Iată zilele anilor vieţii lui Avraam: el a trăit o sută şaptezeci şi cinci de ani.
8 Avraam şi-a dat duhul, şi a murit, după o bătrâneţă fericită, înaintat în vârstă şi sătul de zile; şi a fost adăugat la poporul său.
9 Isaac şi Ismael, fiii săi, l-au îngropat în peştera Macpela, în ogorul lui Efron, fiul lui Ţohar, Hetitul, care este faţă în faţă cu Mamre.
10 Acesta este ogorul, pe care-l cumpărase Avraam dela fiii lui Het. Acolo au fost îngropaţi Avraam şi nevastă-sa Sara.
11 După moartea lui Avraam, Dumnezeu a binecuvântat pe fiul său Isaac. El locuia lângă fântâna ,,Lahai-Roi.``
12 Iată spiţa neamului lui Ismael, fiul lui Avraam, pe care-l născuse lui Avraam Egipteanca Agar, roaba Sarei.
13 Iată numele fiilor lui Ismael, după numele lor, după neamurile lor: Nebaiot, întâiul născut al lui Ismael; Chedar, Adbeel, Mibsam,
14 Mişma, Duma, Masa;
15 Hadad, Tema, Ietur, Nafiş şi Chedma.
16 Aceştia sânt fiii lui Ismael; acestea sânt numele lor, după satele şi taberele lor. Ei au fost cei doisprezece voievozi, după neamurile lor.
17 Şi iată anii vieţii lui Ismael: o sută treizeci şi şapte de ani. El şi-a dat duhul, şi a murit, şi a fost adăugat la poporul său.
18 Fiii lui au locuit dela Havila până la Şur, care este în faţa Egiptului, cum mergi spre Asiria. El s-a aşezat în faţa tuturor fraţilor lui.
19 Iată spiţa neamului lui Isaac, fiul lui Avraam. Avraam a născut pe Isaac.
20 Isaac era în vârstă de patruzeci de ani, când a luat de nevastă pe Rebeca, fata lui Betuel, Arameul din Padan-Aram, şi sora lui Laban, Arameul.
21 Isaac s-a rugat Domnului pentru nevastă-sa, căci era stearpă; şi Domnul l-a ascultat: nevastă-sa Rebeca a rămas însărcinată.
22 Copiii se băteau în pântecele ei; şi ea a zis: ,,Dacă-i aşa, pentru ce mai sânt însărcinată?`` S-a dus să întrebe pe Domnul.
23 Şi Domnul i-a zis: ,,Două neamuri sânt în pântecele tău, Şi două noroade se vor despărţi la ieşirea din pântecele tău. Unul din noroadele acestea va fi mai tare decât celalt. Şi cel mai mare va sluji celui mai mic.``
24 S-au împlinit zilele când avea să nască; şi iată că în pântecele ei erau doi gemeni.
25 Cel dintâi a ieşit roş de tot: ca o manta de păr, şi de aceea i-au pus numele Esau.
26 Apoi a ieşit fratele său, care ţinea cu mâna de călcâi pe Esau; şi deaceea i-au pus numele Iacov. Isaac era în vârstă de şasezeci de ani, când s-au născut ei.
27 Băieţii aceştia s-au făcut mari. Esau a ajuns un vânător îndemânatic, un om care îşi petrecea vremea mai mult pe câmp; dar Iacov era un om liniştit, care stătea acasă în corturi.
28 Isaac iubea pe Esau, pentrucă mânca din vânatul lui; Rebeca însă iubea mai mult pe Iacov.
29 Odată, pe când ferbea Iacov o ciorbă, Esau s-a întors dela câmp, rupt de oboseală.
30 Şi Esau a zis lui Iacov: ,,Dă-mi, te rog, să mănânc din ciorba aceasta roşiatică, fiindcă sânt rupt de oboseală.`` Pentru aceea s-a dat lui Esau numele Edom.
31 Iacov a zis: ,,Vinde-mi azi dreptul tău de întâi născut!``
32 Esau a răspuns: ,,Iată-mă, sânt pe moarte; la ce-mi slujeşte dreptul acesta de întâi născut?``
33 Şi Iacov a zis: ,,Jură-mi întâi.`` Esau i-a jurat, şi astfel şi-a vândut dreptul de întâi născut lui Iacov.
34 Atunci Iacov a dat lui Esau pâne şi ciorbă de linte. El a mâncat şi a băut; apoi s-a sculat şi a plecat. Astfel şi-a nesocotit Esau dreptul de întâi născut.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":4920,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bildad","title_en":"Bildad","content_ro":"<h3>BILDAD<\/h3>\n<p>One of three friends who came to comfort Job in his anguish, identified as a Shuhite (Jb 2:11). That term suggests that he was a descendant of Shuah, son of Abraham and his second wife Keturah (Gn 25:1-2). Bildad spoke to Job on three occasions. In his first speech he asserted that God upholds the just and punishes the wicked (Jb 8). Job must therefore be a hypocrite to say that he is right with God. In his second speech Bildad emphasized the immediate punishment of the wicked in this life (ch 18). Job must therefore be wicked because of his intense suffering. In his third speech Bildad proclaimed the majesty of God and called man a worm by comparison (ch 25). He implied that Job was foolish to claim to be righteous before such a holy God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Job, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BILDAD<\/h3>\n<p>One of three friends who came to comfort Job in his anguish, identified as a Shuhite (Jb 2:11). That term suggests that he was a descendant of Shuah, son of Abraham and his second wife Keturah (Gn 25:1-2). Bildad spoke to Job on three occasions. In his first speech he asserted that God upholds the just and punishes the wicked (Jb 8). Job must therefore be a hypocrite to say that he is right with God. In his second speech Bildad emphasized the immediate punishment of the wicked in this life (ch 18). Job must therefore be wicked because of his intense suffering. In his third speech Bildad proclaimed the majesty of God and called man a worm by comparison (ch 25). He implied that Job was foolish to claim to be righteous before such a holy God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Job, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BILDAD One of three friends who came to comfort Job in his anguish, identified as a Shuhite (Jb 2:11). That term suggests that he was a descendant of Shuah, son of Abraham and his second wife Keturah (Gn 25:1-2). Bildad spoke to Job on three occasions. In his first speech he asserted that God upholds the just and punishes the wicked (Jb 8). Job must therefore be a hypocrite to say that he is right with God. In his second speech Bildad emphasized the immediate punishment of the wicked in this ...","summary_en":"BILDAD One of three friends who came to comfort Job in his anguish, identified as a Shuhite (Jb 2:11). That term suggests that he was a descendant of Shuah, son of Abraham and his second wife Keturah (Gn 25:1-2). Bildad spoke to Job on three occasions. In his first speech he asserted that God upholds the just and punishes the wicked (Jb 8). Job must therefore be a hypocrite to say that he is right with God. In his second speech Bildad emphasized the immediate punishment of the wicked in this ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13417,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Genealogy","title_en":"Genealogy","content_ro":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","summary_en":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13571,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Genesis","title_en":"Book of Genesis","content_ro":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","summary_en":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21654,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Keturah","title_en":"Keturah","content_ro":"<h3>KETURAH<\/h3>\n<p>Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially Midian and Jokshan’s sons Sheba and Dedan (Gn 25:3). As far as can be determined, the tribes settled in the north and central regions of the northern Euphrates, as far as the central sections of the Arabian Desert. They were merchants (ch 37) and shepherds (Ex 2:16). They were involved in international trade (Is 60:6). For example, the queen of Sheba, a descendant of Jokshan (Gn 25:3), came to Solomon to initiate trade relations (1 Kgs 10:2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KETURAH<\/h3>\n<p>Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially Midian and Jokshan’s sons Sheba and Dedan (Gn 25:3). As far as can be determined, the tribes settled in the north and central regions of the northern Euphrates, as far as the central sections of the Arabian Desert. They were merchants (ch 37) and shepherds (Ex 2:16). They were involved in international trade (Is 60:6). For example, the queen of Sheba, a descendant of Jokshan (Gn 25:3), came to Solomon to initiate trade relations (1 Kgs 10:2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KETURAH Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially...","summary_en":"KETURAH Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25666,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Midianite Midian","title_en":"Midianite Midian","content_ro":"<h3>MIDIAN, MIDIANITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements.<\/p>\n<p>Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28).<\/p>\n<p>Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraham married as an old man (Gn 25:1-2; cf. 23:1-2; 24:67; 1 Chr 1:32). By calling Midian and his full brothers “the sons of Keturah” (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:32-33), the Bible carefully distinguishes them from Isaac, the son of Sarah, who was the one through whom God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled (Gn 12:1-3; 17:15-21). In fact, Abraham and the Israelites regarded these other sons as having no more inheritance rights than a concubine’s sons (Gn 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Expelled from Abraham’s family, for Isaac’s sake, they became seminomadic peoples of the deserts east and south of Palestine (Gn 25:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandofMidian\">The Land of Midian<\/p>\n<p>Of uncertain location, Midian was probably far south of Edom on the eastern side of what is today called the Gulf of Aqaba. The Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy (second century <span>AD<\/span>) mentions a city named Modiana on the coast and a Madiana 26 miles (41.8 kilometers) inland (modern el-Bed’) in this region, an identification supported by the Jewish historian Josephus (first century <span>AD<\/span>) and the Christian church historian Eusebius (early fourth century).<\/p>\n\n<p>In early OT times Midian seems to have been the land on the edge of the deserts bordering Gilead, Moab, and Edom south even into eastern Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>In Joseph’s day, some Midianite clans must have lived in the northern Transjordanian desert adjacent to Gilead or Bashan because they were part of an Ishmaelite caravan traveling the trade route from Damascus across Gilead past Dothan to Egypt (Gn 37:17, 25-28, 36).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses fled from Pharaoh, he settled in Midian and eventually married Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest (Ex 2:15-22). Moses asked his Midianite relative Hobab to act as a guide from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:19); Hobab was familiar with the wilderness of Paran (Nm 10:11-12, 29-31), even though his own land and relatives were elsewhere (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Balaam episode and its bloody aftermath (Nm 22:31), a substantial group of Midianites appears to have been living on the eastern frontier of Moab. The Moabite king Balak, who was subject to the Amorite king named Sihon (21:26-30; Jer 48:45), discussed the Israelite threat with the elders of Midian, and a joint delegation was sent to Balaam (Nm 22:2-7). At Acacia in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 25:1), an Israelite met and married a Midianite princess (Nm 25:6-18; 31:8). The Midianite kings were considered puppet kings of King Sihon (Jos 13:21). All the indications are that Midianite clans lived nearby, on the borders of Moab. Since Moab is north of Edom, the reference to an Edomite victory over Midian (Gn 36:35) might indicate a northern encroachment by the Midianites on Edomite territory.<\/p>\n<p>The Midianite invasion that Gideon repulsed had all the appearances of an invasion from the east. It would therefore seem that while “the land of Midian” is a term that may refer to a territory south of Edom, Midianites were living over a much wider area—on marginal land—east of Moab and Edom and south of Edom into east Sinai and northwest Arabia.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIDIAN, MIDIANITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements.<\/p>\n<p>Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28).<\/p>\n<p>Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraham married as an old man (Gn 25:1-2; cf. 23:1-2; 24:67; 1 Chr 1:32). By calling Midian and his full brothers “the sons of Keturah” (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:32-33), the Bible carefully distinguishes them from Isaac, the son of Sarah, who was the one through whom God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled (Gn 12:1-3; 17:15-21). In fact, Abraham and the Israelites regarded these other sons as having no more inheritance rights than a concubine’s sons (Gn 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Expelled from Abraham’s family, for Isaac’s sake, they became seminomadic peoples of the deserts east and south of Palestine (Gn 25:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandofMidian\">The Land of Midian<\/p>\n<p>Of uncertain location, Midian was probably far south of Edom on the eastern side of what is today called the Gulf of Aqaba. The Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy (second century <span>AD<\/span>) mentions a city named Modiana on the coast and a Madiana 26 miles (41.8 kilometers) inland (modern el-Bed’) in this region, an identification supported by the Jewish historian Josephus (first century <span>AD<\/span>) and the Christian church historian Eusebius (early fourth century).<\/p>\n\n<p>In early OT times Midian seems to have been the land on the edge of the deserts bordering Gilead, Moab, and Edom south even into eastern Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>In Joseph’s day, some Midianite clans must have lived in the northern Transjordanian desert adjacent to Gilead or Bashan because they were part of an Ishmaelite caravan traveling the trade route from Damascus across Gilead past Dothan to Egypt (Gn 37:17, 25-28, 36).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses fled from Pharaoh, he settled in Midian and eventually married Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest (Ex 2:15-22). Moses asked his Midianite relative Hobab to act as a guide from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:19); Hobab was familiar with the wilderness of Paran (Nm 10:11-12, 29-31), even though his own land and relatives were elsewhere (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Balaam episode and its bloody aftermath (Nm 22:31), a substantial group of Midianites appears to have been living on the eastern frontier of Moab. The Moabite king Balak, who was subject to the Amorite king named Sihon (21:26-30; Jer 48:45), discussed the Israelite threat with the elders of Midian, and a joint delegation was sent to Balaam (Nm 22:2-7). At Acacia in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 25:1), an Israelite met and married a Midianite princess (Nm 25:6-18; 31:8). The Midianite kings were considered puppet kings of King Sihon (Jos 13:21). All the indications are that Midianite clans lived nearby, on the borders of Moab. Since Moab is north of Edom, the reference to an Edomite victory over Midian (Gn 36:35) might indicate a northern encroachment by the Midianites on Edomite territory.<\/p>\n<p>The Midianite invasion that Gideon repulsed had all the appearances of an invasion from the east. It would therefore seem that while “the land of Midian” is a term that may refer to a territory south of Edom, Midianites were living over a much wider area—on marginal land—east of Moab and Edom and south of Edom into east Sinai and northwest Arabia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIDIAN, MIDIANITE Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements. Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28). Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraha...","summary_en":"MIDIAN, MIDIANITE Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements. Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28). Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraha...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26082,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mishma","title_en":"Mishma","content_ro":"<h3>MISHMA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Ishmael, Abraham’s grandson, and the father of an Arabian tribe (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30).<\/li>\n<li>2. Mibsam’s son from Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:25-26). His omission in Genesis 25 and inclusion in the 1 Chronicles genealogy may indicate either that he was born after Jacob moved his family to Egypt or that he represented an Arabian tribe that affiliated with Simeon when Simeon’s tribe expanded to the south (1 Chr 4:38-43).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MISHMA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Ishmael, Abraham’s grandson, and the father of an Arabian tribe (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30).<\/li>\n<li>2. Mibsam’s son from Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:25-26). His omission in Genesis 25 and inclusion in the 1 Chronicles genealogy may indicate either that he was born after Jacob moved his family to Egypt or that he represented an Arabian tribe that affiliated with Simeon when Simeon’s tribe expanded to the south (1 Chr 4:38-43).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MISHMA 1. Son of Ishmael, Abraham’s grandson, and the father of an Arabian tribe (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). 2. Mibsam’s son from Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:25-26). His omission in Genesis 25 and inclusion in the 1 Chronicles genealogy may indicate either that he was born after Jacob moved his family to Egypt or that he represented an Arabian tribe that affiliated with Simeon when Simeon’s tribe expanded to the south (1 Chr 4:38-43).","summary_en":"MISHMA 1. Son of Ishmael, Abraham’s grandson, and the father of an Arabian tribe (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). 2. Mibsam’s son from Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:25-26). His omission in Genesis 25 and inclusion in the 1 Chronicles genealogy may indicate either that he was born after Jacob moved his family to Egypt or that he represented an Arabian tribe that affiliated with Simeon when Simeon’s tribe expanded to the south (1 Chr 4:38-43).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27028,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nathanael","title_en":"Nathanael","content_ro":"<h3>NATHANAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Jew from Cana of Galilee whom Jesus called to be a disciple (Jn 1:45-50; 21:2). Initially skeptical when Philip described Jesus as the fulfillment of the whole OT (1:45-46), Nathanael proclaimed Jesus to be the Son of God and the King of Israel (v 49) after an astonishing personal encounter.<\/p>\n<p>The fact that the only NT references to Nathanael occur in the Gospel of John has led some scholars to identify him with several personalities appearing in the synoptic Gospels. Because his call appears with those of Andrew, Peter, and Philip, some have speculated that he was one of the 12, possibly Bartholomew. Three pieces of evidence are cited in support of this position: (1) the name Bartholomew is patronymic (literally “son of Tolmai”) and would be accompanied by another name; (2) each of the Synoptic lists of the 12 apostles place Bartholomew after Philip (Mt 10:2-4; Mk 3:16-19; Lk 6:14-16), paralleling the call of Nathanael after Philip in John’s account; and (3) Bartholomew’s name does not appear in the fourth Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>A second position identifies Nathanael as James, the son of Alphaeus. According to this view, Jesus’ comment in John 1:47 should read “Behold, Israel [not “an Israelite”] indeed, in whom is no guile!” Israel is the name God gave to Jacob, and the NT form of Jacob is James. John addressed James, the son of Alphaeus, as Nathanael in order to distinguish him from others who had become prominent in the early church.<\/p>\n<p>Two less plausible identifications equate Nathanael with either Matthew or Simon the Cananaean. The first is precariously founded on the similar etymologies of the names Matthew (“gift of Yahweh”) and Nathanael (“Yahweh has given”). The second identifies the two on the basis of the common hometown of Cana.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, Nathanael was most likely a disciple who was not a member of the 12 and was known only to John. This suggestion conforms to early patristic evidence. In the fourth Gospel, Nathanael serves as a symbol for the true Jew who overcomes initial skepticism to believe in Christ. This is confirmed by three observations: (1) his initial reaction to Jesus parallels that of others who believed in the Law and the Prophets (Jn 7:15, 27, 41; 9:41); (2) Jesus’ perception of Nathanael under a fig tree (1:48) identifies the latter’s devotion to the Torah (in rabbinic literature the proper place to study the Torah is under a fig tree); and (3) Jesus identifies Nathanael with Jacob, the father of the Israelite nation. In Genesis 25–32, Jacob is certainly sly and cunning in his dealings with Esau and Laban. John 1:51 strengthens the ties between Nathanael and Jacob by presenting the imagery of angels ascending and descending, reminiscent of Jacob’s dream, and by locating the event in Galilee close to Bethel and Jabbok, the sites of Jacob’s experiences. Nathanael is thus a symbol of the pious Israelite for whom Christ came. His response typifies what the fourth Evangelist understands as the appropriate response of the true Israelite to Jesus—from initial skepticism to faith (cf. Rom 9:6).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apostle, Apostleship.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NATHANAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Jew from Cana of Galilee whom Jesus called to be a disciple (Jn 1:45-50; 21:2). Initially skeptical when Philip described Jesus as the fulfillment of the whole OT (1:45-46), Nathanael proclaimed Jesus to be the Son of God and the King of Israel (v 49) after an astonishing personal encounter.<\/p>\n<p>The fact that the only NT references to Nathanael occur in the Gospel of John has led some scholars to identify him with several personalities appearing in the synoptic Gospels. Because his call appears with those of Andrew, Peter, and Philip, some have speculated that he was one of the 12, possibly Bartholomew. Three pieces of evidence are cited in support of this position: (1) the name Bartholomew is patronymic (literally “son of Tolmai”) and would be accompanied by another name; (2) each of the Synoptic lists of the 12 apostles place Bartholomew after Philip (Mt 10:2-4; Mk 3:16-19; Lk 6:14-16), paralleling the call of Nathanael after Philip in John’s account; and (3) Bartholomew’s name does not appear in the fourth Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>A second position identifies Nathanael as James, the son of Alphaeus. According to this view, Jesus’ comment in John 1:47 should read “Behold, Israel [not “an Israelite”] indeed, in whom is no guile!” Israel is the name God gave to Jacob, and the NT form of Jacob is James. John addressed James, the son of Alphaeus, as Nathanael in order to distinguish him from others who had become prominent in the early church.<\/p>\n<p>Two less plausible identifications equate Nathanael with either Matthew or Simon the Cananaean. The first is precariously founded on the similar etymologies of the names Matthew (“gift of Yahweh”) and Nathanael (“Yahweh has given”). The second identifies the two on the basis of the common hometown of Cana.<\/p>\n<p>In the final analysis, Nathanael was most likely a disciple who was not a member of the 12 and was known only to John. This suggestion conforms to early patristic evidence. In the fourth Gospel, Nathanael serves as a symbol for the true Jew who overcomes initial skepticism to believe in Christ. This is confirmed by three observations: (1) his initial reaction to Jesus parallels that of others who believed in the Law and the Prophets (Jn 7:15, 27, 41; 9:41); (2) Jesus’ perception of Nathanael under a fig tree (1:48) identifies the latter’s devotion to the Torah (in rabbinic literature the proper place to study the Torah is under a fig tree); and (3) Jesus identifies Nathanael with Jacob, the father of the Israelite nation. In Genesis 25–32, Jacob is certainly sly and cunning in his dealings with Esau and Laban. John 1:51 strengthens the ties between Nathanael and Jacob by presenting the imagery of angels ascending and descending, reminiscent of Jacob’s dream, and by locating the event in Galilee close to Bethel and Jabbok, the sites of Jacob’s experiences. Nathanael is thus a symbol of the pious Israelite for whom Christ came. His response typifies what the fourth Evangelist understands as the appropriate response of the true Israelite to Jesus—from initial skepticism to faith (cf. Rom 9:6).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apostle, Apostleship.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NATHANAEL Jew from Cana of Galilee whom Jesus called to be a disciple (Jn 1:45-50; 21:2). Initially skeptical when Philip described Jesus as the fulfillment of the whole OT (1:45-46), Nathanael proclaimed Jesus to be the Son of God and the King of Israel (v 49) after an astonishing personal encounter. The fact that the only NT references to Nathanael occur in the Gospel of John has led some scholars to identify him with several personalities appearing in the synoptic Gospels. Because his call...","summary_en":"NATHANAEL Jew from Cana of Galilee whom Jesus called to be a disciple (Jn 1:45-50; 21:2). Initially skeptical when Philip described Jesus as the fulfillment of the whole OT (1:45-46), Nathanael proclaimed Jesus to be the Son of God and the King of Israel (v 49) after an astonishing personal encounter. The fact that the only NT references to Nathanael occur in the Gospel of John has led some scholars to identify him with several personalities appearing in the synoptic Gospels. Because his call...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43202,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:1-11<\/strong> Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:1-11<\/strong> Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:1-11 Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.","summary_en":"25:1-11 Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43203,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:1<\/strong> Exactly when <em>Abraham<\/em> <em>married . . .<\/em><em>Keturah<\/em> is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:1<\/strong> Exactly when <em>Abraham<\/em> <em>married . . .<\/em><em>Keturah<\/em> is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:1 Exactly when Abraham married . . .Keturah is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.","summary_en":"25:1 Exactly when Abraham married . . .Keturah is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70828,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:1-11<\/strong> Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:1-11<\/strong> Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:1-11 Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.","summary_en":"25:1-11 Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70829,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:1<\/strong> Exactly when <em>Abraham<\/em> <em>married . . .<\/em><em>Keturah<\/em> is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:1<\/strong> Exactly when <em>Abraham<\/em> <em>married . . .<\/em><em>Keturah<\/em> is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:1 Exactly when Abraham married . . .Keturah is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.","summary_en":"25:1 Exactly when Abraham married . . .Keturah is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98454,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:1-11<\/strong> Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:1-11<\/strong> Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:1-11 Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.","summary_en":"25:1-11 Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98455,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:1<\/strong> Exactly when <em>Abraham<\/em> <em>married . . .<\/em><em>Keturah<\/em> is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:1<\/strong> Exactly when <em>Abraham<\/em> <em>married . . .<\/em><em>Keturah<\/em> is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:1 Exactly when Abraham married . . .Keturah is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.","summary_en":"25:1 Exactly when Abraham married . . .Keturah is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126080,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:1-11<\/strong> Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:1-11<\/strong> Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:1-11 Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.","summary_en":"25:1-11 Though Abraham had sons by another wife, he safeguarded Isaac’s inheritance and blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126081,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:1","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:1<\/strong> Exactly when <em>Abraham<\/em> <em>married . . .<\/em><em>Keturah<\/em> is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:1<\/strong> Exactly when <em>Abraham<\/em> <em>married . . .<\/em><em>Keturah<\/em> is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:1 Exactly when Abraham married . . .Keturah is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.","summary_en":"25:1 Exactly when Abraham married . . .Keturah is unknown. It was probably, but not necessarily, after Sarah’s death.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":129,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abida","title_en":"Abida","content_ro":"<h3>ABIDA<\/h3>\n<p>One of Midian’s sons. Midian was Abraham’s son by his concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2, 4; 1 Chr 1:33).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ABIDA<\/h3>\n<p>One of Midian’s sons. Midian was Abraham’s son by his concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2, 4; 1 Chr 1:33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ABIDA One of Midian’s sons. Midian was Abraham’s son by his concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2, 4; 1 Chr 1:33).","summary_en":"ABIDA One of Midian’s sons. Midian was Abraham’s son by his concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2, 4; 1 Chr 1:33).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17909,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ishbak","title_en":"Ishbak","content_ro":"<h3>ISHBAK<\/h3>\n<p>One of the sons of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISHBAK<\/h3>\n<p>One of the sons of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISHBAK One of the sons of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32).","summary_en":"ISHBAK One of the sons of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32).","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19743,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jethro","title_en":"Jethro","content_ro":"<h3>JETHRO<\/h3>\n<p>Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midian (Ex 2:16; 3:1). It is not definitely known what the religion of the Midianites was, but some scholars have suggested that the Kenites, who were a tribe included in the nation of Midianites (Jgs 1:16), had a tribal god named Yahweh whom Jethro served as priest. Scholars who have suggested that Jethro’s tribal god, Yahweh, was introduced to Israel by Moses have not been able to establish their case. Biblical evidence does not support this interpretation. That Jethro was a god-fearing and god-serving man is quite clear. The biblical record could be understood to teach that Jethro knew of Israel’s God because he was a descendant of Abraham (Gn 25:2). Having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, Jethro acknowledged him as God, greatest of all gods. He also brought a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby worshiping Yahweh and identifying with Israel (Ex 18:11). This action has been interpreted as Jethro’s acceptance of a covenant with Israel, but the interpretation rests upon a faulty reading of what Jethro actually did and the meaning of sacrifice and a fellowship meal. Upon receiving Jethro’s good counsel concerning procedures for judging disputes among the people, Moses appointed able men as heads and judges over the people (vv 13-27). Jethro departed to his own land and seems to have had no further interaction with Israel, but his son (Nm 10:29-33) and other descendants later became a part of Israel (Jgs 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p> Jethro is referred to by other names, both in the Scriptures and later. The Talmud records that his name was Jether originally, but after his conversion it became Jethro; there is no definite evidence to support this. He is called Reuel, the father of seven daughters whom Moses met at a well (Ex 2:16-18; Nm 10:29). He is also referred to by the name Hobab (Jgs 4:11); and he is said to be the son of Reuel (Nm 10:29). The Scriptures do not explain the use of the different names. Suggestions include the following: (1) each Midianite tribe he served as a priest knew him by a different name; (2) Reuel was a tribal name, not personal; (3) Hobab, the son’s name, was used to refer to the father; (4) a gloss appears in the text at Exodus 2:18 and Judges 4:11. It can be quite clearly established, however, that Jethro had a son named Hobab.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Midian, Midianite; Moses.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JETHRO<\/h3>\n<p>Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midian (Ex 2:16; 3:1). It is not definitely known what the religion of the Midianites was, but some scholars have suggested that the Kenites, who were a tribe included in the nation of Midianites (Jgs 1:16), had a tribal god named Yahweh whom Jethro served as priest. Scholars who have suggested that Jethro’s tribal god, Yahweh, was introduced to Israel by Moses have not been able to establish their case. Biblical evidence does not support this interpretation. That Jethro was a god-fearing and god-serving man is quite clear. The biblical record could be understood to teach that Jethro knew of Israel’s God because he was a descendant of Abraham (Gn 25:2). Having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, Jethro acknowledged him as God, greatest of all gods. He also brought a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby worshiping Yahweh and identifying with Israel (Ex 18:11). This action has been interpreted as Jethro’s acceptance of a covenant with Israel, but the interpretation rests upon a faulty reading of what Jethro actually did and the meaning of sacrifice and a fellowship meal. Upon receiving Jethro’s good counsel concerning procedures for judging disputes among the people, Moses appointed able men as heads and judges over the people (vv 13-27). Jethro departed to his own land and seems to have had no further interaction with Israel, but his son (Nm 10:29-33) and other descendants later became a part of Israel (Jgs 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p> Jethro is referred to by other names, both in the Scriptures and later. The Talmud records that his name was Jether originally, but after his conversion it became Jethro; there is no definite evidence to support this. He is called Reuel, the father of seven daughters whom Moses met at a well (Ex 2:16-18; Nm 10:29). He is also referred to by the name Hobab (Jgs 4:11); and he is said to be the son of Reuel (Nm 10:29). The Scriptures do not explain the use of the different names. Suggestions include the following: (1) each Midianite tribe he served as a priest knew him by a different name; (2) Reuel was a tribal name, not personal; (3) Hobab, the son’s name, was used to refer to the father; (4) a gloss appears in the text at Exodus 2:18 and Judges 4:11. It can be quite clearly established, however, that Jethro had a son named Hobab.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Midian, Midianite; Moses.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JETHRO Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel. Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midia...","summary_en":"JETHRO Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel. Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midia...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20429,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jokshan","title_en":"Jokshan","content_ro":"<h3>JOKSHAN<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Keturah, and the father of Sheba and Dedan (Gn 25:2-3; 1 Chr 1:32).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOKSHAN<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Keturah, and the father of Sheba and Dedan (Gn 25:2-3; 1 Chr 1:32).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOKSHAN Son of Abraham and Keturah, and the father of Sheba and Dedan (Gn 25:2-3; 1 Chr 1:32).","summary_en":"JOKSHAN Son of Abraham and Keturah, and the father of Sheba and Dedan (Gn 25:2-3; 1 Chr 1:32).","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21655,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Keturah","title_en":"Keturah","content_ro":"<h3>KETURAH<\/h3>\n<p>Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially Midian and Jokshan’s sons Sheba and Dedan (Gn 25:3). As far as can be determined, the tribes settled in the north and central regions of the northern Euphrates, as far as the central sections of the Arabian Desert. They were merchants (ch 37) and shepherds (Ex 2:16). They were involved in international trade (Is 60:6). For example, the queen of Sheba, a descendant of Jokshan (Gn 25:3), came to Solomon to initiate trade relations (1 Kgs 10:2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KETURAH<\/h3>\n<p>Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially Midian and Jokshan’s sons Sheba and Dedan (Gn 25:3). As far as can be determined, the tribes settled in the north and central regions of the northern Euphrates, as far as the central sections of the Arabian Desert. They were merchants (ch 37) and shepherds (Ex 2:16). They were involved in international trade (Is 60:6). For example, the queen of Sheba, a descendant of Jokshan (Gn 25:3), came to Solomon to initiate trade relations (1 Kgs 10:2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KETURAH Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially...","summary_en":"KETURAH Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24902,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Medan","title_en":"Medan","content_ro":"<h3>MEDAN<\/h3>\n<p>Third son of Abraham by his second wife, Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MEDAN<\/h3>\n<p>Third son of Abraham by his second wife, Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MEDAN Third son of Abraham by his second wife, Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32).","summary_en":"MEDAN Third son of Abraham by his second wife, Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27805,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Numbers","title_en":"Book of Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","summary_en":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35213,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shuah","title_en":"Shuah","content_ro":"<h3>SHUAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of six sons borne to Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32). He was perhaps the forefather of the Shuhite Arab tribe that dwelt near the land of Uz (Jb 2:11).<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Shua, Judah’s father-in-law, in Genesis 38:2, 12. <em>See<\/em> Shua #1.<\/li>\n<li>3. KJV spelling of Shuhah, Kelub’s brother, in 1 Chronicles 4:11. <em>See<\/em> Shuhah.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHUAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of six sons borne to Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32). He was perhaps the forefather of the Shuhite Arab tribe that dwelt near the land of Uz (Jb 2:11).<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Shua, Judah’s father-in-law, in Genesis 38:2, 12. <em>See<\/em> Shua #1.<\/li>\n<li>3. KJV spelling of Shuhah, Kelub’s brother, in 1 Chronicles 4:11. <em>See<\/em> Shuhah.<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHUAH 1. One of six sons borne to Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32). He was perhaps the forefather of the Shuhite Arab tribe that dwelt near the land of Uz (Jb 2:11). 2. KJV spelling of Shua, Judah’s father-in-law, in Genesis 38:2, 12. See Shua #1. 3. KJV spelling of Shuhah, Kelub’s brother, in 1 Chronicles 4:11. See Shuhah.","summary_en":"SHUAH 1. One of six sons borne to Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32). He was perhaps the forefather of the Shuhite Arab tribe that dwelt near the land of Uz (Jb 2:11). 2. KJV spelling of Shua, Judah’s father-in-law, in Genesis 38:2, 12. See Shua #1. 3. KJV spelling of Shuhah, Kelub’s brother, in 1 Chronicles 4:11. See Shuhah.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39340,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zimran","title_en":"Zimran","content_ro":"<h3>ZIMRAN<\/h3>\n<p>One of the sons of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32). Unlike the other sons of Abraham by Keturah, there is little evidence that Zimran is associated with a later tribal group.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZIMRAN<\/h3>\n<p>One of the sons of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32). Unlike the other sons of Abraham by Keturah, there is little evidence that Zimran is associated with a later tribal group.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZIMRAN One of the sons of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32). Unlike the other sons of Abraham by Keturah, there is little evidence that Zimran is associated with a later tribal group.","summary_en":"ZIMRAN One of the sons of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:2; 1 Chr 1:32). Unlike the other sons of Abraham by Keturah, there is little evidence that Zimran is associated with a later tribal group.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39351,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zimri (Place)","title_en":"Zimri (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>ZIMRI (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Place and peoples of the East, listed along with Elam and Media, against whom God’s wrath would fall (Jer 25:25). Zimri’s location and history are unknown; some identify its progenitor with Zimran, Abraham and Keturah’s son (Gn 25:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZIMRI (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Place and peoples of the East, listed along with Elam and Media, against whom God’s wrath would fall (Jer 25:25). Zimri’s location and history are unknown; some identify its progenitor with Zimran, Abraham and Keturah’s son (Gn 25:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZIMRI (Place) Place and peoples of the East, listed along with Elam and Media, against whom God’s wrath would fall (Jer 25:25). Zimri’s location and history are unknown; some identify its progenitor with Zimran, Abraham and Keturah’s son (Gn 25:2).","summary_en":"ZIMRI (Place) Place and peoples of the East, listed along with Elam and Media, against whom God’s wrath would fall (Jer 25:25). Zimri’s location and history are unknown; some identify its progenitor with Zimran, Abraham and Keturah’s son (Gn 25:2).","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43204,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:2","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:2-4<\/strong> The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:2-4<\/strong> The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:2-4 The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).","summary_en":"25:2-4 The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70830,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:2","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:2-4<\/strong> The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:2-4<\/strong> The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:2-4 The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).","summary_en":"25:2-4 The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98456,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:2","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:2-4<\/strong> The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:2-4<\/strong> The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:2-4 The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).","summary_en":"25:2-4 The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126082,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:2","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:2-4<\/strong> The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:2-4<\/strong> The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:2-4 The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).","summary_en":"25:2-4 The birth of these nations from Abraham partially fulfilled God’s promise to him (12:2; 17:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":3067,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Asshurim*, Asshurites","title_en":"Asshurim*, Asshurites","content_ro":"<h3>ASSHURIM*, ASSHURITES<\/h3>\n<p>Descendants of Abraham and his second wife, Keturah, through Dedan (Gn 25:3). The Asshurim probably settled in Arabia.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASSHURIM*, ASSHURITES<\/h3>\n<p>Descendants of Abraham and his second wife, Keturah, through Dedan (Gn 25:3). The Asshurim probably settled in Arabia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASSHURIM*, ASSHURITES Descendants of Abraham and his second wife, Keturah, through Dedan (Gn 25:3). The Asshurim probably settled in Arabia.","summary_en":"ASSHURIM*, ASSHURITES Descendants of Abraham and his second wife, Keturah, through Dedan (Gn 25:3). The Asshurim probably settled in Arabia.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9198,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dedan (Person)","title_en":"Dedan (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>DEDAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Grandson of Cush in the list of Noah’s descendants. His father was Raamah, and his brother’s name was Sheba (Gn 10:7; 1 Chr 1:9).<\/li>\n<li>2. Grandson of Abraham through Keturah (Gn 25:3). His father was Jokshan, his brother was Sheba, and his descendants were the Asshurim, Letushim, and Leummim.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>DEDAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Grandson of Cush in the list of Noah’s descendants. His father was Raamah, and his brother’s name was Sheba (Gn 10:7; 1 Chr 1:9).<\/li>\n<li>2. Grandson of Abraham through Keturah (Gn 25:3). His father was Jokshan, his brother was Sheba, and his descendants were the Asshurim, Letushim, and Leummim.<\/li>","summary_ro":"DEDAN (Person) 1. Grandson of Cush in the list of Noah’s descendants. His father was Raamah, and his brother’s name was Sheba (Gn 10:7; 1 Chr 1:9). 2. Grandson of Abraham through Keturah (Gn 25:3). His father was Jokshan, his brother was Sheba, and his descendants were the Asshurim, Letushim, and Leummim.","summary_en":"DEDAN (Person) 1. Grandson of Cush in the list of Noah’s descendants. His father was Raamah, and his brother’s name was Sheba (Gn 10:7; 1 Chr 1:9). 2. Grandson of Abraham through Keturah (Gn 25:3). His father was Jokshan, his brother was Sheba, and his descendants were the Asshurim, Letushim, and Leummim.","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21658,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Keturah","title_en":"Keturah","content_ro":"<h3>KETURAH<\/h3>\n<p>Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially Midian and Jokshan’s sons Sheba and Dedan (Gn 25:3). As far as can be determined, the tribes settled in the north and central regions of the northern Euphrates, as far as the central sections of the Arabian Desert. They were merchants (ch 37) and shepherds (Ex 2:16). They were involved in international trade (Is 60:6). For example, the queen of Sheba, a descendant of Jokshan (Gn 25:3), came to Solomon to initiate trade relations (1 Kgs 10:2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KETURAH<\/h3>\n<p>Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially Midian and Jokshan’s sons Sheba and Dedan (Gn 25:3). As far as can be determined, the tribes settled in the north and central regions of the northern Euphrates, as far as the central sections of the Arabian Desert. They were merchants (ch 37) and shepherds (Ex 2:16). They were involved in international trade (Is 60:6). For example, the queen of Sheba, a descendant of Jokshan (Gn 25:3), came to Solomon to initiate trade relations (1 Kgs 10:2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KETURAH Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially...","summary_en":"KETURAH Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22986,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letushim*, Letushites","title_en":"Letushim*, Letushites","content_ro":"<h3>LETUSHIM*, LETUSHITES<\/h3>\n<p>Tribe founded by the second of Dedan’s three sons, a descendant of Abraham and Keturah through Jokshan’s line (Gn 25:3). Some suggest that the tribe eventually settled in northern Arabia.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LETUSHIM*, LETUSHITES<\/h3>\n<p>Tribe founded by the second of Dedan’s three sons, a descendant of Abraham and Keturah through Jokshan’s line (Gn 25:3). Some suggest that the tribe eventually settled in northern Arabia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LETUSHIM*, LETUSHITES Tribe founded by the second of Dedan’s three sons, a descendant of Abraham and Keturah through Jokshan’s line (Gn 25:3). Some suggest that the tribe eventually settled in northern Arabia.","summary_en":"LETUSHIM*, LETUSHITES Tribe founded by the second of Dedan’s three sons, a descendant of Abraham and Keturah through Jokshan’s line (Gn 25:3). Some suggest that the tribe eventually settled in northern Arabia.","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22987,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Leummim*, Leummites","title_en":"Leummim*, Leummites","content_ro":"<h3>LEUMMIM*, LEUMMITES<\/h3>\n<p>Tribe founded by the third of Dedan’s three sons, a descendant of Abraham and Keturah through Jokshan’s line (Gn 25:3). The tribe probably settled in northern Arabia.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEUMMIM*, LEUMMITES<\/h3>\n<p>Tribe founded by the third of Dedan’s three sons, a descendant of Abraham and Keturah through Jokshan’s line (Gn 25:3). The tribe probably settled in northern Arabia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEUMMIM*, LEUMMITES Tribe founded by the third of Dedan’s three sons, a descendant of Abraham and Keturah through Jokshan’s line (Gn 25:3). The tribe probably settled in northern Arabia.","summary_en":"LEUMMIM*, LEUMMITES Tribe founded by the third of Dedan’s three sons, a descendant of Abraham and Keturah through Jokshan’s line (Gn 25:3). The tribe probably settled in northern Arabia.","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34711,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sheba (Person)","title_en":"Sheba (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>SHEBA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Raamah, the brother of Dedan and a descendant of Noah through Ham’s line (Gn 10:7; 1 Chr 1:9).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the 13 sons of Joktan and a descendant of Noah through Shem’s line (Gn 10:28; 1 Chr 1:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jokshan, the brother of Dedan and the grandson of Abraham and Keturah (Gn 25:3; 1 Chr 1:32).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjaminite and the son of Bicri. After the death of Absalom, Sheba incited Israel to rebel against David. Under the command of Joab, the revolt was subdued and Sheba was beheaded at Abel-beth-maacah (2 Sm 20:1-22).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the Gadite leaders ruling in Bashan, registered during the reigns of Jotham king of Judah (750–732 <span>BC<\/span>) and Jeroboam II king of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>); <em>see<\/em> 1 Chr 5:13, 16-17.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHEBA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Raamah, the brother of Dedan and a descendant of Noah through Ham’s line (Gn 10:7; 1 Chr 1:9).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the 13 sons of Joktan and a descendant of Noah through Shem’s line (Gn 10:28; 1 Chr 1:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jokshan, the brother of Dedan and the grandson of Abraham and Keturah (Gn 25:3; 1 Chr 1:32).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjaminite and the son of Bicri. After the death of Absalom, Sheba incited Israel to rebel against David. Under the command of Joab, the revolt was subdued and Sheba was beheaded at Abel-beth-maacah (2 Sm 20:1-22).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the Gadite leaders ruling in Bashan, registered during the reigns of Jotham king of Judah (750–732 <span>BC<\/span>) and Jeroboam II king of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>); <em>see<\/em> 1 Chr 5:13, 16-17.<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHEBA (Person) 1. Son of Raamah, the brother of Dedan and a descendant of Noah through Ham’s line (Gn 10:7; 1 Chr 1:9). 2. One of the 13 sons of Joktan and a descendant of Noah through Shem’s line (Gn 10:28; 1 Chr 1:22). 3. Son of Jokshan, the brother of Dedan and the grandson of Abraham and Keturah (Gn 25:3; 1 Chr 1:32). 4. Benjaminite and the son of Bicri. After the death of Absalom, Sheba incited Israel to rebel against David. Under the command of Joab, the revolt was subdued and Sheba was...","summary_en":"SHEBA (Person) 1. Son of Raamah, the brother of Dedan and a descendant of Noah through Ham’s line (Gn 10:7; 1 Chr 1:9). 2. One of the 13 sons of Joktan and a descendant of Noah through Shem’s line (Gn 10:28; 1 Chr 1:22). 3. Son of Jokshan, the brother of Dedan and the grandson of Abraham and Keturah (Gn 25:3; 1 Chr 1:32). 4. Benjaminite and the son of Bicri. After the death of Absalom, Sheba incited Israel to rebel against David. Under the command of Joab, the revolt was subdued and Sheba was...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43205,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:3","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:3<\/strong> <em>Sheba and Dedan:<\/em> Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:3<\/strong> <em>Sheba and Dedan:<\/em> Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:3 Sheba and Dedan: Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.","summary_en":"25:3 Sheba and Dedan: Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70831,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:3","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:3<\/strong> <em>Sheba and Dedan:<\/em> Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:3<\/strong> <em>Sheba and Dedan:<\/em> Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:3 Sheba and Dedan: Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.","summary_en":"25:3 Sheba and Dedan: Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98457,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:3","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:3<\/strong> <em>Sheba and Dedan:<\/em> Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:3<\/strong> <em>Sheba and Dedan:<\/em> Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:3 Sheba and Dedan: Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.","summary_en":"25:3 Sheba and Dedan: Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126083,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:3","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:3<\/strong> <em>Sheba and Dedan:<\/em> Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:3<\/strong> <em>Sheba and Dedan:<\/em> Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:3 Sheba and Dedan: Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.","summary_en":"25:3 Sheba and Dedan: Cp. 10:7. Abraham’s descendants probably settled in these regions and became identified by their names, along with people of other lineage.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":10277,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eldaah","title_en":"Eldaah","content_ro":"<h3>ELDAAH<\/h3>\n<p>Midian’s fifth son and a descendant of Abraham and his wife Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELDAAH<\/h3>\n<p>Midian’s fifth son and a descendant of Abraham and his wife Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELDAAH Midian’s fifth son and a descendant of Abraham and his wife Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33).","summary_en":"ELDAAH Midian’s fifth son and a descendant of Abraham and his wife Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33).","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10853,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ephah (Person)","title_en":"Ephah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>EPHAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Midian, an offspring of Abraham through his concubine Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33). Isaiah mentions him as a gold trader (Is 60:6). Some manuscripts mention two sons of Midian with the same name, Ephah, but that is an error of misspelling.<\/li>\n<li>2. Caleb’s concubine, who bore him three sons (1 Chr 2:46).<\/li>\n<li>3. Jahdai’s son from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 2:47).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>EPHAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Midian, an offspring of Abraham through his concubine Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33). Isaiah mentions him as a gold trader (Is 60:6). Some manuscripts mention two sons of Midian with the same name, Ephah, but that is an error of misspelling.<\/li>\n<li>2. Caleb’s concubine, who bore him three sons (1 Chr 2:46).<\/li>\n<li>3. Jahdai’s son from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 2:47).<\/li>","summary_ro":"EPHAH (Person) 1. Son of Midian, an offspring of Abraham through his concubine Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33). Isaiah mentions him as a gold trader (Is 60:6). Some manuscripts mention two sons of Midian with the same name, Ephah, but that is an error of misspelling. 2. Caleb’s concubine, who bore him three sons (1 Chr 2:46). 3. Jahdai’s son from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 2:47).","summary_en":"EPHAH (Person) 1. Son of Midian, an offspring of Abraham through his concubine Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33). Isaiah mentions him as a gold trader (Is 60:6). Some manuscripts mention two sons of Midian with the same name, Ephah, but that is an error of misspelling. 2. Caleb’s concubine, who bore him three sons (1 Chr 2:46). 3. Jahdai’s son from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 2:47).","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10860,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Epher","title_en":"Epher","content_ro":"<h3>EPHER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Midian and grandson of Abraham through his concubine Keturah, whose tribe was sent to the east. Some were supportive of Abraham’s descendants and others became enemies (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Ezrah from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 4:17).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head of a household and a great warrior in the half-tribe of Manasseh. He lived between Bashan and Mt Hermon (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>EPHER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Midian and grandson of Abraham through his concubine Keturah, whose tribe was sent to the east. Some were supportive of Abraham’s descendants and others became enemies (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Ezrah from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 4:17).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head of a household and a great warrior in the half-tribe of Manasseh. He lived between Bashan and Mt Hermon (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>","summary_ro":"EPHER 1. Son of Midian and grandson of Abraham through his concubine Keturah, whose tribe was sent to the east. Some were supportive of Abraham’s descendants and others became enemies (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33). 2. Son of Ezrah from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 4:17). 3. Head of a household and a great warrior in the half-tribe of Manasseh. He lived between Bashan and Mt Hermon (1 Chr 5:24).","summary_en":"EPHER 1. Son of Midian and grandson of Abraham through his concubine Keturah, whose tribe was sent to the east. Some were supportive of Abraham’s descendants and others became enemies (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33). 2. Son of Ezrah from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 4:17). 3. Head of a household and a great warrior in the half-tribe of Manasseh. He lived between Bashan and Mt Hermon (1 Chr 5:24).","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15297,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hanoch","title_en":"Hanoch","content_ro":"<h3>HANOCH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Midian’s third son, and grandson of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reuben’s first son (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and ancestor of the Hanochites (Nm 26:5).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HANOCH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Midian’s third son, and grandson of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reuben’s first son (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and ancestor of the Hanochites (Nm 26:5).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HANOCH 1. Midian’s third son, and grandson of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33). 2. Reuben’s first son (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and ancestor of the Hanochites (Nm 26:5).","summary_en":"HANOCH 1. Midian’s third son, and grandson of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33). 2. Reuben’s first son (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and ancestor of the Hanochites (Nm 26:5).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25676,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Midianite Midian","title_en":"Midianite Midian","content_ro":"<h3>MIDIAN, MIDIANITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements.<\/p>\n<p>Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28).<\/p>\n<p>Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraham married as an old man (Gn 25:1-2; cf. 23:1-2; 24:67; 1 Chr 1:32). By calling Midian and his full brothers “the sons of Keturah” (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:32-33), the Bible carefully distinguishes them from Isaac, the son of Sarah, who was the one through whom God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled (Gn 12:1-3; 17:15-21). In fact, Abraham and the Israelites regarded these other sons as having no more inheritance rights than a concubine’s sons (Gn 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Expelled from Abraham’s family, for Isaac’s sake, they became seminomadic peoples of the deserts east and south of Palestine (Gn 25:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandofMidian\">The Land of Midian<\/p>\n<p>Of uncertain location, Midian was probably far south of Edom on the eastern side of what is today called the Gulf of Aqaba. The Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy (second century <span>AD<\/span>) mentions a city named Modiana on the coast and a Madiana 26 miles (41.8 kilometers) inland (modern el-Bed’) in this region, an identification supported by the Jewish historian Josephus (first century <span>AD<\/span>) and the Christian church historian Eusebius (early fourth century).<\/p>\n\n<p>In early OT times Midian seems to have been the land on the edge of the deserts bordering Gilead, Moab, and Edom south even into eastern Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>In Joseph’s day, some Midianite clans must have lived in the northern Transjordanian desert adjacent to Gilead or Bashan because they were part of an Ishmaelite caravan traveling the trade route from Damascus across Gilead past Dothan to Egypt (Gn 37:17, 25-28, 36).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses fled from Pharaoh, he settled in Midian and eventually married Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest (Ex 2:15-22). Moses asked his Midianite relative Hobab to act as a guide from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:19); Hobab was familiar with the wilderness of Paran (Nm 10:11-12, 29-31), even though his own land and relatives were elsewhere (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Balaam episode and its bloody aftermath (Nm 22:31), a substantial group of Midianites appears to have been living on the eastern frontier of Moab. The Moabite king Balak, who was subject to the Amorite king named Sihon (21:26-30; Jer 48:45), discussed the Israelite threat with the elders of Midian, and a joint delegation was sent to Balaam (Nm 22:2-7). At Acacia in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 25:1), an Israelite met and married a Midianite princess (Nm 25:6-18; 31:8). The Midianite kings were considered puppet kings of King Sihon (Jos 13:21). All the indications are that Midianite clans lived nearby, on the borders of Moab. Since Moab is north of Edom, the reference to an Edomite victory over Midian (Gn 36:35) might indicate a northern encroachment by the Midianites on Edomite territory.<\/p>\n<p>The Midianite invasion that Gideon repulsed had all the appearances of an invasion from the east. It would therefore seem that while “the land of Midian” is a term that may refer to a territory south of Edom, Midianites were living over a much wider area—on marginal land—east of Moab and Edom and south of Edom into east Sinai and northwest Arabia.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIDIAN, MIDIANITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements.<\/p>\n<p>Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28).<\/p>\n<p>Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraham married as an old man (Gn 25:1-2; cf. 23:1-2; 24:67; 1 Chr 1:32). By calling Midian and his full brothers “the sons of Keturah” (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:32-33), the Bible carefully distinguishes them from Isaac, the son of Sarah, who was the one through whom God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled (Gn 12:1-3; 17:15-21). In fact, Abraham and the Israelites regarded these other sons as having no more inheritance rights than a concubine’s sons (Gn 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Expelled from Abraham’s family, for Isaac’s sake, they became seminomadic peoples of the deserts east and south of Palestine (Gn 25:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandofMidian\">The Land of Midian<\/p>\n<p>Of uncertain location, Midian was probably far south of Edom on the eastern side of what is today called the Gulf of Aqaba. The Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy (second century <span>AD<\/span>) mentions a city named Modiana on the coast and a Madiana 26 miles (41.8 kilometers) inland (modern el-Bed’) in this region, an identification supported by the Jewish historian Josephus (first century <span>AD<\/span>) and the Christian church historian Eusebius (early fourth century).<\/p>\n\n<p>In early OT times Midian seems to have been the land on the edge of the deserts bordering Gilead, Moab, and Edom south even into eastern Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>In Joseph’s day, some Midianite clans must have lived in the northern Transjordanian desert adjacent to Gilead or Bashan because they were part of an Ishmaelite caravan traveling the trade route from Damascus across Gilead past Dothan to Egypt (Gn 37:17, 25-28, 36).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses fled from Pharaoh, he settled in Midian and eventually married Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest (Ex 2:15-22). Moses asked his Midianite relative Hobab to act as a guide from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:19); Hobab was familiar with the wilderness of Paran (Nm 10:11-12, 29-31), even though his own land and relatives were elsewhere (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Balaam episode and its bloody aftermath (Nm 22:31), a substantial group of Midianites appears to have been living on the eastern frontier of Moab. The Moabite king Balak, who was subject to the Amorite king named Sihon (21:26-30; Jer 48:45), discussed the Israelite threat with the elders of Midian, and a joint delegation was sent to Balaam (Nm 22:2-7). At Acacia in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 25:1), an Israelite met and married a Midianite princess (Nm 25:6-18; 31:8). The Midianite kings were considered puppet kings of King Sihon (Jos 13:21). All the indications are that Midianite clans lived nearby, on the borders of Moab. Since Moab is north of Edom, the reference to an Edomite victory over Midian (Gn 36:35) might indicate a northern encroachment by the Midianites on Edomite territory.<\/p>\n<p>The Midianite invasion that Gideon repulsed had all the appearances of an invasion from the east. It would therefore seem that while “the land of Midian” is a term that may refer to a territory south of Edom, Midianites were living over a much wider area—on marginal land—east of Moab and Edom and south of Edom into east Sinai and northwest Arabia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIDIAN, MIDIANITE Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements. Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28). Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraha...","summary_en":"MIDIAN, MIDIANITE Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements. Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28). Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraha...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":40633,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68259,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95885,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123511,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7357,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Concubinage*, Concubines","title_en":"Concubinage*, Concubines","content_ro":"<h3>CONCUBINAGE*, CONCUBINES<\/h3>\n<p>Practice of a man cohabiting with a woman (concubine) who is regarded only as his sexual partner or as a secondary wife in his household, of lower station than his primary wife. Concubinage was practiced in many ancient cultures, especially in Mesopotamia, where the king maintained a harem and where a private citizen might have one or two concubines in addition to his primary wife. Both types of concubinage are referred to in the Bible. A concubine was often a slave or part of the booty of war (Jgs 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>A man might have a concubine simply as an economical form of marriage, since no dowry, or bride-price, was required. A concubine could add to a man’s prestige by giving him two wives and thus an increased capacity for children. Such offspring were normally delivered onto the knees of the legal wife, thus establishing their legitimacy as family members. The concubine was also another servant to add to the man’s work force.<\/p>\n<p>In the patriarchal period, concubinage was customary (Gn 22:24; 35:22; 36:12), especially when the primary wife was childless (Gn 16:1-3; 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:32). A concubine could exercise certain rights and secure recognition and inheritance for her offspring (note Gn 49:1-28, where the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah were included along with the sons of Leah and Rachel; cf. Gn 35:22-26). The custom was not suppressed by the Mosaic law, which must have included concubines in its treatment of multiple wives (Dt 17:17; 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>Concubinage continued through the period of the judges. Gideon had a concubine (Jgs 8:31), as did an unnamed man of Levi’s tribe (Jgs 19). Abuse of that man’s concubine by men from Benjamin’s tribe caused a bloody civil war (Jgs 20–21). During the period of Israel’s monarchy, the luxury of concubines could be afforded only by kings such as Saul (2 Sm 3:7), David (5:13; 15:16), Solomon (1 Kgs 11:3), and Rehoboam (2 Chr 11:21). Royal harems existed in many other cultures of that time, including Egypt, Persia (Est 2:14), and Babylon (Dn 5:2-3, 23).<\/p>\n<p>Concubines were thus a legitimate part of many ancient cultures, even when a society acknowledged the superiority of monogamous marriage. Concubinage was fostered by a desire for prestige and a large family, but could at times degenerate into a license for sexual freedom (cf. Eccl 2:8). Concubinage was part of the contemporary Greek and Roman cultures, but it was not in keeping with the teachings of Jesus (Mt 19:1-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Family Life and Relations; Marriage, Marriage Customs.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CONCUBINAGE*, CONCUBINES<\/h3>\n<p>Practice of a man cohabiting with a woman (concubine) who is regarded only as his sexual partner or as a secondary wife in his household, of lower station than his primary wife. Concubinage was practiced in many ancient cultures, especially in Mesopotamia, where the king maintained a harem and where a private citizen might have one or two concubines in addition to his primary wife. Both types of concubinage are referred to in the Bible. A concubine was often a slave or part of the booty of war (Jgs 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>A man might have a concubine simply as an economical form of marriage, since no dowry, or bride-price, was required. A concubine could add to a man’s prestige by giving him two wives and thus an increased capacity for children. Such offspring were normally delivered onto the knees of the legal wife, thus establishing their legitimacy as family members. The concubine was also another servant to add to the man’s work force.<\/p>\n<p>In the patriarchal period, concubinage was customary (Gn 22:24; 35:22; 36:12), especially when the primary wife was childless (Gn 16:1-3; 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:32). A concubine could exercise certain rights and secure recognition and inheritance for her offspring (note Gn 49:1-28, where the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah were included along with the sons of Leah and Rachel; cf. Gn 35:22-26). The custom was not suppressed by the Mosaic law, which must have included concubines in its treatment of multiple wives (Dt 17:17; 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>Concubinage continued through the period of the judges. Gideon had a concubine (Jgs 8:31), as did an unnamed man of Levi’s tribe (Jgs 19). Abuse of that man’s concubine by men from Benjamin’s tribe caused a bloody civil war (Jgs 20–21). During the period of Israel’s monarchy, the luxury of concubines could be afforded only by kings such as Saul (2 Sm 3:7), David (5:13; 15:16), Solomon (1 Kgs 11:3), and Rehoboam (2 Chr 11:21). Royal harems existed in many other cultures of that time, including Egypt, Persia (Est 2:14), and Babylon (Dn 5:2-3, 23).<\/p>\n<p>Concubines were thus a legitimate part of many ancient cultures, even when a society acknowledged the superiority of monogamous marriage. Concubinage was fostered by a desire for prestige and a large family, but could at times degenerate into a license for sexual freedom (cf. Eccl 2:8). Concubinage was part of the contemporary Greek and Roman cultures, but it was not in keeping with the teachings of Jesus (Mt 19:1-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Family Life and Relations; Marriage, Marriage Customs.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CONCUBINAGE*, CONCUBINES Practice of a man cohabiting with a woman (concubine) who is regarded only as his sexual partner or as a secondary wife in his household, of lower station than his primary wife. Concubinage was practiced in many ancient cultures, especially in Mesopotamia, where the king maintained a harem and where a private citizen might have one or two concubines in addition to his primary wife. Both types of concubinage are referred to in the Bible. A concubine was often a slave o...","summary_en":"CONCUBINAGE*, CONCUBINES Practice of a man cohabiting with a woman (concubine) who is regarded only as his sexual partner or as a secondary wife in his household, of lower station than his primary wife. Concubinage was practiced in many ancient cultures, especially in Mesopotamia, where the king maintained a harem and where a private citizen might have one or two concubines in addition to his primary wife. Both types of concubinage are referred to in the Bible. A concubine was often a slave o...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25679,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Midianite Midian","title_en":"Midianite Midian","content_ro":"<h3>MIDIAN, MIDIANITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements.<\/p>\n<p>Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28).<\/p>\n<p>Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraham married as an old man (Gn 25:1-2; cf. 23:1-2; 24:67; 1 Chr 1:32). By calling Midian and his full brothers “the sons of Keturah” (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:32-33), the Bible carefully distinguishes them from Isaac, the son of Sarah, who was the one through whom God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled (Gn 12:1-3; 17:15-21). In fact, Abraham and the Israelites regarded these other sons as having no more inheritance rights than a concubine’s sons (Gn 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Expelled from Abraham’s family, for Isaac’s sake, they became seminomadic peoples of the deserts east and south of Palestine (Gn 25:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandofMidian\">The Land of Midian<\/p>\n<p>Of uncertain location, Midian was probably far south of Edom on the eastern side of what is today called the Gulf of Aqaba. The Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy (second century <span>AD<\/span>) mentions a city named Modiana on the coast and a Madiana 26 miles (41.8 kilometers) inland (modern el-Bed’) in this region, an identification supported by the Jewish historian Josephus (first century <span>AD<\/span>) and the Christian church historian Eusebius (early fourth century).<\/p>\n\n<p>In early OT times Midian seems to have been the land on the edge of the deserts bordering Gilead, Moab, and Edom south even into eastern Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>In Joseph’s day, some Midianite clans must have lived in the northern Transjordanian desert adjacent to Gilead or Bashan because they were part of an Ishmaelite caravan traveling the trade route from Damascus across Gilead past Dothan to Egypt (Gn 37:17, 25-28, 36).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses fled from Pharaoh, he settled in Midian and eventually married Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest (Ex 2:15-22). Moses asked his Midianite relative Hobab to act as a guide from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:19); Hobab was familiar with the wilderness of Paran (Nm 10:11-12, 29-31), even though his own land and relatives were elsewhere (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Balaam episode and its bloody aftermath (Nm 22:31), a substantial group of Midianites appears to have been living on the eastern frontier of Moab. The Moabite king Balak, who was subject to the Amorite king named Sihon (21:26-30; Jer 48:45), discussed the Israelite threat with the elders of Midian, and a joint delegation was sent to Balaam (Nm 22:2-7). At Acacia in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 25:1), an Israelite met and married a Midianite princess (Nm 25:6-18; 31:8). The Midianite kings were considered puppet kings of King Sihon (Jos 13:21). All the indications are that Midianite clans lived nearby, on the borders of Moab. Since Moab is north of Edom, the reference to an Edomite victory over Midian (Gn 36:35) might indicate a northern encroachment by the Midianites on Edomite territory.<\/p>\n<p>The Midianite invasion that Gideon repulsed had all the appearances of an invasion from the east. It would therefore seem that while “the land of Midian” is a term that may refer to a territory south of Edom, Midianites were living over a much wider area—on marginal land—east of Moab and Edom and south of Edom into east Sinai and northwest Arabia.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIDIAN, MIDIANITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements.<\/p>\n<p>Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28).<\/p>\n<p>Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraham married as an old man (Gn 25:1-2; cf. 23:1-2; 24:67; 1 Chr 1:32). By calling Midian and his full brothers “the sons of Keturah” (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:32-33), the Bible carefully distinguishes them from Isaac, the son of Sarah, who was the one through whom God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled (Gn 12:1-3; 17:15-21). In fact, Abraham and the Israelites regarded these other sons as having no more inheritance rights than a concubine’s sons (Gn 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>\n<p>Expelled from Abraham’s family, for Isaac’s sake, they became seminomadic peoples of the deserts east and south of Palestine (Gn 25:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandofMidian\">The Land of Midian<\/p>\n<p>Of uncertain location, Midian was probably far south of Edom on the eastern side of what is today called the Gulf of Aqaba. The Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy (second century <span>AD<\/span>) mentions a city named Modiana on the coast and a Madiana 26 miles (41.8 kilometers) inland (modern el-Bed’) in this region, an identification supported by the Jewish historian Josephus (first century <span>AD<\/span>) and the Christian church historian Eusebius (early fourth century).<\/p>\n\n<p>In early OT times Midian seems to have been the land on the edge of the deserts bordering Gilead, Moab, and Edom south even into eastern Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>In Joseph’s day, some Midianite clans must have lived in the northern Transjordanian desert adjacent to Gilead or Bashan because they were part of an Ishmaelite caravan traveling the trade route from Damascus across Gilead past Dothan to Egypt (Gn 37:17, 25-28, 36).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses fled from Pharaoh, he settled in Midian and eventually married Zipporah, the daughter of a Midianite priest (Ex 2:15-22). Moses asked his Midianite relative Hobab to act as a guide from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:19); Hobab was familiar with the wilderness of Paran (Nm 10:11-12, 29-31), even though his own land and relatives were elsewhere (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>In the Balaam episode and its bloody aftermath (Nm 22:31), a substantial group of Midianites appears to have been living on the eastern frontier of Moab. The Moabite king Balak, who was subject to the Amorite king named Sihon (21:26-30; Jer 48:45), discussed the Israelite threat with the elders of Midian, and a joint delegation was sent to Balaam (Nm 22:2-7). At Acacia in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 25:1), an Israelite met and married a Midianite princess (Nm 25:6-18; 31:8). The Midianite kings were considered puppet kings of King Sihon (Jos 13:21). All the indications are that Midianite clans lived nearby, on the borders of Moab. Since Moab is north of Edom, the reference to an Edomite victory over Midian (Gn 36:35) might indicate a northern encroachment by the Midianites on Edomite territory.<\/p>\n<p>The Midianite invasion that Gideon repulsed had all the appearances of an invasion from the east. It would therefore seem that while “the land of Midian” is a term that may refer to a territory south of Edom, Midianites were living over a much wider area—on marginal land—east of Moab and Edom and south of Edom into east Sinai and northwest Arabia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIDIAN, MIDIANITE Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements. Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28). Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraha...","summary_en":"MIDIAN, MIDIANITE Person, place, or people, the latter living on the eastern edge of Gilead, Moab, and Edom south into northwest Arabia. They had few, if any, permanent settlements. Midian and his descendants figure prominently only in the early history of Israel, in connection with Abraham (Gn 25:1-6), Joseph (37:25-36), Moses (Ex 2:15–3:1), Balaam (Nm 22:1-6; 25; 31:1-20), and Gideon (Jgs 6:1–8:28). Midian was Isaac’s younger half brother, the fourth of six sons born to Keturah, whom Abraha...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43206,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:5","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:5-6<\/strong> <em>Abraham<\/em> loved all his sons, so <em>before he died<\/em>, he <em>gave<\/em> them <em>gifts<\/em> and <em>sent them<\/em> away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:5-6<\/strong> <em>Abraham<\/em> loved all his sons, so <em>before he died<\/em>, he <em>gave<\/em> them <em>gifts<\/em> and <em>sent them<\/em> away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:5-6 Abraham loved all his sons, so before he died, he gave them gifts and sent them away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.","summary_en":"25:5-6 Abraham loved all his sons, so before he died, he gave them gifts and sent them away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70832,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:5","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:5-6<\/strong> <em>Abraham<\/em> loved all his sons, so <em>before he died<\/em>, he <em>gave<\/em> them <em>gifts<\/em> and <em>sent them<\/em> away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:5-6<\/strong> <em>Abraham<\/em> loved all his sons, so <em>before he died<\/em>, he <em>gave<\/em> them <em>gifts<\/em> and <em>sent them<\/em> away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:5-6 Abraham loved all his sons, so before he died, he gave them gifts and sent them away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.","summary_en":"25:5-6 Abraham loved all his sons, so before he died, he gave them gifts and sent them away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98458,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:5","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:5-6<\/strong> <em>Abraham<\/em> loved all his sons, so <em>before he died<\/em>, he <em>gave<\/em> them <em>gifts<\/em> and <em>sent them<\/em> away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:5-6<\/strong> <em>Abraham<\/em> loved all his sons, so <em>before he died<\/em>, he <em>gave<\/em> them <em>gifts<\/em> and <em>sent them<\/em> away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:5-6 Abraham loved all his sons, so before he died, he gave them gifts and sent them away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.","summary_en":"25:5-6 Abraham loved all his sons, so before he died, he gave them gifts and sent them away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126084,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:5","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:5-6<\/strong> <em>Abraham<\/em> loved all his sons, so <em>before he died<\/em>, he <em>gave<\/em> them <em>gifts<\/em> and <em>sent them<\/em> away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:5-6<\/strong> <em>Abraham<\/em> loved all his sons, so <em>before he died<\/em>, he <em>gave<\/em> them <em>gifts<\/em> and <em>sent them<\/em> away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:5-6 Abraham loved all his sons, so before he died, he gave them gifts and sent them away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.","summary_en":"25:5-6 Abraham loved all his sons, so before he died, he gave them gifts and sent them away as he had sent Ishmael (21:8-14). In this way, he preserved Isaac’s position as his heir.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":17700,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>ISAAC<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yitshaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Isaak<\/span><em>.<\/em> If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child (Gn 17:17; 18:12) and then suddenly becoming parents, as God had promised.<\/p>\n<p>Isaac’s pedigree is also interesting, for Sarah was not only the wife of Abraham but also his half sister (Gn 20:12), and this fact alone may have interfered with conception in their earlier years. Because of this relationship, Isaac belonged to both sides of Terah’s family. According to prevailing custom, the son of the legal wife took precedence over the male offspring of concubines, so that Isaac had priority of inheritance over Ishmael. The gifts that Abraham subsequently gave to the sons of his concubines (25:6) were without prejudice to the inheritance of Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>Following God’s instructions (Gn 17:10-14), Isaac was circumcised on the eighth day as a member of the covenant community. The next ceremony came when he was old enough for weaning, probably around three years old. In eastern countries where this procedure is still observed, the child’s transition from milk to solid protein and carbohydrates is normally celebrated in the context of a feast. During the celebration the mother chews a mouthful of solid food and then pushes it into the baby’s mouth with her tongue. The infant is often so shocked by this treatment that it promptly expels the food, whereupon the mother repeats the process. For an observer the procedure can be hilarious, and Ishmael may have been laughing at such a spectacle when he incurred Sarah’s wrath (21:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>During the years of Isaac’s adolescence, Abraham was living in Philistine territory (Gn 21:34). The supreme test of the father’s faith and obedience came in this period. Having watched this son of God’s promise grow up into a healthy young man, Abraham is asked by God to offer him as a sacrifice. Isaac was familiar with sacrificial rituals and helped with the preparations, though probably not without some misgivings, for he was also familiar with the patriarchal traditions that gave the head of the family power of life or death over everyone and everything in the family. If he voiced any protest as he lay bound on the sacrificial altar, it is not recorded. When Abraham’s faith did not waver, God intervened at the crucial moment and provided another offering in the form of a ram. Because of his obedience, God promised Abraham great blessing, blessing in which Isaac also participated (Gn 22; 25:11). It was this act of faith and obedience that Paul honored centuries later by calling Abraham the forefather of the Christian church (Rom 4).<\/p>\n<p>After Sarah’s death (Gn 23), Abraham set about securing a bride for Isaac, as it was the custom for parents to arrange marriages for their children. Rather than have Isaac marry a local pagan woman, Abraham sent his household steward to Nahor in Mesopotamia to seek a bride for his son from among his relatives. In an account that emphasizes faith, perseverance, and divine blessing, Genesis 24 describes how the servant met Rebekah and betrothed her to Isaac even before he had met the rest of her family. Bethuel, her father, and Laban, her brother, assented to this arrangement, and she left with the family’s blessing to take up her new responsibilities in Palestine as Isaac’s wife.<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham died at a ripe old age, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah (Gn 25:8-9). Isaac was now patriarch of the family. He pleaded with God that his wife, Rebekah, might bear children, and as a result, she bore twin sons, Esau (“the hairy one”) and Jacob (“supplanter”). Esau became a hunter, and Isaac favored him, while Jacob was more of a settler and agriculturalist and was favored by his mother. Jacob was also crafty and took advantage of Esau’s extreme hunger one day, bargaining with his older brother to exchange his birthright for some lentil stew. Possession of the birthright secured for Jacob a double portion of the inheritance (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>When famine gripped the land, God instructed Isaac not to visit Egypt (Gn 26:2), but to stay in Palestine, where he would enjoy great prosperity. When the men of the area asked about Rebekah, Isaac became fearful and said she was his sister. When the deception was uncovered, Abimelech the king rebuked Isaac and forbade anyone to interfere with him. Isaac prospered so greatly that Abimelech finally asked him to relocate, so he moved to Beersheba, where there was sufficient water for his flocks, and his fortune increased.<\/p>\n<p>Although Esau was Isaac’s favorite son, he displeased his father by marrying two Hittite women. When Isaac felt that the end of his life was approaching, he wanted to bless his firstborn in the traditional patriarchal manner (Gn 27). Rebekah overheard his instructions to Esau, and she encouraged Jacob to deceive the blind old man by disguising himself as Esau and taking his brother’s blessing. The deception succeeded, and Isaac gave Jacob the blessing of the firstborn. When Esau appeared to receive his blessing he was too late, and he was very bitter against Jacob because of what had happened. Rebekah sent Jacob away to her brother Laban in Mesopotamia, to escape Esau’s anger and also to obtain a wife. Esau did receive a blessing from Isaac, but a lesser one. Two decades later a rich and prosperous Jacob returned with his family. He made peace with Esau before Isaac died, and the brothers buried Isaac in Hebron (Gn 35:27-29).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac is given less prominence in the patriarchal narratives than Abraham or Jacob, but his importance for covenantal faith was recognized in such NT passages as Acts 7:8, Romans 9:7, Galatians 4:21-31, and Hebrews 11:9-20.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAAC<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yitshaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Isaak<\/span><em>.<\/em> If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child (Gn 17:17; 18:12) and then suddenly becoming parents, as God had promised.<\/p>\n<p>Isaac’s pedigree is also interesting, for Sarah was not only the wife of Abraham but also his half sister (Gn 20:12), and this fact alone may have interfered with conception in their earlier years. Because of this relationship, Isaac belonged to both sides of Terah’s family. According to prevailing custom, the son of the legal wife took precedence over the male offspring of concubines, so that Isaac had priority of inheritance over Ishmael. The gifts that Abraham subsequently gave to the sons of his concubines (25:6) were without prejudice to the inheritance of Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>Following God’s instructions (Gn 17:10-14), Isaac was circumcised on the eighth day as a member of the covenant community. The next ceremony came when he was old enough for weaning, probably around three years old. In eastern countries where this procedure is still observed, the child’s transition from milk to solid protein and carbohydrates is normally celebrated in the context of a feast. During the celebration the mother chews a mouthful of solid food and then pushes it into the baby’s mouth with her tongue. The infant is often so shocked by this treatment that it promptly expels the food, whereupon the mother repeats the process. For an observer the procedure can be hilarious, and Ishmael may have been laughing at such a spectacle when he incurred Sarah’s wrath (21:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>During the years of Isaac’s adolescence, Abraham was living in Philistine territory (Gn 21:34). The supreme test of the father’s faith and obedience came in this period. Having watched this son of God’s promise grow up into a healthy young man, Abraham is asked by God to offer him as a sacrifice. Isaac was familiar with sacrificial rituals and helped with the preparations, though probably not without some misgivings, for he was also familiar with the patriarchal traditions that gave the head of the family power of life or death over everyone and everything in the family. If he voiced any protest as he lay bound on the sacrificial altar, it is not recorded. When Abraham’s faith did not waver, God intervened at the crucial moment and provided another offering in the form of a ram. Because of his obedience, God promised Abraham great blessing, blessing in which Isaac also participated (Gn 22; 25:11). It was this act of faith and obedience that Paul honored centuries later by calling Abraham the forefather of the Christian church (Rom 4).<\/p>\n<p>After Sarah’s death (Gn 23), Abraham set about securing a bride for Isaac, as it was the custom for parents to arrange marriages for their children. Rather than have Isaac marry a local pagan woman, Abraham sent his household steward to Nahor in Mesopotamia to seek a bride for his son from among his relatives. In an account that emphasizes faith, perseverance, and divine blessing, Genesis 24 describes how the servant met Rebekah and betrothed her to Isaac even before he had met the rest of her family. Bethuel, her father, and Laban, her brother, assented to this arrangement, and she left with the family’s blessing to take up her new responsibilities in Palestine as Isaac’s wife.<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham died at a ripe old age, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah (Gn 25:8-9). Isaac was now patriarch of the family. He pleaded with God that his wife, Rebekah, might bear children, and as a result, she bore twin sons, Esau (“the hairy one”) and Jacob (“supplanter”). Esau became a hunter, and Isaac favored him, while Jacob was more of a settler and agriculturalist and was favored by his mother. Jacob was also crafty and took advantage of Esau’s extreme hunger one day, bargaining with his older brother to exchange his birthright for some lentil stew. Possession of the birthright secured for Jacob a double portion of the inheritance (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>When famine gripped the land, God instructed Isaac not to visit Egypt (Gn 26:2), but to stay in Palestine, where he would enjoy great prosperity. When the men of the area asked about Rebekah, Isaac became fearful and said she was his sister. When the deception was uncovered, Abimelech the king rebuked Isaac and forbade anyone to interfere with him. Isaac prospered so greatly that Abimelech finally asked him to relocate, so he moved to Beersheba, where there was sufficient water for his flocks, and his fortune increased.<\/p>\n<p>Although Esau was Isaac’s favorite son, he displeased his father by marrying two Hittite women. When Isaac felt that the end of his life was approaching, he wanted to bless his firstborn in the traditional patriarchal manner (Gn 27). Rebekah overheard his instructions to Esau, and she encouraged Jacob to deceive the blind old man by disguising himself as Esau and taking his brother’s blessing. The deception succeeded, and Isaac gave Jacob the blessing of the firstborn. When Esau appeared to receive his blessing he was too late, and he was very bitter against Jacob because of what had happened. Rebekah sent Jacob away to her brother Laban in Mesopotamia, to escape Esau’s anger and also to obtain a wife. Esau did receive a blessing from Isaac, but a lesser one. Two decades later a rich and prosperous Jacob returned with his family. He made peace with Esau before Isaac died, and the brothers buried Isaac in Hebron (Gn 35:27-29).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac is given less prominence in the patriarchal narratives than Abraham or Jacob, but his importance for covenantal faith was recognized in such NT passages as Acts 7:8, Romans 9:7, Galatians 4:21-31, and Hebrews 11:9-20.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAAC Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel. The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew Yitshaq, in Greek Isaak. If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child...","summary_en":"ISAAC Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel. The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew Yitshaq, in Greek Isaak. If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21497,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kadmonites","title_en":"Kadmonites","content_ro":"<h3>KADMONITES<\/h3>\n<p>Semitic tribe whose land was promised to Abraham’s descendants (Gn 15:19). The name of the tribe is the same as the Hebrew adjective “eastern” and suggests that references to peoples or lands of the east (Gn 25:6; Jgs 8:10; 1 Kgs 4:30; Jb 1:3) may be synonymous with the tribal name.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KADMONITES<\/h3>\n<p>Semitic tribe whose land was promised to Abraham’s descendants (Gn 15:19). The name of the tribe is the same as the Hebrew adjective “eastern” and suggests that references to peoples or lands of the east (Gn 25:6; Jgs 8:10; 1 Kgs 4:30; Jb 1:3) may be synonymous with the tribal name.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KADMONITES Semitic tribe whose land was promised to Abraham’s descendants (Gn 15:19). The name of the tribe is the same as the Hebrew adjective “eastern” and suggests that references to peoples or lands of the east (Gn 25:6; Jgs 8:10; 1 Kgs 4:30; Jb 1:3) may be synonymous with the tribal name.","summary_en":"KADMONITES Semitic tribe whose land was promised to Abraham’s descendants (Gn 15:19). The name of the tribe is the same as the Hebrew adjective “eastern” and suggests that references to peoples or lands of the east (Gn 25:6; Jgs 8:10; 1 Kgs 4:30; Jb 1:3) may be synonymous with the tribal name.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21656,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Keturah","title_en":"Keturah","content_ro":"<h3>KETURAH<\/h3>\n<p>Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially Midian and Jokshan’s sons Sheba and Dedan (Gn 25:3). As far as can be determined, the tribes settled in the north and central regions of the northern Euphrates, as far as the central sections of the Arabian Desert. They were merchants (ch 37) and shepherds (Ex 2:16). They were involved in international trade (Is 60:6). For example, the queen of Sheba, a descendant of Jokshan (Gn 25:3), came to Solomon to initiate trade relations (1 Kgs 10:2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KETURAH<\/h3>\n<p>Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially Midian and Jokshan’s sons Sheba and Dedan (Gn 25:3). As far as can be determined, the tribes settled in the north and central regions of the northern Euphrates, as far as the central sections of the Arabian Desert. They were merchants (ch 37) and shepherds (Ex 2:16). They were involved in international trade (Is 60:6). For example, the queen of Sheba, a descendant of Jokshan (Gn 25:3), came to Solomon to initiate trade relations (1 Kgs 10:2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KETURAH Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially...","summary_en":"KETURAH Second wife of Abraham. It is unclear whether he married her before or after Sarah’s death (Gn 25:1). He had six sons with her: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah (v 2). Keturah’s status was not identical to that of Sarah. She is called a concubine (Gn 25:6, cf. 1 Chr 1:32), and her sons were presented with gifts instead of receiving a share in the inheritance. Keturah’s sons were the ancestors of tribes with which Israel came into contact after the Conquest, especially...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":43207,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:7-8<\/strong> Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:7-8<\/strong> Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:7-8 Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.","summary_en":"25:7-8 Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70833,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:7-8<\/strong> Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:7-8<\/strong> Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:7-8 Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.","summary_en":"25:7-8 Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98459,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:7-8<\/strong> Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:7-8<\/strong> Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:7-8 Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.","summary_en":"25:7-8 Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126085,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:7","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:7-8<\/strong> Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:7-8<\/strong> Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:7-8 Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.","summary_en":"25:7-8 Abraham’s death is recorded before the births of Jacob and Esau, but he lived until they were fifteen years old (25:19-26; cp. 21:5; 25:26). This literary arrangement closes Abraham’s story before focusing on Isaac’s family.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":8937,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Place of the Dead","title_en":"Place of the Dead","content_ro":"<h3>DEAD, Place of the<\/h3>\n<p>Term covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, one descends to Sheol (often translated as “grave,” “hell,” “pit,” or simply “the dead”), which at times means merely that one is laid in a grave (Nm 16:30, 33), but more often indicates an underworld. The abode of the dead is pictured as a place beneath the earth to which one “goes down” (Gn 42:38; Prv 15:24; Ez 26:20) and as a place of gloomy darkness (Jb 10:21-22), silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17), and forgetfulness (Ps 88:12). God is not remembered there and his praises are never sung (Pss 6:5; 30:9; 115:17). Even God himself, it was believed, does not remember those who are there (Ps 88:5, 11; Is 38:18). The dead were seen as permanently cut off from contact with the Lord and from participating in his activity in history. Even though the border between life and death was considered fluid (as shown by a resurrection in 2 Kgs 4:32-37 and by Samuel’s ghost in 1 Sm 28:7-25), communication with the dead was forbidden to the Jews (Dt 18:11). (Worshiping the dead was a common practice in the nations surrounding Israel.)<\/p>\n<p>Although one’s fate in the underworld could not properly be called life, it was a kind of existence, perhaps even in the company of one’s countrymen and ancestors (Gn 25:8; Ez 32:17-30). The realm of the dead was not beyond the reach of God’s power (Ps 139:8; Am 9:2; Jon 2:2). Although Sheol was pictured as a hungry monster wolfing down the living (Prv 27:20; 30:16), God’s power could save one from its grasp (Pss 49:15; 86:13). By the end of the OT period, there was even hope that one would finally be delivered from Sheol (Jb 14:13-22; 19:25-27; Pss 49:15; 73:23-28), although only Daniel expressed that hope clearly (Dn 12:1-2). So although the ancient Hebrews never looked forward to death in the same way that the apostle Paul could in the NT (2 Cor 5:1-8; Phil 1:21-23), nevertheless they did come to understand that death was not a hopeless state.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheIntertestamentalWritings\">In the Intertestamental Writings<\/p>\n<p>Between the exile and the beginning of the NT period (586 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 30, overlapping with the end of the OT), contact with the religions of Persia and Greece stimulated the Jews to clarify their ideas about life after death. When the OT was translated into Greek, the Greek name for the underworld, “hades,” was used to translate the Hebrew “Sheol.” In the NT, hades was carried over to become the common name for the abode of the dead.<\/p>\n<p>Along with new names came new ideas. Many different notions circulated about the place of the dead. A common one appears in the pseudepigraphal 1 Enoch 22, where the dead are said to be kept in hollow places in a great mountain waiting for the final judgment. One relatively pleasant section was reserved for the righteous and one full of torments for the wicked. Other writers continued the OT concept of hades or Sheol as a place of separation from God and from happiness (Ecclus 14:12, 16; 17:27-28).<\/p>\n<p>During that period, the Jews also began to use a new term, “Gehenna” (Hebrew “Hinnom”), the name of a valley south of Jerusalem. The valley was noted in the OT period for the abomination of child sacrifices (2 Kgs 16:3; 21:6; 23:10) and in the NT period for its smoldering garbage. Gehenna became a designation for the final place of the wicked dead, a place of fiery torment (1 Enoch 90:20-27; 2 Esd 7:70). Over against that place of punishment stood “paradise” (a Persian name for a pleasure garden), a place where the righteous would enjoy blessedness.<\/p>\n<p>All those concepts—hades, Gehenna, paradise—were molded by NT writers into forms most appropriate to the revelation of Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although the NT uses a variety of terms for the abode of the dead, it contains surprisingly few references to it—about 35 verses in all. Those passages are concentrated in the Gospels and the book of Revelation. The apostle Paul said a lot about heaven, but only Jesus and John said much about hell.<\/p>\n<p>The word “hades” is attributed to Jesus only once, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:23). In that parable hades is a place of torment where the wicked go at death. The torment is described as a “flame” that afflicts a person physically despite bodily death. All comfort is refused to those in agony.<\/p>\n<p>Although the wicked go to hades as soon as they die, their ultimate destination is Gehenna, a place of fire and worms, both indicating corruption (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 18:9; Mk 9:48, quoting from Is 66:24). Jesus also referred to Gehenna as “the outer darkness” where there will be “weeping and gnashing of teeth” (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30). Evidently, after the final judgment, the wicked are sent there at the command of Christ (Jn 5:22, 27; Acts 10:42; 17:31; 2 Tm 4:1). That place of torment picks up the negative side of the OT concept of Sheol as a place of separation from God.<\/p>\n<p>As a preacher of repentance, Jesus stressed the danger of Gehenna. He had much less to say about the place of the righteous when they die. Ultimately, though, the righteous would enter into “the kingdom,” instead of Gehenna, after the last judgment (Mt 25:34). Jesus twice indicated that the righteous enter a blessed state immediately at death. Luke 16:22 refers to the dead Lazarus as being in “Abraham’s bosom,” a place of comfort and peace. Luke 23:43 calls the same place paradise in a promise that the dying thief would join Jesus there at death. Paul’s wording about paradise seems to align it with heaven (2 Cor 12:2-3), and John associates paradise with the new heaven and new earth (Rv 2:7; 21:1-2; 22:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and other writers of the NT epistles had little to say about the abode of the wicked dead. Paul spoke only in passing of “the abyss”—his term for the pit of Sheol (Rom 10:7). His reference to Christ’s descent to the “lower parts of the earth” (Eph 4:9) is probably only his way of saying that Christ, having died, went to the place of the dead. (“The lowest earth” was a term used by Jewish rabbis for Sheol\/hades\/Gehenna.) Peter spoke of Christ’s going in “spirit” after his death to some “prison” where he “preached to the spirits” (1 Pt 3:18-20). Interpretations of that passage differ. Some think that Christ entered hades and preached to the fallen angels of Noah’s day (“sons of God,” Gn 6:1-4), not that he preached to imprisoned human spirits. In 2 Peter 2:4 the prison for spirits (usually translated “hell”) comes from “Tartarus,” another Greek name for the underworld.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had much to say about the abode of the righteous dead. In his earliest letters he never mentioned their location, only that they would be resurrected (1 Cor 15; 1 Thes 4:13-17). After facing almost certain death himself (2 Cor 1:8-11), he began to discuss where the dead “went.” To die means to be with Christ, Paul said, and thus is better than life (Phil 1:23). To be “away from the body” is to be “at home with the Lord” (2 Cor 5:8). Paul probably meant that the righteous dead went directly to paradise to be with Jesus (cf. 2 Cor 12:2-4, where Paul called paradise “the third heaven”). Death has absolutely no power to separate Christians from Christ (Rom 8:38-39). Instead, it brings them into the presence of God.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation contains much about the abode of the dead, especially the wicked dead. It uses two names for that place: “the abyss,” the home or prison of all evil spirits; and “hades,” the name for the place of the human dead. From the abyss (or bottomless pit) come the demonic forms that torment humanity (Rv 9:1-11) and the satanic “beast,” who kills the two witnesses and carries the “great prostitute” on its back (11:7; 17). There Satan himself will be imprisoned (20:2-3). Jesus described it as a place prepared for the devil and his angels (cf. Mt 25:41). The good news for Christians is that the abyss, or hades, is not an autonomous realm. The book of Revelation begins with Jesus’ announcement that he has the keys to hades (Rv 1:18), and in the end he will force it to give up its dead (20:13). Until then, the key to the abyss is not in the hand of Satan, but hangs on a heavenly key ring to be distributed only to the messengers of God (9:1; 20:1). In the end, hades, death, and the wicked will be cast into the lake of fire (Gehenna), where they will suffer eternal torment (19:20; 20:10, 14-15; 21:8).<\/p>\n<p>John, the writer of the Revelation, agreed with Paul that the righteous will not share the fate of the wicked at death. Instead of going to hades, they go to heaven. The martyrs appear under the altar, calling to God to avenge them (Rv 6:9-11). In another image innumerable Christians appear before the throne of God, praising him (7:9-17). Those believers, shepherded by Christ himself, suffer no hunger, thirst, discomfort, or sorrow.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>In summary, the place of the dead began in the OT as an undifferentiated, hazy idea of a place of separation from life and God. Later writers came to see that instead of one place for all (Sheol), there must be two. According to Christian teaching, the wicked enter the underworld, hades, a place of torment, where they suffer until the time of judgment; ultimately they will be cast into Gehenna, the lake of fire. Christ—not the devil—is in control of hades, as he is of the rest of creation. The righteous do not go to hades, but go directly to paradise (“Abraham’s bosom” or heaven). There they are with Christ; faith has become sight, suffering has become blessedness, and prayer has become praise. Christians believe that death, although fearful as the “last enemy,” has no torment for them. It has no power to separate them from their Lord. Rather, it brings them face-to-face with the One they love.<\/p>\n<p>This meeting may occur as soon as one dies or as soon as one is resurrected—the intervening time is of no consequence, because it is nothing more than just a time of sleep. In other words, the very next experience after death for the believer will be that of meeting Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Both Old and New Testaments speak of death as sleep. Commonly in the OT, when a person dies, he is said to go to sleep with his fathers (e.g., Dt 31:16; 2 Sm 7:12). Jesus himself spoke of death as sleep (Mt 9:24; Jn 11:11). So did the apostle Paul (1 Cor 11:30; 15:20, 51; 1 Thes 4:14). At least in some of these references it would seem that it is the temporary nature of death that is the reason why it is spoken of as sleep. Even in the OT passage Daniel 12:2, it is said that death is a sleep, until the dead rise up—some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gehenna; Hades; Heaven; Hell; Intermediate State; Paradise; Sheol.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEAD, Place of the<\/h3>\n<p>Term covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, one descends to Sheol (often translated as “grave,” “hell,” “pit,” or simply “the dead”), which at times means merely that one is laid in a grave (Nm 16:30, 33), but more often indicates an underworld. The abode of the dead is pictured as a place beneath the earth to which one “goes down” (Gn 42:38; Prv 15:24; Ez 26:20) and as a place of gloomy darkness (Jb 10:21-22), silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17), and forgetfulness (Ps 88:12). God is not remembered there and his praises are never sung (Pss 6:5; 30:9; 115:17). Even God himself, it was believed, does not remember those who are there (Ps 88:5, 11; Is 38:18). The dead were seen as permanently cut off from contact with the Lord and from participating in his activity in history. Even though the border between life and death was considered fluid (as shown by a resurrection in 2 Kgs 4:32-37 and by Samuel’s ghost in 1 Sm 28:7-25), communication with the dead was forbidden to the Jews (Dt 18:11). (Worshiping the dead was a common practice in the nations surrounding Israel.)<\/p>\n<p>Although one’s fate in the underworld could not properly be called life, it was a kind of existence, perhaps even in the company of one’s countrymen and ancestors (Gn 25:8; Ez 32:17-30). The realm of the dead was not beyond the reach of God’s power (Ps 139:8; Am 9:2; Jon 2:2). Although Sheol was pictured as a hungry monster wolfing down the living (Prv 27:20; 30:16), God’s power could save one from its grasp (Pss 49:15; 86:13). By the end of the OT period, there was even hope that one would finally be delivered from Sheol (Jb 14:13-22; 19:25-27; Pss 49:15; 73:23-28), although only Daniel expressed that hope clearly (Dn 12:1-2). So although the ancient Hebrews never looked forward to death in the same way that the apostle Paul could in the NT (2 Cor 5:1-8; Phil 1:21-23), nevertheless they did come to understand that death was not a hopeless state.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheIntertestamentalWritings\">In the Intertestamental Writings<\/p>\n<p>Between the exile and the beginning of the NT period (586 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 30, overlapping with the end of the OT), contact with the religions of Persia and Greece stimulated the Jews to clarify their ideas about life after death. When the OT was translated into Greek, the Greek name for the underworld, “hades,” was used to translate the Hebrew “Sheol.” In the NT, hades was carried over to become the common name for the abode of the dead.<\/p>\n<p>Along with new names came new ideas. Many different notions circulated about the place of the dead. A common one appears in the pseudepigraphal 1 Enoch 22, where the dead are said to be kept in hollow places in a great mountain waiting for the final judgment. One relatively pleasant section was reserved for the righteous and one full of torments for the wicked. Other writers continued the OT concept of hades or Sheol as a place of separation from God and from happiness (Ecclus 14:12, 16; 17:27-28).<\/p>\n<p>During that period, the Jews also began to use a new term, “Gehenna” (Hebrew “Hinnom”), the name of a valley south of Jerusalem. The valley was noted in the OT period for the abomination of child sacrifices (2 Kgs 16:3; 21:6; 23:10) and in the NT period for its smoldering garbage. Gehenna became a designation for the final place of the wicked dead, a place of fiery torment (1 Enoch 90:20-27; 2 Esd 7:70). Over against that place of punishment stood “paradise” (a Persian name for a pleasure garden), a place where the righteous would enjoy blessedness.<\/p>\n<p>All those concepts—hades, Gehenna, paradise—were molded by NT writers into forms most appropriate to the revelation of Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although the NT uses a variety of terms for the abode of the dead, it contains surprisingly few references to it—about 35 verses in all. Those passages are concentrated in the Gospels and the book of Revelation. The apostle Paul said a lot about heaven, but only Jesus and John said much about hell.<\/p>\n<p>The word “hades” is attributed to Jesus only once, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:23). In that parable hades is a place of torment where the wicked go at death. The torment is described as a “flame” that afflicts a person physically despite bodily death. All comfort is refused to those in agony.<\/p>\n<p>Although the wicked go to hades as soon as they die, their ultimate destination is Gehenna, a place of fire and worms, both indicating corruption (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 18:9; Mk 9:48, quoting from Is 66:24). Jesus also referred to Gehenna as “the outer darkness” where there will be “weeping and gnashing of teeth” (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30). Evidently, after the final judgment, the wicked are sent there at the command of Christ (Jn 5:22, 27; Acts 10:42; 17:31; 2 Tm 4:1). That place of torment picks up the negative side of the OT concept of Sheol as a place of separation from God.<\/p>\n<p>As a preacher of repentance, Jesus stressed the danger of Gehenna. He had much less to say about the place of the righteous when they die. Ultimately, though, the righteous would enter into “the kingdom,” instead of Gehenna, after the last judgment (Mt 25:34). Jesus twice indicated that the righteous enter a blessed state immediately at death. Luke 16:22 refers to the dead Lazarus as being in “Abraham’s bosom,” a place of comfort and peace. Luke 23:43 calls the same place paradise in a promise that the dying thief would join Jesus there at death. Paul’s wording about paradise seems to align it with heaven (2 Cor 12:2-3), and John associates paradise with the new heaven and new earth (Rv 2:7; 21:1-2; 22:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and other writers of the NT epistles had little to say about the abode of the wicked dead. Paul spoke only in passing of “the abyss”—his term for the pit of Sheol (Rom 10:7). His reference to Christ’s descent to the “lower parts of the earth” (Eph 4:9) is probably only his way of saying that Christ, having died, went to the place of the dead. (“The lowest earth” was a term used by Jewish rabbis for Sheol\/hades\/Gehenna.) Peter spoke of Christ’s going in “spirit” after his death to some “prison” where he “preached to the spirits” (1 Pt 3:18-20). Interpretations of that passage differ. Some think that Christ entered hades and preached to the fallen angels of Noah’s day (“sons of God,” Gn 6:1-4), not that he preached to imprisoned human spirits. In 2 Peter 2:4 the prison for spirits (usually translated “hell”) comes from “Tartarus,” another Greek name for the underworld.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had much to say about the abode of the righteous dead. In his earliest letters he never mentioned their location, only that they would be resurrected (1 Cor 15; 1 Thes 4:13-17). After facing almost certain death himself (2 Cor 1:8-11), he began to discuss where the dead “went.” To die means to be with Christ, Paul said, and thus is better than life (Phil 1:23). To be “away from the body” is to be “at home with the Lord” (2 Cor 5:8). Paul probably meant that the righteous dead went directly to paradise to be with Jesus (cf. 2 Cor 12:2-4, where Paul called paradise “the third heaven”). Death has absolutely no power to separate Christians from Christ (Rom 8:38-39). Instead, it brings them into the presence of God.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation contains much about the abode of the dead, especially the wicked dead. It uses two names for that place: “the abyss,” the home or prison of all evil spirits; and “hades,” the name for the place of the human dead. From the abyss (or bottomless pit) come the demonic forms that torment humanity (Rv 9:1-11) and the satanic “beast,” who kills the two witnesses and carries the “great prostitute” on its back (11:7; 17). There Satan himself will be imprisoned (20:2-3). Jesus described it as a place prepared for the devil and his angels (cf. Mt 25:41). The good news for Christians is that the abyss, or hades, is not an autonomous realm. The book of Revelation begins with Jesus’ announcement that he has the keys to hades (Rv 1:18), and in the end he will force it to give up its dead (20:13). Until then, the key to the abyss is not in the hand of Satan, but hangs on a heavenly key ring to be distributed only to the messengers of God (9:1; 20:1). In the end, hades, death, and the wicked will be cast into the lake of fire (Gehenna), where they will suffer eternal torment (19:20; 20:10, 14-15; 21:8).<\/p>\n<p>John, the writer of the Revelation, agreed with Paul that the righteous will not share the fate of the wicked at death. Instead of going to hades, they go to heaven. The martyrs appear under the altar, calling to God to avenge them (Rv 6:9-11). In another image innumerable Christians appear before the throne of God, praising him (7:9-17). Those believers, shepherded by Christ himself, suffer no hunger, thirst, discomfort, or sorrow.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>In summary, the place of the dead began in the OT as an undifferentiated, hazy idea of a place of separation from life and God. Later writers came to see that instead of one place for all (Sheol), there must be two. According to Christian teaching, the wicked enter the underworld, hades, a place of torment, where they suffer until the time of judgment; ultimately they will be cast into Gehenna, the lake of fire. Christ—not the devil—is in control of hades, as he is of the rest of creation. The righteous do not go to hades, but go directly to paradise (“Abraham’s bosom” or heaven). There they are with Christ; faith has become sight, suffering has become blessedness, and prayer has become praise. Christians believe that death, although fearful as the “last enemy,” has no torment for them. It has no power to separate them from their Lord. Rather, it brings them face-to-face with the One they love.<\/p>\n<p>This meeting may occur as soon as one dies or as soon as one is resurrected—the intervening time is of no consequence, because it is nothing more than just a time of sleep. In other words, the very next experience after death for the believer will be that of meeting Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Both Old and New Testaments speak of death as sleep. Commonly in the OT, when a person dies, he is said to go to sleep with his fathers (e.g., Dt 31:16; 2 Sm 7:12). Jesus himself spoke of death as sleep (Mt 9:24; Jn 11:11). So did the apostle Paul (1 Cor 11:30; 15:20, 51; 1 Thes 4:14). At least in some of these references it would seem that it is the temporary nature of death that is the reason why it is spoken of as sleep. Even in the OT passage Daniel 12:2, it is said that death is a sleep, until the dead rise up—some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gehenna; Hades; Heaven; Hell; Intermediate State; Paradise; Sheol.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEAD, Place of the Term covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT. In the Old Testament The OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, ...","summary_en":"DEAD, Place of the Term covering a number of descriptive biblical images of the whereabouts of those who have died. Those images include Sheol and “the pit” in the OT, plus hades, Gehenna, paradise, and “Abraham’s bosom” in the NT. As their understanding advanced, the Hebrews’ idea of what happens at death changed from rather hazy beginnings to a developed concept found in the NT. In the Old Testament The OT contains meager information about the dead. At death, according to some OT passages, ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17709,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>ISAAC<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yitshaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Isaak<\/span><em>.<\/em> If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child (Gn 17:17; 18:12) and then suddenly becoming parents, as God had promised.<\/p>\n<p>Isaac’s pedigree is also interesting, for Sarah was not only the wife of Abraham but also his half sister (Gn 20:12), and this fact alone may have interfered with conception in their earlier years. Because of this relationship, Isaac belonged to both sides of Terah’s family. According to prevailing custom, the son of the legal wife took precedence over the male offspring of concubines, so that Isaac had priority of inheritance over Ishmael. The gifts that Abraham subsequently gave to the sons of his concubines (25:6) were without prejudice to the inheritance of Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>Following God’s instructions (Gn 17:10-14), Isaac was circumcised on the eighth day as a member of the covenant community. The next ceremony came when he was old enough for weaning, probably around three years old. In eastern countries where this procedure is still observed, the child’s transition from milk to solid protein and carbohydrates is normally celebrated in the context of a feast. During the celebration the mother chews a mouthful of solid food and then pushes it into the baby’s mouth with her tongue. The infant is often so shocked by this treatment that it promptly expels the food, whereupon the mother repeats the process. For an observer the procedure can be hilarious, and Ishmael may have been laughing at such a spectacle when he incurred Sarah’s wrath (21:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>During the years of Isaac’s adolescence, Abraham was living in Philistine territory (Gn 21:34). The supreme test of the father’s faith and obedience came in this period. Having watched this son of God’s promise grow up into a healthy young man, Abraham is asked by God to offer him as a sacrifice. Isaac was familiar with sacrificial rituals and helped with the preparations, though probably not without some misgivings, for he was also familiar with the patriarchal traditions that gave the head of the family power of life or death over everyone and everything in the family. If he voiced any protest as he lay bound on the sacrificial altar, it is not recorded. When Abraham’s faith did not waver, God intervened at the crucial moment and provided another offering in the form of a ram. Because of his obedience, God promised Abraham great blessing, blessing in which Isaac also participated (Gn 22; 25:11). It was this act of faith and obedience that Paul honored centuries later by calling Abraham the forefather of the Christian church (Rom 4).<\/p>\n<p>After Sarah’s death (Gn 23), Abraham set about securing a bride for Isaac, as it was the custom for parents to arrange marriages for their children. Rather than have Isaac marry a local pagan woman, Abraham sent his household steward to Nahor in Mesopotamia to seek a bride for his son from among his relatives. In an account that emphasizes faith, perseverance, and divine blessing, Genesis 24 describes how the servant met Rebekah and betrothed her to Isaac even before he had met the rest of her family. Bethuel, her father, and Laban, her brother, assented to this arrangement, and she left with the family’s blessing to take up her new responsibilities in Palestine as Isaac’s wife.<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham died at a ripe old age, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah (Gn 25:8-9). Isaac was now patriarch of the family. He pleaded with God that his wife, Rebekah, might bear children, and as a result, she bore twin sons, Esau (“the hairy one”) and Jacob (“supplanter”). Esau became a hunter, and Isaac favored him, while Jacob was more of a settler and agriculturalist and was favored by his mother. Jacob was also crafty and took advantage of Esau’s extreme hunger one day, bargaining with his older brother to exchange his birthright for some lentil stew. Possession of the birthright secured for Jacob a double portion of the inheritance (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>When famine gripped the land, God instructed Isaac not to visit Egypt (Gn 26:2), but to stay in Palestine, where he would enjoy great prosperity. When the men of the area asked about Rebekah, Isaac became fearful and said she was his sister. When the deception was uncovered, Abimelech the king rebuked Isaac and forbade anyone to interfere with him. Isaac prospered so greatly that Abimelech finally asked him to relocate, so he moved to Beersheba, where there was sufficient water for his flocks, and his fortune increased.<\/p>\n<p>Although Esau was Isaac’s favorite son, he displeased his father by marrying two Hittite women. When Isaac felt that the end of his life was approaching, he wanted to bless his firstborn in the traditional patriarchal manner (Gn 27). Rebekah overheard his instructions to Esau, and she encouraged Jacob to deceive the blind old man by disguising himself as Esau and taking his brother’s blessing. The deception succeeded, and Isaac gave Jacob the blessing of the firstborn. When Esau appeared to receive his blessing he was too late, and he was very bitter against Jacob because of what had happened. Rebekah sent Jacob away to her brother Laban in Mesopotamia, to escape Esau’s anger and also to obtain a wife. Esau did receive a blessing from Isaac, but a lesser one. Two decades later a rich and prosperous Jacob returned with his family. He made peace with Esau before Isaac died, and the brothers buried Isaac in Hebron (Gn 35:27-29).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac is given less prominence in the patriarchal narratives than Abraham or Jacob, but his importance for covenantal faith was recognized in such NT passages as Acts 7:8, Romans 9:7, Galatians 4:21-31, and Hebrews 11:9-20.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAAC<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yitshaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Isaak<\/span><em>.<\/em> If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child (Gn 17:17; 18:12) and then suddenly becoming parents, as God had promised.<\/p>\n<p>Isaac’s pedigree is also interesting, for Sarah was not only the wife of Abraham but also his half sister (Gn 20:12), and this fact alone may have interfered with conception in their earlier years. Because of this relationship, Isaac belonged to both sides of Terah’s family. According to prevailing custom, the son of the legal wife took precedence over the male offspring of concubines, so that Isaac had priority of inheritance over Ishmael. The gifts that Abraham subsequently gave to the sons of his concubines (25:6) were without prejudice to the inheritance of Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>Following God’s instructions (Gn 17:10-14), Isaac was circumcised on the eighth day as a member of the covenant community. The next ceremony came when he was old enough for weaning, probably around three years old. In eastern countries where this procedure is still observed, the child’s transition from milk to solid protein and carbohydrates is normally celebrated in the context of a feast. During the celebration the mother chews a mouthful of solid food and then pushes it into the baby’s mouth with her tongue. The infant is often so shocked by this treatment that it promptly expels the food, whereupon the mother repeats the process. For an observer the procedure can be hilarious, and Ishmael may have been laughing at such a spectacle when he incurred Sarah’s wrath (21:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>During the years of Isaac’s adolescence, Abraham was living in Philistine territory (Gn 21:34). The supreme test of the father’s faith and obedience came in this period. Having watched this son of God’s promise grow up into a healthy young man, Abraham is asked by God to offer him as a sacrifice. Isaac was familiar with sacrificial rituals and helped with the preparations, though probably not without some misgivings, for he was also familiar with the patriarchal traditions that gave the head of the family power of life or death over everyone and everything in the family. If he voiced any protest as he lay bound on the sacrificial altar, it is not recorded. When Abraham’s faith did not waver, God intervened at the crucial moment and provided another offering in the form of a ram. Because of his obedience, God promised Abraham great blessing, blessing in which Isaac also participated (Gn 22; 25:11). It was this act of faith and obedience that Paul honored centuries later by calling Abraham the forefather of the Christian church (Rom 4).<\/p>\n<p>After Sarah’s death (Gn 23), Abraham set about securing a bride for Isaac, as it was the custom for parents to arrange marriages for their children. Rather than have Isaac marry a local pagan woman, Abraham sent his household steward to Nahor in Mesopotamia to seek a bride for his son from among his relatives. In an account that emphasizes faith, perseverance, and divine blessing, Genesis 24 describes how the servant met Rebekah and betrothed her to Isaac even before he had met the rest of her family. Bethuel, her father, and Laban, her brother, assented to this arrangement, and she left with the family’s blessing to take up her new responsibilities in Palestine as Isaac’s wife.<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham died at a ripe old age, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah (Gn 25:8-9). Isaac was now patriarch of the family. He pleaded with God that his wife, Rebekah, might bear children, and as a result, she bore twin sons, Esau (“the hairy one”) and Jacob (“supplanter”). Esau became a hunter, and Isaac favored him, while Jacob was more of a settler and agriculturalist and was favored by his mother. Jacob was also crafty and took advantage of Esau’s extreme hunger one day, bargaining with his older brother to exchange his birthright for some lentil stew. Possession of the birthright secured for Jacob a double portion of the inheritance (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>When famine gripped the land, God instructed Isaac not to visit Egypt (Gn 26:2), but to stay in Palestine, where he would enjoy great prosperity. When the men of the area asked about Rebekah, Isaac became fearful and said she was his sister. When the deception was uncovered, Abimelech the king rebuked Isaac and forbade anyone to interfere with him. Isaac prospered so greatly that Abimelech finally asked him to relocate, so he moved to Beersheba, where there was sufficient water for his flocks, and his fortune increased.<\/p>\n<p>Although Esau was Isaac’s favorite son, he displeased his father by marrying two Hittite women. When Isaac felt that the end of his life was approaching, he wanted to bless his firstborn in the traditional patriarchal manner (Gn 27). Rebekah overheard his instructions to Esau, and she encouraged Jacob to deceive the blind old man by disguising himself as Esau and taking his brother’s blessing. The deception succeeded, and Isaac gave Jacob the blessing of the firstborn. When Esau appeared to receive his blessing he was too late, and he was very bitter against Jacob because of what had happened. Rebekah sent Jacob away to her brother Laban in Mesopotamia, to escape Esau’s anger and also to obtain a wife. Esau did receive a blessing from Isaac, but a lesser one. Two decades later a rich and prosperous Jacob returned with his family. He made peace with Esau before Isaac died, and the brothers buried Isaac in Hebron (Gn 35:27-29).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac is given less prominence in the patriarchal narratives than Abraham or Jacob, but his importance for covenantal faith was recognized in such NT passages as Acts 7:8, Romans 9:7, Galatians 4:21-31, and Hebrews 11:9-20.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAAC Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel. The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew Yitshaq, in Greek Isaak. If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child...","summary_en":"ISAAC Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel. The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew Yitshaq, in Greek Isaak. If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34945,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sheol*","title_en":"Sheol*","content_ro":"<h3>SHEOL*<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew term for the place of the dead. In ordinary usage it means “ravine,” “chasm,” “underworld,” or “world of the dead.” In the OT it is the place where the dead have their abode, a hollow space underneath the earth where the dead are gathered in. Synonyms for Sheol are “pit,” “death,” and “destruction” (Abaddon). Sheol is a place of shadows and utter silence. Here all existence is in suspense, yet it is not a nonplace, but rather a place where life is no more. It is described as the Land of Forgetfulness. Those who dwell there cannot praise God (Ps 88:10-12). In Revelation it is called the “bottomless pit” presided over by Abaddon, the prince of the pit (Rv 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>It is not, however, a place where God is entirely absent; there can be no escape from God even in Sheol (Ps 139:8). This omnipresence of God is graphically described in Job: “Sheol is naked before God, and Abaddon has no covering” (Jb 26:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). A similar thought is expressed in Proverbs: “Sheol and Abaddon lie open before the <span>Lord<\/span>, how much more the hearts of men!” (Prv 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). In both texts Sheol and Abaddon are used interchangeably. Abaddon means literally “destruction,” but in Revelation it is used as a personal name.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, death is not a natural occurrence. It violates the principle of life, which is a gift from God. Sheol is therefore not only a place of rest but also of punishment. Korah and his associates who instigated rebellion against Moses were swallowed up by the open pit and perished in Sheol (Nm 16:30-33). Fear of death is natural to man; Sheol therefore serves as a symbol of the journey without return (Ps 39:12-13). King Hezekiah of Judah laments on his sickbed: “In the noontide of my days I must depart; I am consigned to the gates of Sheol for the rest of my years” (Is 38:10, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Sheol, as conceived in the OT, differs from the later doctrine of hell or Hades in that it is the place where all the dead are gathered indiscriminately, both the good and the bad, the saints and the sinners. To die means to be joined to those who have gone before. When a Jew dies, he is “gathered unto his people” (cf. Gn 25:8, 17; 35:29; 49:29). Beyond Sheol there seemed to be no hope (cf. Eccl 9:10). The utter despondency of death is expressed pathetically in the book of Job: “I go whence I shall not return, to the land of gloom and deep darkness, the land of gloom and chaos, where light is as darkness” (Jb 10:21-22, <span>rsv<\/span>). Yet this is not Job’s last word. He also knows of the power of God, which reaches beyond the grave: “For I know that my Redeemer lives . . . ; and after my skin has been thus destroyed, then from my flesh I shall see God” (19:25-26, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The idea that the dead abide in the underworld persists in the OT. The incident in the case of Saul with the medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:11) is a good illustration. Samuel is brought “up out of the earth” to be consulted by the king at a time of crisis. Such necromancy was strictly prohibited both by the law of Moses (Dt 18:9-11) and by the king himself (cf. 1 Sm 28:3, 9). Apparently, those in the underworld, though separated from the living, were thought to be familiar with the affairs of men.<\/p>\n<p>Sheol is roughly equivalent to the Greek word often found in the NT, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hades<\/span><em>,<\/em> as that which also describes the place of the dead.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Death; Hades; Hell; Intermediate State.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHEOL*<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew term for the place of the dead. In ordinary usage it means “ravine,” “chasm,” “underworld,” or “world of the dead.” In the OT it is the place where the dead have their abode, a hollow space underneath the earth where the dead are gathered in. Synonyms for Sheol are “pit,” “death,” and “destruction” (Abaddon). Sheol is a place of shadows and utter silence. Here all existence is in suspense, yet it is not a nonplace, but rather a place where life is no more. It is described as the Land of Forgetfulness. Those who dwell there cannot praise God (Ps 88:10-12). In Revelation it is called the “bottomless pit” presided over by Abaddon, the prince of the pit (Rv 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>It is not, however, a place where God is entirely absent; there can be no escape from God even in Sheol (Ps 139:8). This omnipresence of God is graphically described in Job: “Sheol is naked before God, and Abaddon has no covering” (Jb 26:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). A similar thought is expressed in Proverbs: “Sheol and Abaddon lie open before the <span>Lord<\/span>, how much more the hearts of men!” (Prv 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). In both texts Sheol and Abaddon are used interchangeably. Abaddon means literally “destruction,” but in Revelation it is used as a personal name.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, death is not a natural occurrence. It violates the principle of life, which is a gift from God. Sheol is therefore not only a place of rest but also of punishment. Korah and his associates who instigated rebellion against Moses were swallowed up by the open pit and perished in Sheol (Nm 16:30-33). Fear of death is natural to man; Sheol therefore serves as a symbol of the journey without return (Ps 39:12-13). King Hezekiah of Judah laments on his sickbed: “In the noontide of my days I must depart; I am consigned to the gates of Sheol for the rest of my years” (Is 38:10, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Sheol, as conceived in the OT, differs from the later doctrine of hell or Hades in that it is the place where all the dead are gathered indiscriminately, both the good and the bad, the saints and the sinners. To die means to be joined to those who have gone before. When a Jew dies, he is “gathered unto his people” (cf. Gn 25:8, 17; 35:29; 49:29). Beyond Sheol there seemed to be no hope (cf. Eccl 9:10). The utter despondency of death is expressed pathetically in the book of Job: “I go whence I shall not return, to the land of gloom and deep darkness, the land of gloom and chaos, where light is as darkness” (Jb 10:21-22, <span>rsv<\/span>). Yet this is not Job’s last word. He also knows of the power of God, which reaches beyond the grave: “For I know that my Redeemer lives . . . ; and after my skin has been thus destroyed, then from my flesh I shall see God” (19:25-26, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The idea that the dead abide in the underworld persists in the OT. The incident in the case of Saul with the medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:11) is a good illustration. Samuel is brought “up out of the earth” to be consulted by the king at a time of crisis. Such necromancy was strictly prohibited both by the law of Moses (Dt 18:9-11) and by the king himself (cf. 1 Sm 28:3, 9). Apparently, those in the underworld, though separated from the living, were thought to be familiar with the affairs of men.<\/p>\n<p>Sheol is roughly equivalent to the Greek word often found in the NT, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hades<\/span><em>,<\/em> as that which also describes the place of the dead.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Death; Hades; Hell; Intermediate State.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHEOL* Hebrew term for the place of the dead. In ordinary usage it means “ravine,” “chasm,” “underworld,” or “world of the dead.” In the OT it is the place where the dead have their abode, a hollow space underneath the earth where the dead are gathered in. Synonyms for Sheol are “pit,” “death,” and “destruction” (Abaddon). Sheol is a place of shadows and utter silence. Here all existence is in suspense, yet it is not a nonplace, but rather a place where life is no more. It is described as the...","summary_en":"SHEOL* Hebrew term for the place of the dead. In ordinary usage it means “ravine,” “chasm,” “underworld,” or “world of the dead.” In the OT it is the place where the dead have their abode, a hollow space underneath the earth where the dead are gathered in. Synonyms for Sheol are “pit,” “death,” and “destruction” (Abaddon). Sheol is a place of shadows and utter silence. Here all existence is in suspense, yet it is not a nonplace, but rather a place where life is no more. It is described as the...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":40552,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68178,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95804,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123430,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":5827,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Customs* Burial, Burial","title_en":"Customs* Burial, Burial","content_ro":"<h3>BURIAL, BURIAL CUSTOMS*<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible makes frequent reference to burial practices. A society’s burial customs are a reflection of its views about death and the afterlife. The ancient Egyptians, for example, thought of life after death as a continuation of physical activities in another realm, as evidenced by their elaborately furnished tombs. The ancient Hebrews emphasized a more spiritual concept of union or fellowship of the departed with generations gone on before.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GravesandTombs\">Graves and Tombs<\/p>\n<p>Among the Hebrews, location of burial plots was generally determined on a family basis. The OT contains many references to an Israelite’s desire to be buried in the family burying place, describing his death as “going to his fathers” (Gn 15:15; 1 Kgs 13:22).<\/p>\n<p>The cave of Machpelah at Hebron was one example of family “cohabitation” of a tomb for a succession of generations. Abraham purchased the site from Ephron the Hittite at the time of Sarah’s death (Gn 23). When Abraham died, Isaac and Ishmael laid his body in the same tomb (25:9), and there Jacob in turn buried his parents, Isaac and Rebekah, as well as Jacob’s wife Leah (49:31). After his death, Jacob’s body was buried with his father’s in accord with his own request (49:29; 50:13). Jacob’s son Joseph made his kinsmen promise that his remains would be preserved so they could be carried back to the homeland when God enabled his people to return from Egypt (50:25). Samuel is spoken of as being buried in his house at Ramah, evidently referring to a family graveyard plot (1 Sm 25:1). Joab was buried in his own house in the wilderness (1 Kgs 2:34). King Manasseh was buried in the garden of his palace (2 Kgs 21:18), and Joshua in his own inheritance at Timnath-serah (Jos 24:30). Kings were careful to perpetuate their memory by special burial sites, often in the City of David (the part of Jerusalem on the southeastern ridge first occupied by that great king). King Josiah designated his burial place in advance, most likely an ancestral tomb (2 Kgs 23:30).<\/p>\n<p>Individual burial sites, such as that of Deborah near Bethel (Gn 35:8) and of Rachel on the road to Ephrath (Gn 35:1, 20), were an exception necessitated by sudden death at some distance from the family tomb.<\/p>\n<p>Bodies were buried in tombs, that is, natural caves or rock-hewn sepulchers, such as that belonging to Joseph of Arimathea where the body of Jesus was laid (Mt 27:59-60). They were also buried in shallow graves covered with rock heaps, serving both to mark them and to prevent desecration of the body by animals.<\/p>\n<p>Some graves were marked by a monument erected in love (Gn 35:20) and honor (2 Kgs 23:17), but stones were sometimes heaped on a dishonorable burial place, as in the case of Achan (Jos 7:26) and Absalom (2 Sm 18:17). Tombs were often adorned or embellished, sometimes whitewashed, in part to warn against ceremonial contamination prohibited by Mosaic law. Jesus spoke of such embellishment in a rebuke of the Pharisees (Mt 23:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TreatmentoftheCorpse\">Treatment of the Corpse<\/p>\n<p>The assurance given by God to Jacob that “Joseph’s hand shall close your eyes” (Gn 46:4, <span>rsv<\/span>) probably alludes to the custom of a near relative closing the eyes of one who died with a fixed stare. Close relatives might also literally embrace and kiss the body immediately upon expiration. The body was washed and dressed in the deceased one’s clothing. Pins and other ornaments found in excavated tombs are evidence that the dead were buried fully clothed. Soldiers were buried in full regalia, with shields covering or cradling the armored bodies, their swords under their heads (Ez 32:27).<\/p>\n<p>Embalming was not a usual practice in Israel. Egyptian treatment for Jacob and Joseph was the exception rather than the rule. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Egyptians commenced embalming procedures by removing the brain from the cranium through the nasal apertures, piecemeal, using a long curved hook. When this had been done, the cranial cavity was rinsed out with a mixture of resins and spices. The corpse was eviscerated, and the entrails were placed in four canopic jars. The body was soaked in a solution of natron for a period of from 40 to 80 days, depending on the cost of the burial. At the time of interment, the corpse was wrapped in strips of fine linen cloth from head to foot and put in an anthropoid coffin. The canopic jars were placed in the tomb along with the body, symbolizing the reuniting of the personality and its survival after death.<\/p>\n<p>Cremation of the bodies of Saul and his sons (1 Sm 31:12-13) was also an exception to normal practice. The Roman historian Tacitus wrote that in contrast with Roman custom, Jewish piety required the burying rather than burning of dead bodies. Under Mosaic law such burning was reserved as a sentence of judgment (Lv 21:9; Jos 7:25).<\/p>\n<p>After preparation of the body, it was carried on a bier (a simple frame with carrying poles) without being placed in a coffin. The body was laid either in a prepared niche in the wall of a rock-hewn chamber or directly in a shallow grave dug in a burial plot. Neither bier nor any form of casket entered the pit with the corpse. The spices used as a perfume and temporary deterrent to decay cannot properly be considered an attempt at embalming (Mk 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>As we know from the Gospel record of Jesus’ burial, some cave tombs had a seal at the doorway, either a hinged wooden door or a flat stone shaped so it could be rolled into place. Such a stone seal could be reopened only with extreme effort (Mk 15:46; 16:3-4). By NT times the Jews sometimes economized on the use of a family tomb by placing the dry bones of formerly buried relatives in ossuaries. These boxlike receptacles were probably an adaptation of chests used by the Romans for holding ashes after a cremation.<\/p>\n<p>Under Mosaic legislation, ceremonial defilement was contracted either through physical contact with the corpse or by participation in the formalities of mourning. Especially stringent prohibitions applied to the priests of Israel. The high priest himself could have nothing at all to do with mourning. In particular, he “must never defile himself by going near a dead person, even if it is his father or mother. He must not desecrate the sanctuary of his God by leaving it to attend his parents’ funeral, because he has been made holy by the anointing oil of his God” (Lv 21:10-12, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Although the customs and procedures were evidently modified little from OT to NT times, some added details are given in the NT record. For example, it is noted that the corpse was washed (Acts 9:37). The body was then anointed and wrapped in linen cloths with spices enclosed (Mk 16:1; Jn 19:40). Finally, the limbs were tightly bound and the head covered with a separate piece of cloth (Jn 11:44).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Mourning; Funeral Customs.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BURIAL, BURIAL CUSTOMS*<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible makes frequent reference to burial practices. A society’s burial customs are a reflection of its views about death and the afterlife. The ancient Egyptians, for example, thought of life after death as a continuation of physical activities in another realm, as evidenced by their elaborately furnished tombs. The ancient Hebrews emphasized a more spiritual concept of union or fellowship of the departed with generations gone on before.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GravesandTombs\">Graves and Tombs<\/p>\n<p>Among the Hebrews, location of burial plots was generally determined on a family basis. The OT contains many references to an Israelite’s desire to be buried in the family burying place, describing his death as “going to his fathers” (Gn 15:15; 1 Kgs 13:22).<\/p>\n<p>The cave of Machpelah at Hebron was one example of family “cohabitation” of a tomb for a succession of generations. Abraham purchased the site from Ephron the Hittite at the time of Sarah’s death (Gn 23). When Abraham died, Isaac and Ishmael laid his body in the same tomb (25:9), and there Jacob in turn buried his parents, Isaac and Rebekah, as well as Jacob’s wife Leah (49:31). After his death, Jacob’s body was buried with his father’s in accord with his own request (49:29; 50:13). Jacob’s son Joseph made his kinsmen promise that his remains would be preserved so they could be carried back to the homeland when God enabled his people to return from Egypt (50:25). Samuel is spoken of as being buried in his house at Ramah, evidently referring to a family graveyard plot (1 Sm 25:1). Joab was buried in his own house in the wilderness (1 Kgs 2:34). King Manasseh was buried in the garden of his palace (2 Kgs 21:18), and Joshua in his own inheritance at Timnath-serah (Jos 24:30). Kings were careful to perpetuate their memory by special burial sites, often in the City of David (the part of Jerusalem on the southeastern ridge first occupied by that great king). King Josiah designated his burial place in advance, most likely an ancestral tomb (2 Kgs 23:30).<\/p>\n<p>Individual burial sites, such as that of Deborah near Bethel (Gn 35:8) and of Rachel on the road to Ephrath (Gn 35:1, 20), were an exception necessitated by sudden death at some distance from the family tomb.<\/p>\n<p>Bodies were buried in tombs, that is, natural caves or rock-hewn sepulchers, such as that belonging to Joseph of Arimathea where the body of Jesus was laid (Mt 27:59-60). They were also buried in shallow graves covered with rock heaps, serving both to mark them and to prevent desecration of the body by animals.<\/p>\n<p>Some graves were marked by a monument erected in love (Gn 35:20) and honor (2 Kgs 23:17), but stones were sometimes heaped on a dishonorable burial place, as in the case of Achan (Jos 7:26) and Absalom (2 Sm 18:17). Tombs were often adorned or embellished, sometimes whitewashed, in part to warn against ceremonial contamination prohibited by Mosaic law. Jesus spoke of such embellishment in a rebuke of the Pharisees (Mt 23:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TreatmentoftheCorpse\">Treatment of the Corpse<\/p>\n<p>The assurance given by God to Jacob that “Joseph’s hand shall close your eyes” (Gn 46:4, <span>rsv<\/span>) probably alludes to the custom of a near relative closing the eyes of one who died with a fixed stare. Close relatives might also literally embrace and kiss the body immediately upon expiration. The body was washed and dressed in the deceased one’s clothing. Pins and other ornaments found in excavated tombs are evidence that the dead were buried fully clothed. Soldiers were buried in full regalia, with shields covering or cradling the armored bodies, their swords under their heads (Ez 32:27).<\/p>\n<p>Embalming was not a usual practice in Israel. Egyptian treatment for Jacob and Joseph was the exception rather than the rule. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Egyptians commenced embalming procedures by removing the brain from the cranium through the nasal apertures, piecemeal, using a long curved hook. When this had been done, the cranial cavity was rinsed out with a mixture of resins and spices. The corpse was eviscerated, and the entrails were placed in four canopic jars. The body was soaked in a solution of natron for a period of from 40 to 80 days, depending on the cost of the burial. At the time of interment, the corpse was wrapped in strips of fine linen cloth from head to foot and put in an anthropoid coffin. The canopic jars were placed in the tomb along with the body, symbolizing the reuniting of the personality and its survival after death.<\/p>\n<p>Cremation of the bodies of Saul and his sons (1 Sm 31:12-13) was also an exception to normal practice. The Roman historian Tacitus wrote that in contrast with Roman custom, Jewish piety required the burying rather than burning of dead bodies. Under Mosaic law such burning was reserved as a sentence of judgment (Lv 21:9; Jos 7:25).<\/p>\n<p>After preparation of the body, it was carried on a bier (a simple frame with carrying poles) without being placed in a coffin. The body was laid either in a prepared niche in the wall of a rock-hewn chamber or directly in a shallow grave dug in a burial plot. Neither bier nor any form of casket entered the pit with the corpse. The spices used as a perfume and temporary deterrent to decay cannot properly be considered an attempt at embalming (Mk 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>As we know from the Gospel record of Jesus’ burial, some cave tombs had a seal at the doorway, either a hinged wooden door or a flat stone shaped so it could be rolled into place. Such a stone seal could be reopened only with extreme effort (Mk 15:46; 16:3-4). By NT times the Jews sometimes economized on the use of a family tomb by placing the dry bones of formerly buried relatives in ossuaries. These boxlike receptacles were probably an adaptation of chests used by the Romans for holding ashes after a cremation.<\/p>\n<p>Under Mosaic legislation, ceremonial defilement was contracted either through physical contact with the corpse or by participation in the formalities of mourning. Especially stringent prohibitions applied to the priests of Israel. The high priest himself could have nothing at all to do with mourning. In particular, he “must never defile himself by going near a dead person, even if it is his father or mother. He must not desecrate the sanctuary of his God by leaving it to attend his parents’ funeral, because he has been made holy by the anointing oil of his God” (Lv 21:10-12, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Although the customs and procedures were evidently modified little from OT to NT times, some added details are given in the NT record. For example, it is noted that the corpse was washed (Acts 9:37). The body was then anointed and wrapped in linen cloths with spices enclosed (Mk 16:1; Jn 19:40). Finally, the limbs were tightly bound and the head covered with a separate piece of cloth (Jn 11:44).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Mourning; Funeral Customs.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BURIAL, BURIAL CUSTOMS* The Bible makes frequent reference to burial practices. A society’s burial customs are a reflection of its views about death and the afterlife. The ancient Egyptians, for example, thought of life after death as a continuation of physical activities in another realm, as evidenced by their elaborately furnished tombs. The ancient Hebrews emphasized a more spiritual concept of union or fellowship of the departed with generations gone on before. Graves and Tombs Among the ...","summary_en":"BURIAL, BURIAL CUSTOMS* The Bible makes frequent reference to burial practices. A society’s burial customs are a reflection of its views about death and the afterlife. The ancient Egyptians, for example, thought of life after death as a continuation of physical activities in another realm, as evidenced by their elaborately furnished tombs. The ancient Hebrews emphasized a more spiritual concept of union or fellowship of the departed with generations gone on before. Graves and Tombs Among the ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11015,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ephron (Person)","title_en":"Ephron (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>EPHRON (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Hittite from whom Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah with its adjoining field for 400 shekels of silver (Gn 23:8-17). Sarah was buried there, as was Abraham (25:9) and Jacob (50:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EPHRON (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Hittite from whom Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah with its adjoining field for 400 shekels of silver (Gn 23:8-17). Sarah was buried there, as was Abraham (25:9) and Jacob (50:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"EPHRON (Person) Hittite from whom Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah with its adjoining field for 400 shekels of silver (Gn 23:8-17). Sarah was buried there, as was Abraham (25:9) and Jacob (50:13).","summary_en":"EPHRON (Person) Hittite from whom Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah with its adjoining field for 400 shekels of silver (Gn 23:8-17). Sarah was buried there, as was Abraham (25:9) and Jacob (50:13).","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16033,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hebron (Place)","title_en":"Hebron (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>HEBRON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n\n<li>1. City of antiquity still standing today. It was built on the southern end of the highlands that run north to south through the length of Palestine. In patriarchal times it was known as Kiriath-arba (Gn 23:2) and stood on the hill known as El Arbain. The modern city straddles both ridges of the mountain range.<\/li>\n<p>Hebron is situated 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and less than two miles (3.2 kilometers) from Mamre, where Abraham spent much of his life. It is 3,000 feet (914 meters) above sea level and marks the southern end of the Judean highlands. From this elevation the land slopes down rapidly to the east, but gradually to the west and south. The soil is relatively fertile, and a variety of fruits (apples, plums, figs, pomegranates, apricots), nuts, and vegetables are grown easily. To the south is the Negev, where the grazing land is excellent. A large number of springs and wells dot the landscape and assure residents of an abundance of water.<\/p>\n<p>In OT times Hebron included Mamre, the place where Abraham built an altar to the Lord after parting from Lot (Gn 13:18). It was here, too, that he learned of the capture of his nephew Lot (14:12-16); and here that, years later, he entertained three angels and was told of the judgment soon to fall on Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died in Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah from Ephron the Hittite (Gn 23:8-9, 17; 25:9-10; 49:29-32; 50:12-13) in which to bury her. This cave is now within the walls of the modern city, and the famous mosque of Haram el-Khalil was built over it.<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, spies were sent into the land. They began in the south and traversed the central highlands of Palestine from Kadesh-barnea through Hebron to Rehob (Nm 13:17-21). On their return they brought back evidence of the productivity of the land (vv 23-24). From Numbers 13:33 we know that giants (“sons of Anak”) lived in Hebron. The sight of these men filled ten of the spies with fear. Only Caleb and Joshua proved equal to the occasion. Because of their faith, they were promised a possession in the land, and Caleb was given Hebron (Jos 14:9, 13). The unfaithful spies died in a plague in the presence of the Lord (Nm 14:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the judges, Hebron is mentioned in connection with Samson. When trapped inside the city of Gaza, he carried off the gates and left them at Hebron (Jgs 16:3). Following the death of Saul, the first king of Israel, David was crowned king of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin in Hebron (2 Sm 2:1). He made this city his capital, for it was more centrally located than Benjamin, and its position at the southern end of the mountain range removed it as far as possible from the 10 northern tribes that followed Ishbosheth, the son of Saul. It was far enough from the Philistines to the west and the Amalekites to the south to avoid notice, and it was also easily defensible. Hebron also lay at the junction of several important trade routes, and this ensured its prominence. Later, however, when David was made king over all Israel, he moved his capital to Jerusalem—an act that must have displeased the people of Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>When Absalom wished to obtain support for his claim to the throne, he initiated his revolt from Hebron (2 Sm 15:7-12). Following the death of Solomon, David’s son, the kingdom was divided. Rehoboam, fearing an attack by the Egyptians on his southern border, fortified Hebron (2 Chr 11:1-12). From this time onward the city disappears from the OT record.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV translation of the town of Ebron, in Joshua 19:28. <em>See<\/em> Ebron.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HEBRON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n\n<li>1. City of antiquity still standing today. It was built on the southern end of the highlands that run north to south through the length of Palestine. In patriarchal times it was known as Kiriath-arba (Gn 23:2) and stood on the hill known as El Arbain. The modern city straddles both ridges of the mountain range.<\/li>\n<p>Hebron is situated 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and less than two miles (3.2 kilometers) from Mamre, where Abraham spent much of his life. It is 3,000 feet (914 meters) above sea level and marks the southern end of the Judean highlands. From this elevation the land slopes down rapidly to the east, but gradually to the west and south. The soil is relatively fertile, and a variety of fruits (apples, plums, figs, pomegranates, apricots), nuts, and vegetables are grown easily. To the south is the Negev, where the grazing land is excellent. A large number of springs and wells dot the landscape and assure residents of an abundance of water.<\/p>\n<p>In OT times Hebron included Mamre, the place where Abraham built an altar to the Lord after parting from Lot (Gn 13:18). It was here, too, that he learned of the capture of his nephew Lot (14:12-16); and here that, years later, he entertained three angels and was told of the judgment soon to fall on Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died in Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah from Ephron the Hittite (Gn 23:8-9, 17; 25:9-10; 49:29-32; 50:12-13) in which to bury her. This cave is now within the walls of the modern city, and the famous mosque of Haram el-Khalil was built over it.<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, spies were sent into the land. They began in the south and traversed the central highlands of Palestine from Kadesh-barnea through Hebron to Rehob (Nm 13:17-21). On their return they brought back evidence of the productivity of the land (vv 23-24). From Numbers 13:33 we know that giants (“sons of Anak”) lived in Hebron. The sight of these men filled ten of the spies with fear. Only Caleb and Joshua proved equal to the occasion. Because of their faith, they were promised a possession in the land, and Caleb was given Hebron (Jos 14:9, 13). The unfaithful spies died in a plague in the presence of the Lord (Nm 14:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the judges, Hebron is mentioned in connection with Samson. When trapped inside the city of Gaza, he carried off the gates and left them at Hebron (Jgs 16:3). Following the death of Saul, the first king of Israel, David was crowned king of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin in Hebron (2 Sm 2:1). He made this city his capital, for it was more centrally located than Benjamin, and its position at the southern end of the mountain range removed it as far as possible from the 10 northern tribes that followed Ishbosheth, the son of Saul. It was far enough from the Philistines to the west and the Amalekites to the south to avoid notice, and it was also easily defensible. Hebron also lay at the junction of several important trade routes, and this ensured its prominence. Later, however, when David was made king over all Israel, he moved his capital to Jerusalem—an act that must have displeased the people of Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>When Absalom wished to obtain support for his claim to the throne, he initiated his revolt from Hebron (2 Sm 15:7-12). Following the death of Solomon, David’s son, the kingdom was divided. Rehoboam, fearing an attack by the Egyptians on his southern border, fortified Hebron (2 Chr 11:1-12). From this time onward the city disappears from the OT record.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV translation of the town of Ebron, in Joshua 19:28. <em>See<\/em> Ebron.<\/li>","summary_ro":"HEBRON (Place) 1. City of antiquity still standing today. It was built on the southern end of the highlands that run north to south through the length of Palestine. In patriarchal times it was known as Kiriath-arba (Gn 23:2) and stood on the hill known as El Arbain. The modern city straddles both ridges of the mountain range. Hebron is situated 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and less than two miles (3.2 kilometers) from Mamre, where Abraham spent much of his life. It is 3,000...","summary_en":"HEBRON (Place) 1. City of antiquity still standing today. It was built on the southern end of the highlands that run north to south through the length of Palestine. In patriarchal times it was known as Kiriath-arba (Gn 23:2) and stood on the hill known as El Arbain. The modern city straddles both ridges of the mountain range. Hebron is situated 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and less than two miles (3.2 kilometers) from Mamre, where Abraham spent much of his life. It is 3,000...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17934,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","summary_en":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23859,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Machpelah","title_en":"Machpelah","content_ro":"<h3>MACHPELAH<\/h3>\n<p>Small field of trees and a cave with two chambers near Mamre in the district of Hebron, which was purchased by Abraham as a burial place for Sarah. The seller was Ephron, a Hittite, and the price was 400 shekels of silver (Gn 23:8-19). Later, Abraham (25:9), Isaac and Rebekah (49:30-31), and Jacob (50:13) were buried here.<\/p>\n<p>The details of Abraham’s purchase of Machpelah, if compared with Hittite laws, support the trustworthiness of the story in Genesis 23. Attention is drawn to the number of the trees, the weighing of silver at the current buyer and seller valuation, and the witnesses at the city gate where the transaction was officially made known. All these details are in accordance with Hittite laws, which would have been forgotten after the time of the patriarchs. Coin was not a circulating medium before 700 <span>BC<\/span>. The implication that the shekel was a weight and not a coin in the time of Abraham also indicates an early date for the story of the purchase.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MACHPELAH<\/h3>\n<p>Small field of trees and a cave with two chambers near Mamre in the district of Hebron, which was purchased by Abraham as a burial place for Sarah. The seller was Ephron, a Hittite, and the price was 400 shekels of silver (Gn 23:8-19). Later, Abraham (25:9), Isaac and Rebekah (49:30-31), and Jacob (50:13) were buried here.<\/p>\n<p>The details of Abraham’s purchase of Machpelah, if compared with Hittite laws, support the trustworthiness of the story in Genesis 23. Attention is drawn to the number of the trees, the weighing of silver at the current buyer and seller valuation, and the witnesses at the city gate where the transaction was officially made known. All these details are in accordance with Hittite laws, which would have been forgotten after the time of the patriarchs. Coin was not a circulating medium before 700 <span>BC<\/span>. The implication that the shekel was a weight and not a coin in the time of Abraham also indicates an early date for the story of the purchase.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MACHPELAH Small field of trees and a cave with two chambers near Mamre in the district of Hebron, which was purchased by Abraham as a burial place for Sarah. The seller was Ephron, a Hittite, and the price was 400 shekels of silver (Gn 23:8-19). Later, Abraham (25:9), Isaac and Rebekah (49:30-31), and Jacob (50:13) were buried here. The details of Abraham’s purchase of Machpelah, if compared with Hittite laws, support the trustworthiness of the story in Genesis 23. Attention is drawn to the n...","summary_en":"MACHPELAH Small field of trees and a cave with two chambers near Mamre in the district of Hebron, which was purchased by Abraham as a burial place for Sarah. The seller was Ephron, a Hittite, and the price was 400 shekels of silver (Gn 23:8-19). Later, Abraham (25:9), Isaac and Rebekah (49:30-31), and Jacob (50:13) were buried here. The details of Abraham’s purchase of Machpelah, if compared with Hittite laws, support the trustworthiness of the story in Genesis 23. Attention is drawn to the n...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39507,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zohar","title_en":"Zohar","content_ro":"<h3>ZOHAR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of Ephron the Hittite. Abraham bought the cave of Machpelah from Ephron (Gn 23:7-9; 25:9).<\/li>\n<li>2. Alternate spelling of Zerah, Simeon’s son, in Genesis 46:10 and Exodus 6:15. <em>See<\/em> Zerah #3.<\/li>\n<li>3. Alternate spelling of Izhar in 1 Chronicles 4:7.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZOHAR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of Ephron the Hittite. Abraham bought the cave of Machpelah from Ephron (Gn 23:7-9; 25:9).<\/li>\n<li>2. Alternate spelling of Zerah, Simeon’s son, in Genesis 46:10 and Exodus 6:15. <em>See<\/em> Zerah #3.<\/li>\n<li>3. Alternate spelling of Izhar in 1 Chronicles 4:7.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZOHAR 1. Father of Ephron the Hittite. Abraham bought the cave of Machpelah from Ephron (Gn 23:7-9; 25:9). 2. Alternate spelling of Zerah, Simeon’s son, in Genesis 46:10 and Exodus 6:15. See Zerah #3. 3. Alternate spelling of Izhar in 1 Chronicles 4:7.","summary_en":"ZOHAR 1. Father of Ephron the Hittite. Abraham bought the cave of Machpelah from Ephron (Gn 23:7-9; 25:9). 2. Alternate spelling of Zerah, Simeon’s son, in Genesis 46:10 and Exodus 6:15. See Zerah #3. 3. Alternate spelling of Izhar in 1 Chronicles 4:7.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":4112,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beer-Lahairoi","title_en":"Beer-Lahairoi","content_ro":"<h3>BEER-LAHAIROI<\/h3>\n<p>Well between Kadesh and Bered where Hagar, pregnant with Ishmael, was confronted by the angel of the Lord (Gn 16:7-14). The name given to the site means “the well of the Living One who sees me,” referring to God’s appearance to Sarai’s servant girl. Later, it became a frequent watering place for Isaac on his travels (Gn 24:62; 25:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BEER-LAHAIROI<\/h3>\n<p>Well between Kadesh and Bered where Hagar, pregnant with Ishmael, was confronted by the angel of the Lord (Gn 16:7-14). The name given to the site means “the well of the Living One who sees me,” referring to God’s appearance to Sarai’s servant girl. Later, it became a frequent watering place for Isaac on his travels (Gn 24:62; 25:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BEER-LAHAIROI Well between Kadesh and Bered where Hagar, pregnant with Ishmael, was confronted by the angel of the Lord (Gn 16:7-14). The name given to the site means “the well of the Living One who sees me,” referring to God’s appearance to Sarai’s servant girl. Later, it became a frequent watering place for Isaac on his travels (Gn 24:62; 25:11).","summary_en":"BEER-LAHAIROI Well between Kadesh and Bered where Hagar, pregnant with Ishmael, was confronted by the angel of the Lord (Gn 16:7-14). The name given to the site means “the well of the Living One who sees me,” referring to God’s appearance to Sarai’s servant girl. Later, it became a frequent watering place for Isaac on his travels (Gn 24:62; 25:11).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17705,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>ISAAC<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yitshaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Isaak<\/span><em>.<\/em> If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child (Gn 17:17; 18:12) and then suddenly becoming parents, as God had promised.<\/p>\n<p>Isaac’s pedigree is also interesting, for Sarah was not only the wife of Abraham but also his half sister (Gn 20:12), and this fact alone may have interfered with conception in their earlier years. Because of this relationship, Isaac belonged to both sides of Terah’s family. According to prevailing custom, the son of the legal wife took precedence over the male offspring of concubines, so that Isaac had priority of inheritance over Ishmael. The gifts that Abraham subsequently gave to the sons of his concubines (25:6) were without prejudice to the inheritance of Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>Following God’s instructions (Gn 17:10-14), Isaac was circumcised on the eighth day as a member of the covenant community. The next ceremony came when he was old enough for weaning, probably around three years old. In eastern countries where this procedure is still observed, the child’s transition from milk to solid protein and carbohydrates is normally celebrated in the context of a feast. During the celebration the mother chews a mouthful of solid food and then pushes it into the baby’s mouth with her tongue. The infant is often so shocked by this treatment that it promptly expels the food, whereupon the mother repeats the process. For an observer the procedure can be hilarious, and Ishmael may have been laughing at such a spectacle when he incurred Sarah’s wrath (21:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>During the years of Isaac’s adolescence, Abraham was living in Philistine territory (Gn 21:34). The supreme test of the father’s faith and obedience came in this period. Having watched this son of God’s promise grow up into a healthy young man, Abraham is asked by God to offer him as a sacrifice. Isaac was familiar with sacrificial rituals and helped with the preparations, though probably not without some misgivings, for he was also familiar with the patriarchal traditions that gave the head of the family power of life or death over everyone and everything in the family. If he voiced any protest as he lay bound on the sacrificial altar, it is not recorded. When Abraham’s faith did not waver, God intervened at the crucial moment and provided another offering in the form of a ram. Because of his obedience, God promised Abraham great blessing, blessing in which Isaac also participated (Gn 22; 25:11). It was this act of faith and obedience that Paul honored centuries later by calling Abraham the forefather of the Christian church (Rom 4).<\/p>\n<p>After Sarah’s death (Gn 23), Abraham set about securing a bride for Isaac, as it was the custom for parents to arrange marriages for their children. Rather than have Isaac marry a local pagan woman, Abraham sent his household steward to Nahor in Mesopotamia to seek a bride for his son from among his relatives. In an account that emphasizes faith, perseverance, and divine blessing, Genesis 24 describes how the servant met Rebekah and betrothed her to Isaac even before he had met the rest of her family. Bethuel, her father, and Laban, her brother, assented to this arrangement, and she left with the family’s blessing to take up her new responsibilities in Palestine as Isaac’s wife.<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham died at a ripe old age, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah (Gn 25:8-9). Isaac was now patriarch of the family. He pleaded with God that his wife, Rebekah, might bear children, and as a result, she bore twin sons, Esau (“the hairy one”) and Jacob (“supplanter”). Esau became a hunter, and Isaac favored him, while Jacob was more of a settler and agriculturalist and was favored by his mother. Jacob was also crafty and took advantage of Esau’s extreme hunger one day, bargaining with his older brother to exchange his birthright for some lentil stew. Possession of the birthright secured for Jacob a double portion of the inheritance (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>When famine gripped the land, God instructed Isaac not to visit Egypt (Gn 26:2), but to stay in Palestine, where he would enjoy great prosperity. When the men of the area asked about Rebekah, Isaac became fearful and said she was his sister. When the deception was uncovered, Abimelech the king rebuked Isaac and forbade anyone to interfere with him. Isaac prospered so greatly that Abimelech finally asked him to relocate, so he moved to Beersheba, where there was sufficient water for his flocks, and his fortune increased.<\/p>\n<p>Although Esau was Isaac’s favorite son, he displeased his father by marrying two Hittite women. When Isaac felt that the end of his life was approaching, he wanted to bless his firstborn in the traditional patriarchal manner (Gn 27). Rebekah overheard his instructions to Esau, and she encouraged Jacob to deceive the blind old man by disguising himself as Esau and taking his brother’s blessing. The deception succeeded, and Isaac gave Jacob the blessing of the firstborn. When Esau appeared to receive his blessing he was too late, and he was very bitter against Jacob because of what had happened. Rebekah sent Jacob away to her brother Laban in Mesopotamia, to escape Esau’s anger and also to obtain a wife. Esau did receive a blessing from Isaac, but a lesser one. Two decades later a rich and prosperous Jacob returned with his family. He made peace with Esau before Isaac died, and the brothers buried Isaac in Hebron (Gn 35:27-29).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac is given less prominence in the patriarchal narratives than Abraham or Jacob, but his importance for covenantal faith was recognized in such NT passages as Acts 7:8, Romans 9:7, Galatians 4:21-31, and Hebrews 11:9-20.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAAC<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yitshaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Isaak<\/span><em>.<\/em> If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child (Gn 17:17; 18:12) and then suddenly becoming parents, as God had promised.<\/p>\n<p>Isaac’s pedigree is also interesting, for Sarah was not only the wife of Abraham but also his half sister (Gn 20:12), and this fact alone may have interfered with conception in their earlier years. Because of this relationship, Isaac belonged to both sides of Terah’s family. According to prevailing custom, the son of the legal wife took precedence over the male offspring of concubines, so that Isaac had priority of inheritance over Ishmael. The gifts that Abraham subsequently gave to the sons of his concubines (25:6) were without prejudice to the inheritance of Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>Following God’s instructions (Gn 17:10-14), Isaac was circumcised on the eighth day as a member of the covenant community. The next ceremony came when he was old enough for weaning, probably around three years old. In eastern countries where this procedure is still observed, the child’s transition from milk to solid protein and carbohydrates is normally celebrated in the context of a feast. During the celebration the mother chews a mouthful of solid food and then pushes it into the baby’s mouth with her tongue. The infant is often so shocked by this treatment that it promptly expels the food, whereupon the mother repeats the process. For an observer the procedure can be hilarious, and Ishmael may have been laughing at such a spectacle when he incurred Sarah’s wrath (21:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>During the years of Isaac’s adolescence, Abraham was living in Philistine territory (Gn 21:34). The supreme test of the father’s faith and obedience came in this period. Having watched this son of God’s promise grow up into a healthy young man, Abraham is asked by God to offer him as a sacrifice. Isaac was familiar with sacrificial rituals and helped with the preparations, though probably not without some misgivings, for he was also familiar with the patriarchal traditions that gave the head of the family power of life or death over everyone and everything in the family. If he voiced any protest as he lay bound on the sacrificial altar, it is not recorded. When Abraham’s faith did not waver, God intervened at the crucial moment and provided another offering in the form of a ram. Because of his obedience, God promised Abraham great blessing, blessing in which Isaac also participated (Gn 22; 25:11). It was this act of faith and obedience that Paul honored centuries later by calling Abraham the forefather of the Christian church (Rom 4).<\/p>\n<p>After Sarah’s death (Gn 23), Abraham set about securing a bride for Isaac, as it was the custom for parents to arrange marriages for their children. Rather than have Isaac marry a local pagan woman, Abraham sent his household steward to Nahor in Mesopotamia to seek a bride for his son from among his relatives. In an account that emphasizes faith, perseverance, and divine blessing, Genesis 24 describes how the servant met Rebekah and betrothed her to Isaac even before he had met the rest of her family. Bethuel, her father, and Laban, her brother, assented to this arrangement, and she left with the family’s blessing to take up her new responsibilities in Palestine as Isaac’s wife.<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham died at a ripe old age, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah (Gn 25:8-9). Isaac was now patriarch of the family. He pleaded with God that his wife, Rebekah, might bear children, and as a result, she bore twin sons, Esau (“the hairy one”) and Jacob (“supplanter”). Esau became a hunter, and Isaac favored him, while Jacob was more of a settler and agriculturalist and was favored by his mother. Jacob was also crafty and took advantage of Esau’s extreme hunger one day, bargaining with his older brother to exchange his birthright for some lentil stew. Possession of the birthright secured for Jacob a double portion of the inheritance (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>When famine gripped the land, God instructed Isaac not to visit Egypt (Gn 26:2), but to stay in Palestine, where he would enjoy great prosperity. When the men of the area asked about Rebekah, Isaac became fearful and said she was his sister. When the deception was uncovered, Abimelech the king rebuked Isaac and forbade anyone to interfere with him. Isaac prospered so greatly that Abimelech finally asked him to relocate, so he moved to Beersheba, where there was sufficient water for his flocks, and his fortune increased.<\/p>\n<p>Although Esau was Isaac’s favorite son, he displeased his father by marrying two Hittite women. When Isaac felt that the end of his life was approaching, he wanted to bless his firstborn in the traditional patriarchal manner (Gn 27). Rebekah overheard his instructions to Esau, and she encouraged Jacob to deceive the blind old man by disguising himself as Esau and taking his brother’s blessing. The deception succeeded, and Isaac gave Jacob the blessing of the firstborn. When Esau appeared to receive his blessing he was too late, and he was very bitter against Jacob because of what had happened. Rebekah sent Jacob away to her brother Laban in Mesopotamia, to escape Esau’s anger and also to obtain a wife. Esau did receive a blessing from Isaac, but a lesser one. Two decades later a rich and prosperous Jacob returned with his family. He made peace with Esau before Isaac died, and the brothers buried Isaac in Hebron (Gn 35:27-29).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac is given less prominence in the patriarchal narratives than Abraham or Jacob, but his importance for covenantal faith was recognized in such NT passages as Acts 7:8, Romans 9:7, Galatians 4:21-31, and Hebrews 11:9-20.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAAC Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel. The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew Yitshaq, in Greek Isaak. If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child...","summary_en":"ISAAC Son of Abraham and Sarah, father of Jacob and Esau, one of the patriarchs of Israel. The name Isaac has an interesting etymology. It is the Anglicized form of the Hebrew Yitshaq, in Greek Isaak. If taken as an imperfect form, it means “he laughs”; as a perfect form, it means “he laughed.” Scholars have debated this problem and also the absence of an antecedent subject. If God is implied, the name could indicate divine amusement at an aged couple ridiculing the prospect of having a child...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22394,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lahai-Roi*","title_en":"Lahai-Roi*","content_ro":"<h3>LAHAI-ROI*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Beer-lahairoi, the name of a well mentioned in Genesis 24:62 and 25:11. <em>See<\/em> Beer-lahairoi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAHAI-ROI*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Beer-lahairoi, the name of a well mentioned in Genesis 24:62 and 25:11. <em>See<\/em> Beer-lahairoi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAHAI-ROI* KJV form of Beer-lahairoi, the name of a well mentioned in Genesis 24:62 and 25:11. See Beer-lahairoi.","summary_en":"LAHAI-ROI* KJV form of Beer-lahairoi, the name of a well mentioned in Genesis 24:62 and 25:11. See Beer-lahairoi.","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43208,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:11","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:11<\/strong> God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived <em>near Beer-lahai-roi<\/em>—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:11<\/strong> God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived <em>near Beer-lahai-roi<\/em>—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:11 God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived near Beer-lahai-roi—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).","summary_en":"25:11 God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived near Beer-lahai-roi—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70834,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:11","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:11<\/strong> God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived <em>near Beer-lahai-roi<\/em>—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:11<\/strong> God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived <em>near Beer-lahai-roi<\/em>—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:11 God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived near Beer-lahai-roi—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).","summary_en":"25:11 God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived near Beer-lahai-roi—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98460,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:11","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:11<\/strong> God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived <em>near Beer-lahai-roi<\/em>—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:11<\/strong> God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived <em>near Beer-lahai-roi<\/em>—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:11 God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived near Beer-lahai-roi—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).","summary_en":"25:11 God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived near Beer-lahai-roi—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126086,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:11","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:11<\/strong> God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived <em>near Beer-lahai-roi<\/em>—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:11<\/strong> God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived <em>near Beer-lahai-roi<\/em>—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:11 God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived near Beer-lahai-roi—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).","summary_en":"25:11 God’s blessing transferred to Isaac; Abraham’s other sons had been sent away. Isaac lived near Beer-lahai-roi—a special place where God had answered prayer (16:14) and where Isaac waited on the Lord (24:62).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":40536,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Hagar","title_en":"Hagar","content_ro":"<h3>Hagar<\/h3>\n<p>Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. Sarai responded by dealing harshly with her, and Hagar fled into the desert (16:4-6). The angel of the <span>Lord<\/span> appeared to her at a desert well, telling her to return to Abram’s house and submit to Sarai.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar bore a son, Ishmael, when Abram was eighty-six years old (16:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Fourteen years later, God gave Abraham and Sarah their promised son, Isaac. When Isaac was weaned (at about three years), a traditional feast was held. At this event, Ishmael mocked Isaac (21:9), so Sarah insisted that Abraham send Hagar and Ishmael away. God affirmed this action (21:12), so Hagar and Ishmael were sent away to wander in the wilderness of Beersheba. When their water was gone, God miraculously rescued them and assured Hagar that Ishmael would father a great nation (21:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Paul made an analogy (Gal 4:22-31) in which Hagar represents Mount Sinai, where the old covenant was formed, while Sarah represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the community of those who receive salvation by faith in Christ. As Isaac was Abraham’s son by faith in the divine promise, Christians who are free of the law are spiritual children of Sarah.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-16; 21:9-21; 25:12; Gal 4:22-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hagar<\/h3>\n<p>Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. Sarai responded by dealing harshly with her, and Hagar fled into the desert (16:4-6). The angel of the <span>Lord<\/span> appeared to her at a desert well, telling her to return to Abram’s house and submit to Sarai.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar bore a son, Ishmael, when Abram was eighty-six years old (16:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Fourteen years later, God gave Abraham and Sarah their promised son, Isaac. When Isaac was weaned (at about three years), a traditional feast was held. At this event, Ishmael mocked Isaac (21:9), so Sarah insisted that Abraham send Hagar and Ishmael away. God affirmed this action (21:12), so Hagar and Ishmael were sent away to wander in the wilderness of Beersheba. When their water was gone, God miraculously rescued them and assured Hagar that Ishmael would father a great nation (21:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Paul made an analogy (Gal 4:22-31) in which Hagar represents Mount Sinai, where the old covenant was formed, while Sarah represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the community of those who receive salvation by faith in Christ. As Isaac was Abraham’s son by faith in the divine promise, Christians who are free of the law are spiritual children of Sarah.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-16; 21:9-21; 25:12; Gal 4:22-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hagar Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8). Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. ...","summary_en":"Hagar Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8). Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68162,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Hagar","title_en":"Hagar","content_ro":"<h3>Hagar<\/h3>\n<p>Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. Sarai responded by dealing harshly with her, and Hagar fled into the desert (16:4-6). The angel of the <span>Lord<\/span> appeared to her at a desert well, telling her to return to Abram’s house and submit to Sarai.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar bore a son, Ishmael, when Abram was eighty-six years old (16:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Fourteen years later, God gave Abraham and Sarah their promised son, Isaac. When Isaac was weaned (at about three years), a traditional feast was held. At this event, Ishmael mocked Isaac (21:9), so Sarah insisted that Abraham send Hagar and Ishmael away. God affirmed this action (21:12), so Hagar and Ishmael were sent away to wander in the wilderness of Beersheba. When their water was gone, God miraculously rescued them and assured Hagar that Ishmael would father a great nation (21:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Paul made an analogy (Gal 4:22-31) in which Hagar represents Mount Sinai, where the old covenant was formed, while Sarah represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the community of those who receive salvation by faith in Christ. As Isaac was Abraham’s son by faith in the divine promise, Christians who are free of the law are spiritual children of Sarah.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-16; 21:9-21; 25:12; Gal 4:22-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hagar<\/h3>\n<p>Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. Sarai responded by dealing harshly with her, and Hagar fled into the desert (16:4-6). The angel of the <span>Lord<\/span> appeared to her at a desert well, telling her to return to Abram’s house and submit to Sarai.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar bore a son, Ishmael, when Abram was eighty-six years old (16:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Fourteen years later, God gave Abraham and Sarah their promised son, Isaac. When Isaac was weaned (at about three years), a traditional feast was held. At this event, Ishmael mocked Isaac (21:9), so Sarah insisted that Abraham send Hagar and Ishmael away. God affirmed this action (21:12), so Hagar and Ishmael were sent away to wander in the wilderness of Beersheba. When their water was gone, God miraculously rescued them and assured Hagar that Ishmael would father a great nation (21:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Paul made an analogy (Gal 4:22-31) in which Hagar represents Mount Sinai, where the old covenant was formed, while Sarah represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the community of those who receive salvation by faith in Christ. As Isaac was Abraham’s son by faith in the divine promise, Christians who are free of the law are spiritual children of Sarah.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-16; 21:9-21; 25:12; Gal 4:22-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hagar Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8). Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. ...","summary_en":"Hagar Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8). Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95788,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Hagar","title_en":"Hagar","content_ro":"<h3>Hagar<\/h3>\n<p>Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. Sarai responded by dealing harshly with her, and Hagar fled into the desert (16:4-6). The angel of the <span>Lord<\/span> appeared to her at a desert well, telling her to return to Abram’s house and submit to Sarai.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar bore a son, Ishmael, when Abram was eighty-six years old (16:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Fourteen years later, God gave Abraham and Sarah their promised son, Isaac. When Isaac was weaned (at about three years), a traditional feast was held. At this event, Ishmael mocked Isaac (21:9), so Sarah insisted that Abraham send Hagar and Ishmael away. God affirmed this action (21:12), so Hagar and Ishmael were sent away to wander in the wilderness of Beersheba. When their water was gone, God miraculously rescued them and assured Hagar that Ishmael would father a great nation (21:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Paul made an analogy (Gal 4:22-31) in which Hagar represents Mount Sinai, where the old covenant was formed, while Sarah represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the community of those who receive salvation by faith in Christ. As Isaac was Abraham’s son by faith in the divine promise, Christians who are free of the law are spiritual children of Sarah.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-16; 21:9-21; 25:12; Gal 4:22-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hagar<\/h3>\n<p>Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. Sarai responded by dealing harshly with her, and Hagar fled into the desert (16:4-6). The angel of the <span>Lord<\/span> appeared to her at a desert well, telling her to return to Abram’s house and submit to Sarai.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar bore a son, Ishmael, when Abram was eighty-six years old (16:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Fourteen years later, God gave Abraham and Sarah their promised son, Isaac. When Isaac was weaned (at about three years), a traditional feast was held. At this event, Ishmael mocked Isaac (21:9), so Sarah insisted that Abraham send Hagar and Ishmael away. God affirmed this action (21:12), so Hagar and Ishmael were sent away to wander in the wilderness of Beersheba. When their water was gone, God miraculously rescued them and assured Hagar that Ishmael would father a great nation (21:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Paul made an analogy (Gal 4:22-31) in which Hagar represents Mount Sinai, where the old covenant was formed, while Sarah represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the community of those who receive salvation by faith in Christ. As Isaac was Abraham’s son by faith in the divine promise, Christians who are free of the law are spiritual children of Sarah.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-16; 21:9-21; 25:12; Gal 4:22-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hagar Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8). Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. ...","summary_en":"Hagar Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8). Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123414,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Hagar","title_en":"Hagar","content_ro":"<h3>Hagar<\/h3>\n<p>Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. Sarai responded by dealing harshly with her, and Hagar fled into the desert (16:4-6). The angel of the <span>Lord<\/span> appeared to her at a desert well, telling her to return to Abram’s house and submit to Sarai.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar bore a son, Ishmael, when Abram was eighty-six years old (16:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Fourteen years later, God gave Abraham and Sarah their promised son, Isaac. When Isaac was weaned (at about three years), a traditional feast was held. At this event, Ishmael mocked Isaac (21:9), so Sarah insisted that Abraham send Hagar and Ishmael away. God affirmed this action (21:12), so Hagar and Ishmael were sent away to wander in the wilderness of Beersheba. When their water was gone, God miraculously rescued them and assured Hagar that Ishmael would father a great nation (21:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Paul made an analogy (Gal 4:22-31) in which Hagar represents Mount Sinai, where the old covenant was formed, while Sarah represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the community of those who receive salvation by faith in Christ. As Isaac was Abraham’s son by faith in the divine promise, Christians who are free of the law are spiritual children of Sarah.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-16; 21:9-21; 25:12; Gal 4:22-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hagar<\/h3>\n<p>Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. Sarai responded by dealing harshly with her, and Hagar fled into the desert (16:4-6). The angel of the <span>Lord<\/span> appeared to her at a desert well, telling her to return to Abram’s house and submit to Sarai.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar bore a son, Ishmael, when Abram was eighty-six years old (16:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Fourteen years later, God gave Abraham and Sarah their promised son, Isaac. When Isaac was weaned (at about three years), a traditional feast was held. At this event, Ishmael mocked Isaac (21:9), so Sarah insisted that Abraham send Hagar and Ishmael away. God affirmed this action (21:12), so Hagar and Ishmael were sent away to wander in the wilderness of Beersheba. When their water was gone, God miraculously rescued them and assured Hagar that Ishmael would father a great nation (21:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Paul made an analogy (Gal 4:22-31) in which Hagar represents Mount Sinai, where the old covenant was formed, while Sarah represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the community of those who receive salvation by faith in Christ. As Isaac was Abraham’s son by faith in the divine promise, Christians who are free of the law are spiritual children of Sarah.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-16; 21:9-21; 25:12; Gal 4:22-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hagar Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8). Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. ...","summary_en":"Hagar Hagar was the Egyptian servant of Sarai, Abram’s wife. When God commanded Abram to leave Mesopotamia, he promised him a multitude of descendants who would be given a new land (Gen 12:2, 7). After ten childless years in Canaan, Sarai followed a customary Mesopotamian practice by giving Hagar to Abram as his concubine; any son born of the union of husband and concubine was considered the wife’s child (cp. 30:1-8). Hagar got pregnant and became disrespectful to Sarai during her pregnancy. ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2634,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aretas","title_en":"Aretas","content_ro":"<h3>ARETAS<\/h3>\n<li>1. Name of several kings of an Arabian people called the Nabateans, considered to be descendants of Nebaioth, Ishmael’s oldest son (Gn 25:12-16; 1 Chr 1:29). According to the Jewish historian Josephus, Ishmael’s descendants inhabited an area all the way from the Euphrates to the Red Sea, calling it Nabatene. Their capital city, Sela, was called Petra in NT times.<\/li>\n<li>2. The Aretas of 2 Maccabees 5:8, before whom Jason the priest was accused, ruled about 170 <span>BC<\/span>. The Nabateans were evidently friendly toward the Maccabeans (1 Macc 5:24-28; 9:35). Josephus mentioned two other kings named Aretas. It was Aretas III, originally named Obodas, who extended Nabatean control and occupied Damascus during his reign (87–62 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. The NT contains a reference to still another Aretas. The apostle Paul had to escape from Damascus by being let down in a basket through a window in the wall because the governor there under King Aretas was guarding the city in order to seize him (2 Cor 11:32-33). That Aretas has been identified as Eneas, who took the title Aretas IV and ruled from 9 <span>BC<\/span> to <span>AD<\/span> 40. He attacked and defeated Herod Antipas over a boundary dispute and also as revenge. (Antipas had divorced Aretas’s daughter in order to marry Herodias.)<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ARETAS<\/h3>\n<li>1. Name of several kings of an Arabian people called the Nabateans, considered to be descendants of Nebaioth, Ishmael’s oldest son (Gn 25:12-16; 1 Chr 1:29). According to the Jewish historian Josephus, Ishmael’s descendants inhabited an area all the way from the Euphrates to the Red Sea, calling it Nabatene. Their capital city, Sela, was called Petra in NT times.<\/li>\n<li>2. The Aretas of 2 Maccabees 5:8, before whom Jason the priest was accused, ruled about 170 <span>BC<\/span>. The Nabateans were evidently friendly toward the Maccabeans (1 Macc 5:24-28; 9:35). Josephus mentioned two other kings named Aretas. It was Aretas III, originally named Obodas, who extended Nabatean control and occupied Damascus during his reign (87–62 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. The NT contains a reference to still another Aretas. The apostle Paul had to escape from Damascus by being let down in a basket through a window in the wall because the governor there under King Aretas was guarding the city in order to seize him (2 Cor 11:32-33). That Aretas has been identified as Eneas, who took the title Aretas IV and ruled from 9 <span>BC<\/span> to <span>AD<\/span> 40. He attacked and defeated Herod Antipas over a boundary dispute and also as revenge. (Antipas had divorced Aretas’s daughter in order to marry Herodias.)<\/li>","summary_ro":"ARETAS 1. Name of several kings of an Arabian people called the Nabateans, considered to be descendants of Nebaioth, Ishmael’s oldest son (Gn 25:12-16; 1 Chr 1:29). According to the Jewish historian Josephus, Ishmael’s descendants inhabited an area all the way from the Euphrates to the Red Sea, calling it Nabatene. Their capital city, Sela, was called Petra in NT times. 2. The Aretas of 2 Maccabees 5:8, before whom Jason the priest was accused, ruled about 170 BC. The Nabateans were evidently...","summary_en":"ARETAS 1. Name of several kings of an Arabian people called the Nabateans, considered to be descendants of Nebaioth, Ishmael’s oldest son (Gn 25:12-16; 1 Chr 1:29). According to the Jewish historian Josephus, Ishmael’s descendants inhabited an area all the way from the Euphrates to the Red Sea, calling it Nabatene. Their capital city, Sela, was called Petra in NT times. 2. The Aretas of 2 Maccabees 5:8, before whom Jason the priest was accused, ruled about 170 BC. The Nabateans were evidently...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13512,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Genesis","title_en":"Book of Genesis","content_ro":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","summary_en":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43209,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:12","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:12-18<\/strong> This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:12-18<\/strong> This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:12-18 This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).","summary_en":"25:12-18 This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70835,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:12","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:12-18<\/strong> This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:12-18<\/strong> This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:12-18 This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).","summary_en":"25:12-18 This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98461,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:12","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:12-18<\/strong> This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:12-18<\/strong> This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:12-18 This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).","summary_en":"25:12-18 This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126087,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:12","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:12-18<\/strong> This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:12-18<\/strong> This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:12-18 This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).","summary_en":"25:12-18 This record lists Ishmael’s descendants before tracing Isaac’s (25:19–35:29), which is in keeping with the literary arrangement of Genesis (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Summary”).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":40555,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68181,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95807,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123433,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17937,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","summary_en":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21530,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kedar","title_en":"Kedar","content_ro":"<h3>KEDAR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Second son of Ishmael, Abraham’s son (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29).<\/li>\n<li>2. Tribe or area appearing mainly in the prophetic writings from Solomon to the exile. In Isaiah’s prophecy against Arabia, Kedar is mentioned twice (Is 21:13-17). Along with Arabia, Dedan, and Tema, the Kedarites are threatened with destruction. The pomp attributed to them in verse 16 indicates some degree of affluence (see also Ez 27:21), and the militaristic tone of verse 17 points to the fact that they were a warring people. In Jeremiah 49:28 Kedar is linked with Hazor as victims of Nebuchadnezzar’s conquests. Although there is no extrabiblical record of Nebuchadnezzar’s march on Kedar, Ashurbanipal, the king of Assyria, does mention the conquest of Kedar. That would have been about 650 <span>BC<\/span>, or a half a century earlier than the Babylonian conquest. Apart from Ashurbanipal’s account, the only other ancient extrabiblical reference to Kedar is found on a silver bowl offered to the Arabian goddess Han-’ilat in the Egyptian Delta. The inscription on the bowl reads, “Cain, son of Geshem, king of Kedar,” and the date is firmly fixed in the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>. This Geshem was very likely the enemy of Nehemiah (Neh 2:19; 6:1-6).<\/li>\n<p>The picture the Bible gives of Kedar is that of a desert nomadic people descended from Ishmael. They were not initially believers in Yahweh but are included in Isaiah’s prophecy of the future kingdom of God (cf. Is 42:11; 60:7). Their desert environment limited their work to sheep herding and trading. Because of unpredictable water supplies in the desert, they were constantly moving—a way of life best handled by living in tents rather than permanent houses (cf. Ps 120:5; Sg 1:5). For this reason archaeologists have found no site named Kedar. All we can surmise is that the area of Kedar lay to the east and slightly to the south of Israel in what is today the southern part of Jordan. The people of Kedar presumably died out or were assimilated into the surrounding nations.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KEDAR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Second son of Ishmael, Abraham’s son (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29).<\/li>\n<li>2. Tribe or area appearing mainly in the prophetic writings from Solomon to the exile. In Isaiah’s prophecy against Arabia, Kedar is mentioned twice (Is 21:13-17). Along with Arabia, Dedan, and Tema, the Kedarites are threatened with destruction. The pomp attributed to them in verse 16 indicates some degree of affluence (see also Ez 27:21), and the militaristic tone of verse 17 points to the fact that they were a warring people. In Jeremiah 49:28 Kedar is linked with Hazor as victims of Nebuchadnezzar’s conquests. Although there is no extrabiblical record of Nebuchadnezzar’s march on Kedar, Ashurbanipal, the king of Assyria, does mention the conquest of Kedar. That would have been about 650 <span>BC<\/span>, or a half a century earlier than the Babylonian conquest. Apart from Ashurbanipal’s account, the only other ancient extrabiblical reference to Kedar is found on a silver bowl offered to the Arabian goddess Han-’ilat in the Egyptian Delta. The inscription on the bowl reads, “Cain, son of Geshem, king of Kedar,” and the date is firmly fixed in the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>. This Geshem was very likely the enemy of Nehemiah (Neh 2:19; 6:1-6).<\/li>\n<p>The picture the Bible gives of Kedar is that of a desert nomadic people descended from Ishmael. They were not initially believers in Yahweh but are included in Isaiah’s prophecy of the future kingdom of God (cf. Is 42:11; 60:7). Their desert environment limited their work to sheep herding and trading. Because of unpredictable water supplies in the desert, they were constantly moving—a way of life best handled by living in tents rather than permanent houses (cf. Ps 120:5; Sg 1:5). For this reason archaeologists have found no site named Kedar. All we can surmise is that the area of Kedar lay to the east and slightly to the south of Israel in what is today the southern part of Jordan. The people of Kedar presumably died out or were assimilated into the surrounding nations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KEDAR 1. Second son of Ishmael, Abraham’s son (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29). 2. Tribe or area appearing mainly in the prophetic writings from Solomon to the exile. In Isaiah’s prophecy against Arabia, Kedar is mentioned twice (Is 21:13-17). Along with Arabia, Dedan, and Tema, the Kedarites are threatened with destruction. The pomp attributed to them in verse 16 indicates some degree of affluence (see also Ez 27:21), and the militaristic tone of verse 17 points to the fact that they were a warring pe...","summary_en":"KEDAR 1. Second son of Ishmael, Abraham’s son (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29). 2. Tribe or area appearing mainly in the prophetic writings from Solomon to the exile. In Isaiah’s prophecy against Arabia, Kedar is mentioned twice (Is 21:13-17). Along with Arabia, Dedan, and Tema, the Kedarites are threatened with destruction. The pomp attributed to them in verse 16 indicates some degree of affluence (see also Ez 27:21), and the militaristic tone of verse 17 points to the fact that they were a warring pe...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25525,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mibsam","title_en":"Mibsam","content_ro":"<h3>MIBSAM<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Ishmael’s sons and the founder of a tribe named after him (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29).<\/li>\n<li>2. Shallum’s son and the father of Mishma (1 Chr 4:25).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MIBSAM<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Ishmael’s sons and the founder of a tribe named after him (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29).<\/li>\n<li>2. Shallum’s son and the father of Mishma (1 Chr 4:25).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MIBSAM 1. One of Ishmael’s sons and the founder of a tribe named after him (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29). 2. Shallum’s son and the father of Mishma (1 Chr 4:25).","summary_en":"MIBSAM 1. One of Ishmael’s sons and the founder of a tribe named after him (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29). 2. Shallum’s son and the father of Mishma (1 Chr 4:25).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27131,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nebaioth","title_en":"Nebaioth","content_ro":"<h3>NEBAIOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Firstborn of Ishmael’s 12 sons (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29) whose sister, Mahalath (also called Basemath, cf. Gn 36:3) later married Esau (Gn 28:9). The identification of Nebaioth’s descendants is uncertain, though possibly they are the ancestors of the Nabatean Arabian tribe who possessed the land of Edom and parts of the Transjordan as far north as Palmyra (ancient Tadmor). The descendants of both Nebaioth and Kedar are noted for their superb flocks of sheep (Is 60:7) and are mentioned in the inscriptions of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (seventh century <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEBAIOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Firstborn of Ishmael’s 12 sons (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29) whose sister, Mahalath (also called Basemath, cf. Gn 36:3) later married Esau (Gn 28:9). The identification of Nebaioth’s descendants is uncertain, though possibly they are the ancestors of the Nabatean Arabian tribe who possessed the land of Edom and parts of the Transjordan as far north as Palmyra (ancient Tadmor). The descendants of both Nebaioth and Kedar are noted for their superb flocks of sheep (Is 60:7) and are mentioned in the inscriptions of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (seventh century <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEBAIOTH Firstborn of Ishmael’s 12 sons (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29) whose sister, Mahalath (also called Basemath, cf. Gn 36:3) later married Esau (Gn 28:9). The identification of Nebaioth’s descendants is uncertain, though possibly they are the ancestors of the Nabatean Arabian tribe who possessed the land of Edom and parts of the Transjordan as far north as Palmyra (ancient Tadmor). The descendants of both Nebaioth and Kedar are noted for their superb flocks of sheep (Is 60:7) and are mentioned i...","summary_en":"NEBAIOTH Firstborn of Ishmael’s 12 sons (Gn 25:13; 1 Chr 1:29) whose sister, Mahalath (also called Basemath, cf. Gn 36:3) later married Esau (Gn 28:9). The identification of Nebaioth’s descendants is uncertain, though possibly they are the ancestors of the Nabatean Arabian tribe who possessed the land of Edom and parts of the Transjordan as far north as Palmyra (ancient Tadmor). The descendants of both Nebaioth and Kedar are noted for their superb flocks of sheep (Is 60:7) and are mentioned i...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27650,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nodab*, Nodabites","title_en":"Nodab*, Nodabites","content_ro":"<h3>NODAB*, NODABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of an Arabian tribe that joined forces with the Hagarites to fight against the tribes of Israel who were living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19). Though not included in the list of Ishmael’s sons (cf. Gn 25:13-15), he was perhaps a distant relation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NODAB*, NODABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of an Arabian tribe that joined forces with the Hagarites to fight against the tribes of Israel who were living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19). Though not included in the list of Ishmael’s sons (cf. Gn 25:13-15), he was perhaps a distant relation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NODAB*, NODABITES Forefather of an Arabian tribe that joined forces with the Hagarites to fight against the tribes of Israel who were living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19). Though not included in the list of Ishmael’s sons (cf. Gn 25:13-15), he was perhaps a distant relation.","summary_en":"NODAB*, NODABITES Forefather of an Arabian tribe that joined forces with the Hagarites to fight against the tribes of Israel who were living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19). Though not included in the list of Ishmael’s sons (cf. Gn 25:13-15), he was perhaps a distant relation.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31376,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Primogeniture*","title_en":"Primogeniture*","content_ro":"<h3>PRIMOGENITURE*<\/h3>\n<p>Word not found in the Bible; derived from the Greek translation of the Hebrew word for “firstborn.” Primogeniture refers specifically to the exclusive right of inheritance that belonged to the firstborn male. If the firstborn died, the next oldest living male did not receive that exclusive right; neither did a female if she were the firstborn; nor the firstborn if he was born of a concubine or of a slave woman (e.g., Gn 21:10). That the Scriptures attached much importance to the rights of the firstborn (primogeniture) can be seen in the distinction drawn between the firstborn and other sons (Gn 10:15; 25:13; 36:15), the double portion to be given to the firstborn (Dt 21:17), as well as the paternal blessing given to them (Gn 21:1-14; 27:1-29; 48:18).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Birthright; Firstborn.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRIMOGENITURE*<\/h3>\n<p>Word not found in the Bible; derived from the Greek translation of the Hebrew word for “firstborn.” Primogeniture refers specifically to the exclusive right of inheritance that belonged to the firstborn male. If the firstborn died, the next oldest living male did not receive that exclusive right; neither did a female if she were the firstborn; nor the firstborn if he was born of a concubine or of a slave woman (e.g., Gn 21:10). That the Scriptures attached much importance to the rights of the firstborn (primogeniture) can be seen in the distinction drawn between the firstborn and other sons (Gn 10:15; 25:13; 36:15), the double portion to be given to the firstborn (Dt 21:17), as well as the paternal blessing given to them (Gn 21:1-14; 27:1-29; 48:18).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Birthright; Firstborn.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRIMOGENITURE* Word not found in the Bible; derived from the Greek translation of the Hebrew word for “firstborn.” Primogeniture refers specifically to the exclusive right of inheritance that belonged to the firstborn male. If the firstborn died, the next oldest living male did not receive that exclusive right; neither did a female if she were the firstborn; nor the firstborn if he was born of a concubine or of a slave woman (e.g., Gn 21:10). That the Scriptures attached much importance to th...","summary_en":"PRIMOGENITURE* Word not found in the Bible; derived from the Greek translation of the Hebrew word for “firstborn.” Primogeniture refers specifically to the exclusive right of inheritance that belonged to the firstborn male. If the firstborn died, the next oldest living male did not receive that exclusive right; neither did a female if she were the firstborn; nor the firstborn if he was born of a concubine or of a slave woman (e.g., Gn 21:10). That the Scriptures attached much importance to th...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35428,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Simeon","title_en":"Tribe of Simeon","content_ro":"<h3>SIMEON, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the 12 tribes of Israel descended from Jacob’s second son. Because of Simeon’s evil deed at Shechem, Jacob foretold that Simeon’s descendants would be dispersed among the other tribes of Israel (Gn 49:7).<\/p>\n<p>According to the book of Joshua, Simeon’s inheritance was included in Judah’s territory (Jos 19:1, 9). Judges 1:3 points to a close bond between the tribes of Simeon and Judah—they march and fight together as brothers to establish themselves in Canaan. In addition, the list of Levitical towns included Simeon’s with Judah’s (Jos 21:9-16). Inevitably, then, the Simeonites were linked to the kingdom of Judah throughout the period of the monarchy, and its tribal destiny was tied to that of the southern division of the divided monarchy. However, in spite of their minor inheritance within Judah’s tribe, the Simeonites were able to preserve to some extent their own tribal identity, unity, and traditions, as indicated by the keeping of genealogical records, even to the days of Hezekiah, king of Judah (1 Chr 4:24-42).<\/p>\n<p>During Hezekiah’s reign, Simeonites took possession of and settled the Arab areas of Seir (1 Chr 4:24-43) and perhaps the hill country of Ephraim (2 Chr 15:9). Although Simeon was Jacob’s second-oldest son, his progeny never achieved a position of prominence in Israel, either before or after the conquest and occupation of Canaan. For example, the tribe apparently provided no judges, and the Song of Deborah contains no references to this group (see Jgs 5). According to 1 Chronicles 4:28-33, Simeon’s tribe settled in the southern extremes of Canaan (called the Negev in Hebrew)—an extensive region, consisting largely of dry, parched land, but with an annual rainfall and perennial springs that ensured fertility in the early summer. This explains why Simeon’s territory is also called “the Negev of Judah,” a phrase that serves to differentiate them from other racial groups occupying parts of southern Canaan (1 Sm 27:10; 30:14; 2 Sm 24:7).<\/p>\n<p>The genealogies of the Simeonites reveal a certain amount of intermarriage with other Israelite tribes and, indeed, with non-Israelites as well. Shaul, Simeon’s son, was the son of a Canaanite woman (Gn 46:10; Ex 6:15). Two of Simeon’s sons (1 Chr 4:25) bear names of Ishmael’s sons (Gn 25:13-14; 1 Chr 1:29-30), and Jamin (Gn 46:10; Ex 6:15) was a descendant of Ram (1 Chr 2:27).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Simeon’s tribe appears seventh in the list of the tribes who are sealed by God (Rv 7:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SIMEON, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the 12 tribes of Israel descended from Jacob’s second son. Because of Simeon’s evil deed at Shechem, Jacob foretold that Simeon’s descendants would be dispersed among the other tribes of Israel (Gn 49:7).<\/p>\n<p>According to the book of Joshua, Simeon’s inheritance was included in Judah’s territory (Jos 19:1, 9). Judges 1:3 points to a close bond between the tribes of Simeon and Judah—they march and fight together as brothers to establish themselves in Canaan. In addition, the list of Levitical towns included Simeon’s with Judah’s (Jos 21:9-16). Inevitably, then, the Simeonites were linked to the kingdom of Judah throughout the period of the monarchy, and its tribal destiny was tied to that of the southern division of the divided monarchy. However, in spite of their minor inheritance within Judah’s tribe, the Simeonites were able to preserve to some extent their own tribal identity, unity, and traditions, as indicated by the keeping of genealogical records, even to the days of Hezekiah, king of Judah (1 Chr 4:24-42).<\/p>\n<p>During Hezekiah’s reign, Simeonites took possession of and settled the Arab areas of Seir (1 Chr 4:24-43) and perhaps the hill country of Ephraim (2 Chr 15:9). Although Simeon was Jacob’s second-oldest son, his progeny never achieved a position of prominence in Israel, either before or after the conquest and occupation of Canaan. For example, the tribe apparently provided no judges, and the Song of Deborah contains no references to this group (see Jgs 5). According to 1 Chronicles 4:28-33, Simeon’s tribe settled in the southern extremes of Canaan (called the Negev in Hebrew)—an extensive region, consisting largely of dry, parched land, but with an annual rainfall and perennial springs that ensured fertility in the early summer. This explains why Simeon’s territory is also called “the Negev of Judah,” a phrase that serves to differentiate them from other racial groups occupying parts of southern Canaan (1 Sm 27:10; 30:14; 2 Sm 24:7).<\/p>\n<p>The genealogies of the Simeonites reveal a certain amount of intermarriage with other Israelite tribes and, indeed, with non-Israelites as well. Shaul, Simeon’s son, was the son of a Canaanite woman (Gn 46:10; Ex 6:15). Two of Simeon’s sons (1 Chr 4:25) bear names of Ishmael’s sons (Gn 25:13-14; 1 Chr 1:29-30), and Jamin (Gn 46:10; Ex 6:15) was a descendant of Ram (1 Chr 2:27).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Simeon’s tribe appears seventh in the list of the tribes who are sealed by God (Rv 7:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SIMEON, Tribe of One of the 12 tribes of Israel descended from Jacob’s second son. Because of Simeon’s evil deed at Shechem, Jacob foretold that Simeon’s descendants would be dispersed among the other tribes of Israel (Gn 49:7). According to the book of Joshua, Simeon’s inheritance was included in Judah’s territory (Jos 19:1, 9). Judges 1:3 points to a close bond between the tribes of Simeon and Judah—they march and fight together as brothers to establish themselves in Canaan. In addition, th...","summary_en":"SIMEON, Tribe of One of the 12 tribes of Israel descended from Jacob’s second son. Because of Simeon’s evil deed at Shechem, Jacob foretold that Simeon’s descendants would be dispersed among the other tribes of Israel (Gn 49:7). According to the book of Joshua, Simeon’s inheritance was included in Judah’s territory (Jos 19:1, 9). Judges 1:3 points to a close bond between the tribes of Simeon and Judah—they march and fight together as brothers to establish themselves in Canaan. In addition, th...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":784,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Agur","title_en":"Agur","content_ro":"<h3>AGUR<\/h3>\n<p>Jakeh’s son. Although not an Israelite, he wrote or collected the sayings in Proverbs 30. Agur was from Massa (Prv 30:1), an area of northern Arabia evidently settled by a son of Ishmael (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). <em>See<\/em> Proverbs, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AGUR<\/h3>\n<p>Jakeh’s son. Although not an Israelite, he wrote or collected the sayings in Proverbs 30. Agur was from Massa (Prv 30:1), an area of northern Arabia evidently settled by a son of Ishmael (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). <em>See<\/em> Proverbs, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AGUR Jakeh’s son. Although not an Israelite, he wrote or collected the sayings in Proverbs 30. Agur was from Massa (Prv 30:1), an area of northern Arabia evidently settled by a son of Ishmael (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). See Proverbs, Book of.","summary_en":"AGUR Jakeh’s son. Although not an Israelite, he wrote or collected the sayings in Proverbs 30. Agur was from Massa (Prv 30:1), an area of northern Arabia evidently settled by a son of Ishmael (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). See Proverbs, Book of.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9888,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dumah (Person)","title_en":"Dumah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>DUMAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael’s son, who founded an Arab tribe (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DUMAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael’s son, who founded an Arab tribe (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"DUMAH (Person) Ishmael’s son, who founded an Arab tribe (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30).","summary_en":"DUMAH (Person) Ishmael’s son, who founded an Arab tribe (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30).","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9890,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dumah (Place)","title_en":"Dumah (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>DUMAH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Region of the 12 tribes of Ishmael (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30) where there were a number of oases; identified with el-Jof, modern Dumat el-Jendel. This place was located about three-fourths of the way from Damascus to Medina.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in the highlands allotted to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:52). Its site is probably identifiable with ed-Domeh, 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southwest of Hebron.<\/li>\n<li>3. Hebrew term referring to the land of silence or death; that is, the place of graves (Pss 94:17; 115:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Perhaps a designation for Edom or Idumea in Isaiah 21:11.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>DUMAH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Region of the 12 tribes of Ishmael (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30) where there were a number of oases; identified with el-Jof, modern Dumat el-Jendel. This place was located about three-fourths of the way from Damascus to Medina.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in the highlands allotted to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:52). Its site is probably identifiable with ed-Domeh, 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southwest of Hebron.<\/li>\n<li>3. Hebrew term referring to the land of silence or death; that is, the place of graves (Pss 94:17; 115:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Perhaps a designation for Edom or Idumea in Isaiah 21:11.<\/li>","summary_ro":"DUMAH (Place) 1. Region of the 12 tribes of Ishmael (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30) where there were a number of oases; identified with el-Jof, modern Dumat el-Jendel. This place was located about three-fourths of the way from Damascus to Medina. 2. Town in the highlands allotted to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:52). Its site is probably identifiable with ed-Domeh, 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southwest of Hebron. 3. Hebrew term referring to the land of silence or death; that is, the place of...","summary_en":"DUMAH (Place) 1. Region of the 12 tribes of Ishmael (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30) where there were a number of oases; identified with el-Jof, modern Dumat el-Jendel. This place was located about three-fourths of the way from Damascus to Medina. 2. Town in the highlands allotted to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:52). Its site is probably identifiable with ed-Domeh, 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southwest of Hebron. 3. Hebrew term referring to the land of silence or death; that is, the place of...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24604,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Massa","title_en":"Massa","content_ro":"<h3>MASSA<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael’s seventh son and Abraham’s grandson (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). His descendants inhabited northwestern Arabia. Tiglath-pileser III mentions these people, along with the inhabitants of Tema (cf. Gn 25:15) and others who were ruled by him and paid tribute to him. The people of Tema probably were descendants of Massa’s brother Tema.<\/p>\n<p>Massa forms part of the titles of Proverbs 30:1 and 31:1. The definite article precedes it in 30:1 and can be translated “the burden” or “the oracle.” It is frequently used in prophetic passages in the ominous sense of God’s impending judgment (Is 13:1; Na 1:1; Hb 1:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MASSA<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael’s seventh son and Abraham’s grandson (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). His descendants inhabited northwestern Arabia. Tiglath-pileser III mentions these people, along with the inhabitants of Tema (cf. Gn 25:15) and others who were ruled by him and paid tribute to him. The people of Tema probably were descendants of Massa’s brother Tema.<\/p>\n<p>Massa forms part of the titles of Proverbs 30:1 and 31:1. The definite article precedes it in 30:1 and can be translated “the burden” or “the oracle.” It is frequently used in prophetic passages in the ominous sense of God’s impending judgment (Is 13:1; Na 1:1; Hb 1:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MASSA Ishmael’s seventh son and Abraham’s grandson (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). His descendants inhabited northwestern Arabia. Tiglath-pileser III mentions these people, along with the inhabitants of Tema (cf. Gn 25:15) and others who were ruled by him and paid tribute to him. The people of Tema probably were descendants of Massa’s brother Tema. Massa forms part of the titles of Proverbs 30:1 and 31:1. The definite article precedes it in 30:1 and can be translated “the burden” or “the oracle.” It ...","summary_en":"MASSA Ishmael’s seventh son and Abraham’s grandson (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). His descendants inhabited northwestern Arabia. Tiglath-pileser III mentions these people, along with the inhabitants of Tema (cf. Gn 25:15) and others who were ruled by him and paid tribute to him. The people of Tema probably were descendants of Massa’s brother Tema. Massa forms part of the titles of Proverbs 30:1 and 31:1. The definite article precedes it in 30:1 and can be translated “the burden” or “the oracle.” It ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26079,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mishma","title_en":"Mishma","content_ro":"<h3>MISHMA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Ishmael, Abraham’s grandson, and the father of an Arabian tribe (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30).<\/li>\n<li>2. Mibsam’s son from Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:25-26). His omission in Genesis 25 and inclusion in the 1 Chronicles genealogy may indicate either that he was born after Jacob moved his family to Egypt or that he represented an Arabian tribe that affiliated with Simeon when Simeon’s tribe expanded to the south (1 Chr 4:38-43).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MISHMA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Ishmael, Abraham’s grandson, and the father of an Arabian tribe (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30).<\/li>\n<li>2. Mibsam’s son from Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:25-26). His omission in Genesis 25 and inclusion in the 1 Chronicles genealogy may indicate either that he was born after Jacob moved his family to Egypt or that he represented an Arabian tribe that affiliated with Simeon when Simeon’s tribe expanded to the south (1 Chr 4:38-43).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MISHMA 1. Son of Ishmael, Abraham’s grandson, and the father of an Arabian tribe (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). 2. Mibsam’s son from Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:25-26). His omission in Genesis 25 and inclusion in the 1 Chronicles genealogy may indicate either that he was born after Jacob moved his family to Egypt or that he represented an Arabian tribe that affiliated with Simeon when Simeon’s tribe expanded to the south (1 Chr 4:38-43).","summary_en":"MISHMA 1. Son of Ishmael, Abraham’s grandson, and the father of an Arabian tribe (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). 2. Mibsam’s son from Simeon’s tribe (1 Chr 4:25-26). His omission in Genesis 25 and inclusion in the 1 Chronicles genealogy may indicate either that he was born after Jacob moved his family to Egypt or that he represented an Arabian tribe that affiliated with Simeon when Simeon’s tribe expanded to the south (1 Chr 4:38-43).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31809,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Proverbs","title_en":"Book of Proverbs","content_ro":"<h3>PROVERBS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Third poetical book in the OT. A collection of striking, epigrammatic expressions concerning practical wisdom by example, warning, or precept.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Authors<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authors\">Authors<\/p>\n<p>While there is an underlying unity of thought in the book of Proverbs, there is no presumption of unity of authorship, since the writers of the seven or more sections into which the book is divided are, in most cases, clearly noted.<\/p>\n<h5>1:1–9:18<\/h5>\n<p>There is a division of opinion as to whether the opening verse refers to the Solomonic authorship of this section or whether it simply underscores the name of the main contributor to the entire book. It is objected that the man who wrote so carefully about the danger of promiscuous relationships with immoral women—one of the main themes of this section—is not likely to be Solomon, who failed significantly in the matter of mixed marriages (1 Kgs 11:1-8). There are flaws in such an argument. One may be capable of giving excellent advice without necessarily having the strength of character to follow it oneself, and there is a distinction between the seductive prostitutes or adulteresses of Proverbs 5:1-21, 6:20-35, 7:1-27 and Solomon’s polygamous but respectable relationships. However, the question of authorship is probably best left open. Those who question the Solomonic origin of this section regard 1:2-7 as setting out the purpose of the whole book. Proverbs 1:8–9:18 is a series of 13 practical discourses on wisdom, lovingly and honestly given as by a father to a son. This provides an indispensable foundation for the more popular proverbial teaching in the remainder of the book.<\/p>\n<h5>10:1–22:16<\/h5>\n<p>Solomon is specifically noted as the author or compiler of this main section of Proverbs. The probability that he played a major part in the production of the book of Proverbs finds strong support in the historical books. Soon after his coronation he was endowed with the spirit of wisdom—in response to his request (1 Kgs 3:5-14). The incident concerning the two prostitutes (vv 16-28) provided public proof of this. His universal reputation, especially in connection with proverbial wisdom, is attested to in 1 Kings 4:29-34 and in the visit of the queen of Sheba (10:1-13).<\/p>\n<h5>22:17–24:34<\/h5>\n<p>The title “the words of the wise” (Prv 22:17, <span>neb<\/span>) is incorporated into the opening verse of this section. An evident difference of style, replacing the simple, one-verse proverb by a more discursive approach that deals with a subject over several verses, and the title of the next subsection “These also are sayings of the wise” (24:23), strongly suggest the independence of this collection. Of major interest is the remarkably close parallel between 22:17–23:11 and the Egyptian book of Amenemope, which has been dated variously between the 13th and 7th centuries <span>BC<\/span>. Scholars have detected as many as 30 connections between the two. Most think that this section in Proverbs is an adaptation of an Egyptian original (such selection and modification being entirely congruous with the doctrine of inspiration). However, a minority of scholars, including several prominent Egyptologists, argue persuasively on the basis of grammatical structure that Amenemope is derived from a Hebrew original.<\/p>\n<h5>25:1–29:27<\/h5>\n<p>Some material of Solomon’s has here been edited and incorporated by “the men of Hezekiah king of Judah” (25:1). In this section there is a tendency to group together proverbs dealing with specific subjects—for example, the relationship between a king and his subjects (vv 2-7), the lazy man (26:13-16), and the mischief maker (vv 17-27). Solomon and Hezekiah were frequently linked together in Jewish thought (e.g., 2 Chr 30:26), and rabbinic tradition credited Hezekiah with the production of both Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. The national prestige during the reigns of both kings would have been conducive to literary pursuits.<\/p>\n<h5>30:1-33<\/h5>\n<p>Nothing is known of Agur, of his father, Jakeh of Massa, or of the two other characters mentioned, Ithiel and Ucal. According to Genesis 25:14, Massa was one of the 12 sons of Ishmael, and it is likely that Agur came from north Arabia, an area traditionally renowned for its wisdom.<\/p>\n<h5>31:1-9<\/h5>\n<p>Lemuel, the author of this section, also came from Massa, but apart from this is unknown. The inclusion of wisdom sayings from sources outside Israel illustrates the international connections of the wisdom movement during the period of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<h5>31:10-31<\/h5>\n<p>It is possible that Lemuel’s authorship includes this superb acrostic poem on the ideal wife; its inspiration may have come from his mother, like the earlier section. But the pattern of life would fit more easily into the context of a prosperous, agricultural community in Palestine rather than in an Arabian nomadic or seminomadic community. For this reason, most scholars regard the poem as anonymous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The larger part of the book may, with confidence, be ascribed to Solomon (ruled c. 970–930 <span>BC<\/span>). But the considerable contribution of Hezekiah and his men rules out a date for the completion of the book before 700 <span>BC<\/span>. The inclusion of sections by non-Israelites, like Agur and Lemuel, is more likely in the preexilic period, with its wider international interests, than in the more particularistic atmosphere of postexilic Judaism. Probably the final, sophisticated acrostic poem was the last section to be included, but there is nothing in the book that demands a date later than the early seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In rabbinic tradition Proverbs was invariably grouped with Psalms and Job in the third section of the Jewish canon, the Writings or Holy Books. While the content of the Writings was not authoritatively finalized until the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, it is likely that Proverbs was accepted as inspired long before this, as witnessed by its inclusion in the Septuagint, the principal Greek translation. The order in our English versions may have been influenced by the rabbinic tradition that linked the books of Job, Psalms, and Proverbs with Moses, David, and Hezekiah, respectively.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The book of Proverbs is included in the OT corpus of books known as the Wisdom Literature. This corpus is further represented in Scripture by the books of Job and Ecclesiastes and some of the Psalms (e.g., Pss 1, 37, 73, 119). Proverbs represents one major class of this literature. Individual proverbs contain sharp, practical applications of wisdom covering many facets of life. Job and Ecclesiastes focus on one major problem, or a group of interrelated problems, in monologue or dialogue form.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, wisdom was originally connected with all skills, manual as well as intellectual, and was considered to be the gift of the gods. Gradually it acquired a dominantly intellectual significance, particularly in a cultic setting, in such magical or semimagical arts as exorcism. A wide range of wisdom literature from Egypt, Canaan, and Mesopotamia, of the two basic types noted in the preceding paragraph, has survived, making it possible to see its Hebrew counterpart against this background. There is no duplication, however, and the spirit of the Hebrew Wisdom Literature is markedly superior to anything comparable in the ancient world. This is due principally to the strong religious foundation in Israel, where wisdom’s first step was to trust and revere the Lord (Prv 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>When Israel emerged as a nation in the Mosaic period, it was in a world where individuals or groups of “the wise” already existed. Israel shared this inheritance, with both men and women being involved, as witnessed by the wise women of Tekoa and Abel in Beth-maacah (2 Sm 14:2; 20:16) and the professional military or civic court counselors Ahithophel and Hushai (2 Sm 15:1-2, 31; 16:15-19). Proverbs shows this group of “the wise” at its best; the life of uprightness, diligence, honesty, and self-control that it advocates sets a standard of morality that accords with the law on which it was based. But it is probable that many proverbs predate the emergence of a class of the wise. Most communities develop their own collections of short, witty sayings that express practical wisdom and form a store of primitive philosophy. Solomon’s part in giving definitive shape to Israel’s proverbs (1 Kgs 4:32) has already been noted. The antithetic form of Hebrew poetry, where the parallelism of the second line allows either a sharp contrast (as generally in Proverbs 10–15) or further support (i.e., synonymous parallelism, as in chs 16–22) is an ideal medium for the proverb. When the class of “the wise” developed, this popular wisdom became part of their provenance.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Close Relationship between Religion and Everyday Life<\/h5>\n<p>While the general tone of Proverbs is dominantly rational, the importance of fearing (showing reverence to) the Lord is stressed throughout the book (1:7; 2:5; 3:7; 8:13; etc.). This “fear of the Lord” is one of the main definitions of religion in the OT, the other being “the knowledge of God” stressed especially by Hosea and Jeremiah (Jer 9:24; Hos 4:1). Both are found in parallel in Proverbs 2:5 and 9:10. Far from there being an unbridgeable gap between religion and the secular world, Proverbs shows the results, in noble character and harmonious, happy homes, when the whole of life is brought under God’s control. A danger exists when the moral elements are taken in isolation from the religious foundation that is assumed throughout. Then the pursuit for happiness or success can become selfish, inward-looking, and ultimately self-defeating.<\/p>\n<h5>Proverbs and the Prophetic Movement<\/h5>\n<p>There are many similarities between Proverbs and the Prophets, including a down-to-earth realism; a championing of the poor and underprivileged groups (e.g., 14:31); a realization of the inefficacy of sacrifice apart from morality (15:8; 21:27); and an emphasis on the individual, which was sometimes overlooked because of the strong sense of corporate identity within the covenant community. Jeremiah and Ezekiel, especially, restated strongly the theme of individual responsibility (Jer 31:29-30; Ez 18). But there is a vital difference that Proverbs shares with the remainder of biblical Wisdom Literature, namely, the absence of any clear, historical reference to Israel’s election and covenant relationship with God. This was the consistent point of appeal of the great preexilic prophets. Similarly, Jerusalem and its temple theology are not mentioned, although the wisdom movement, especially as reflected in Proverbs, flourished under the patronage of the Davidic monarchy. Even the name Israel does not occur. This has lent strength to the view that Proverbs is the clearest and most comprehensive manual of universal, practical ethics existing in the ancient world. An educated contemporary Egyptian would have found Proverbs readily comprehensible and uplifting, and although this was not its primary purpose, the book still has a strong appeal to the moral non-Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Proverbs and Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>Proverbs shares many features with the book of Deuteronomy, especially its emphasis on retribution and reward (Prv 2:22; 3:9-10; 10:27-30; cf. Dt 28). This doctrine could be perverted into an invariable equation: the righteous are always rewarded and the wicked are always punished. That is a view against which Job (Jb 21:7-34) and Jeremiah (Jer 12:1-4) protested strongly. It could also result in a hypocritical, self-seeking approach; I want the blessings promised (e.g., Prv 3:9-10), therefore I will “honor” God in the matter of tithes. This substitution of an outward show for the inward dynamic of love, gratitude, and faith was often the curse of Israel’s formalized religion. However, the principle itself—that those who honor God and live in cooperation with him and his laws are generally those who are God-blessed (not necessarily in material terms)—is a scriptural one, and the authors of Proverbs must not be blamed for the perversions that arose subsequently.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction: 1:1-7<\/h5>\n<p>Proverbs 1:1-7 sets out the purpose of the wisdom movement in Israel. The subtitle of the whole book is found in verse 2: “The purpose of these proverbs is to teach people wisdom and discipline, and to help them understand wise sayings” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The question of the authorship of this section has already been discussed, but there is certainly nothing incongruous about Solomon’s authorship. In the earlier part of his reign, Solomon showed a deep longing for the wisdom that was required to govern his people rightly (1 Kgs 3:7-9), and there is the earnest desire here that his subjects might have a similar understanding. Verses 1-6 form one sentence in Hebrew and include no fewer than 11 different aspects of wisdom. The first of them, “wisdom,” occurs 37 times in Proverbs and indicates an informed, skillful use of knowledge. It is only by taking the first step of trusting in the Lord that a person can enter into wisdom. Morality is not situational, nor an absolute in itself; it requires an unchanging point of reference that can only be found in God.<\/p>\n<h5>Lessons on Wisdom: 1:8–9:18<\/h5>\n<p>This section is composed of 13 distinct lessons on wisdom, most of which are introduced by “My son” or something similar. The final lesson (8:1–9:18) is given by Wisdom herself. This method indicates the warm, personal relationship between the teacher and his pupils, who, in the ancient Near East, would be exclusively male. A similar style is found in both Egyptian and Mesopotamian wisdom literature and could well have been adopted by Solomon, who, in the humility and God-fearing concern for the national well-being of his earlier years, would have been a teacher par excellence.<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 1: Avoiding Evil Companions (1:8-33)<\/h6>\n<p>Three voices are raised: (1) the specious voice of those who promise quick gains by violence (vv 10-14); (2) the wise man himself (vv 15-19), who reinforces the advice of parents patiently given over the years (vv 8-9) and who advocates a clean break with violent men doomed to a violent end; and (3) Wisdom (vv 20-33), whose appeal is not furtive but open and who seeks to give others her own spirit of wisdom (v 23). Those who spurn the voice of wisdom will experience judgment (vv 29-33).<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 2: The Rewards of Wisdom (2:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>While wisdom is ultimately God-given (v 6), people must seek it with an intensity of desire that characterized the psalmist (Prv 2:2-4; cf. Ps 63:1). There is no contradiction here, but a paradox that underlines the fact that God’s gifts are not given lightly but are given to those who, by their attitude of heart and will, merit them. The benefits of wisdom outlined (Prv 2:7-22) have both negative and positive and both material and spiritual elements. The peril of associating with immoral women, which is referred to so frequently in Proverbs, is mentioned for the first time (vv 16-19).<\/p>\n<h6> Lesson 3: The Rewards of Complete Trust in God (3:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>For the Jew there was always the temptation to try to ensure blessing by an outward show of religion, and verses 9-10 could be misinterpreted. But the context stresses the requirement of heart loyalty and obedience (vv 1-8). “God first” (v 6) is the fundamental need; without this an individual or a nation is impoverished (cf. Hg 1:1-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 4: The Need for Discipline (3:11-20)<\/h6>\n<p>One of the major themes in Proverbs is discipline, especially that of a father chastising his son (Prv 3:11-12; cf. Heb 12:5-11). The other theme here is the praise of wisdom and the benefits it bestows.<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 5: Wisdom and Common Sense (3:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>Wisdom and common sense will result in safety (vv 23-26) and guard against unwise acts (vv 27-32). But the underlying security is found in verse 26: “The <span>Lord<\/span> is your security.”<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 6: Determination (4:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>Here the teacher gives his own testimony and shows that he is drawing on the accumulated wisdom of an earlier generation (vv 1-6). There is an emphasis upon determination, with the will resolutely set to gain wisdom, as the verbs in verses 5-9 show.<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 7: The Straight Path (4:10-19)<\/h6>\n<p>An equal determination is necessary to keep clear of evil men and their pursuits (vv 14-17). Note the graphic description, both beautiful and frightening, of the two paths (vv 18-19).<\/p>\n<h6> Lesson 8: Pursuing Righteousness and Avoiding Evil (4:20-27)<\/h6>\n<p>The single-minded pursuit of righteousness and its corollary, the avoidance of every kind of evil (cf. 1 Thes 5:22), involves our hearing (Prv 4:20), memories (v 21), hearts (vv 21, 23), sight (v 25), and wills (vv 26-27). It means total commitment to God.<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 9: Sexual Purity (5:1-23)<\/h6>\n<p>In blunt language that cannot possibly be misunderstood, the perils of sexual prostitution and the wisdom of faithfulness within marriage are underscored. In sexual relationships there can be no purely private morality; others are necessarily involved, and God is more than a concerned spectator (v 21).<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 10: The Things God Hates (6:1-19)<\/h6>\n<p>First (vv 1-5), there is straightforward advice about the need to avoid rash pledges. If one is foolish enough to be already involved, the sensible thing is to swallow one’s pride and extricate oneself as soon as possible. The second lesson—to emulate the ants in their diligent preparation for future need (vv 6-11)—anticipates the contrasting attention later given to the sluggard (22:13; 26:13-16). The third lesson describes in detail the slick, deceitful “con man” (6:12-19). He is to be avoided.<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 11: Illicit Sexual Relationships (6:20-35)<\/h6>\n<p>This section continues with the subject of illicit sexual relationships, showing God’s attitude to this particular form of sin. The wounded husband will prove a formidable adversary, should he discover infidelity (vv 33-35), and the effect upon the adulterer himself will be utterly disastrous (vv 26-32).<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 12: The Wiles of the Prostitute (7:1-27)<\/h6>\n<p>This chapter gives a graphic illustration of the wiles of a prostitute. Speciously, the pleasures she offers appear alluring, enhanced by the element of risk, but in fact the night’s adventure invariably proves to be the road to hell (v 27).<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 13: Wisdom’s Direct Appeal (8:1–9:18)<\/h6>\n<p>In contrast to the smooth-tongued, deadly seductress of chapter 7 and the brazen, loud-mouthed prostitute of 9:13-18, there are two complementary pictures of Wisdom. The first, in 8:1-36, is one of the most remarkable examples of personification in the OT. Wisdom seeks not the ruin of one but the welfare of all (vv 1-5). Wisdom and integrity, righteous conduct and frankness are pictured as inseparable entities (vv 6-13). But there remains an emphasis on the blessings that result from the quest for wisdom (vv 14-21). Kings, judges, and rulers are dependent on her, and success of the most desirable kind is her gift to her followers. Verses 22-31 are virtually a theological explanation for the preeminence of Wisdom, showing her close association with God’s creative activity.<\/p>\n<p>Understandably, many Christians have seen in these verses an anticipation of Christ himself. The NT sees Christ as the answer to two of the most vital religious issues: how does God approach mankind, and how did he create the world? Here is the answer—by Wisdom. The connection may be carried into the next section (vv 33-36), where Wisdom, like Christ in the NT, is seen as the one absolutely essential and desirable thing.<\/p>\n<p>In the second picture of Wisdom (9:1-6), she is seen as a gracious, generous hostess, offering a banquet that issues in life (cf. Jesus’ parable in Lk 14:15-24). A further contrast with the immoral woman in Proverbs 9:13-18 notes, pointedly, that the latter’s guests end up in hell. A series of proverbs on the contrast between the wise and foolish (vv 7-12) come between the two pictures. They show how teachable the wise man is, in contrast to the fool. Once more the true foundation of life is clearly defined (v 10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Collected Proverbs of Solomon: 10:1–22:16<\/h5>\n<p>The 375 proverbs in this section were probably selected from the 3,000 for which Solomon is credited (1 Kgs 4:32). Each verse is a unit, with a contrast or a comparison between its two lines. There are understandable repetitions (e.g., Prv 14:12; 16:25), almost inevitable in a large collection of this kind. The common sense of the proverbial sayings, each of which has been proved in experience, is evident, but one must allow for varying levels; some appear rather mundane and close to worldly wisdom. But taken as a whole, they provide a practical guide, sanctioned by God, for everyday life. Again, it must be stressed that the religious life, based on the law and the covenant relationship, is assumed. God is vitally concerned with the minute details of life, and religious issues are not entirely bypassed (e.g., 10:27-29; 14:27; 15:16, 33; 18:10). This section in Proverbs cannot be read quickly; each verse demands a pause to allow its point to penetrate the mind. Since there is no systematic arrangement of the proverbs, the most helpful way of approach into this section may be by a consideration of the principal themes. It would be a valuable study to collate the references to each subject:<\/p>\n<p> 1. The rewards of the righteous and the end of the ungodly (10:2, 7, 16, 27-30; 11:3-9).<\/p>\n<li> 2. The fool. The three Hebrew words translated “fool” can all have the sense of stubborn rebelliousness as well as dullness of intellect, so “rebel” is often an apt rendering. The fool gives his parents grief and is a menace to society. His mind is completely closed to reason and his unbridled words cause untold damage. In his case, correction is pointless; he is beyond hope.<\/li>\n<li> 3. The simple. The reference here is to the large, uncommitted group, neither fools nor wise, but those who are open to the gentle persuasion of concerned wisdom teachers. The main appeal of this section is to this group rather than to the wise and prudent, who have already “graduated.”<\/li>\n<li> 4. The lazy. This person is often contrasted with the industrious (e.g., 10:4-5) and is mercilessly satirized for his apathy and weak excuses.<\/li>\n<li> 5. The power of words. They can wound or heal (12:18). The stress on honest speech, in contrast to deceitful, thoughtless words, is well illustrated in the same chapter (e.g., 12:6, 13-14, 17-19, 22).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Wisdom. Chapter 13 shows how it may be derived from parents (v 1), the Scriptures (v 13), the class of the wise (v 14), and good company (v 20).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Justice. The stress on this echoes the great prophets. In particular, bribery is condemned (17:8, 23; 18:16), as are false witnesses (19:5, 9, 28), while open-mindedness is commended (18:17).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Neighborliness. Fair-weather “friends” are often referred to (e.g., 19:4-7) and contrasted with the true friend (17:17; 18:24).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Riches and poverty. These conditions are approached in a variety of ways, but always with an emphasis on moral and spiritual rather than merely material prosperity (e.g., 21:6; 22:1, 4). Care for the poor is frequently demanded (21:13)—to be accompanied with the highest motives (22:2).<\/li>\n<li>10. Family life. There is an attractive picture of an ideal family, with its industrious husband, an understanding wife who is a blessing to him (12:4; 14:1; 18:22; 19:14), and obedient children, disciplined when necessary by punishment (13:24; 19:18; 23:13-14).<\/li>\n<h5>The Final Section—More Wise Advice: 22:17–31:31<\/h5>\n<p>While the subjects considered and the general outlook are unchanged, the proverbs in this section are generally longer and there is an evident attempt to group together proverbs dealing with particular subjects—for example, the perils of strong drink (23:29-35). The religious motive of the editor of this section is evident; he writes that people should trust in the Lord (22:19).<\/p>\n<h6>Additional Proverbs: 22:17–24:34<\/h6>\n<p>This may be viewed as a supplement to the previous section dealing further with the subjects of justice, wise business policy, slander, and laziness. The humorous but pointed proverb of the lazy man’s field is the longest in the book.<\/p>\n<h6>Additional Solomonic Proverbs: 25:1–29:27<\/h6>\n<p>From the many Solomonic proverbs not included in the main collection (10:1–22:16), the aides of Hezekiah selected and edited a further group of Solomon’s proverbs. Again, there is evidence of an effort to group related proverbs—for example, the place of kings (25:2-7); unwise litigation (vv 8-10); the fool (26:1-12); laziness (vv 13-16); and the troublemaker (vv 17-27).<\/p>\n<h6>The Wisdom of Agur: 30:1-33<\/h6>\n<p>The humility of the wise man in the presence of an all-wise God emerges clearly in Agur’s introduction (vv 1-4), a passage paralleled in Job 38–39. His teaching method was apparently to confront his students with a number of examples of a point under discussion, the “two . . . three . . . four” method, indicating that the catalogue was not complete and encouraging them to add further illustrations from their own experience. Agur was evidently in close and perceptive touch with life at every level.<\/p>\n<h6>The Wisdom of Lemuel: 31:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>This section, inspired by his mother, deals yet again with sexual relationships, the perils of intoxication, and the need to champion the poor and oppressed. Lemuel’s name, meaning “belonging to God,” probably tells us still more about his mother.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ideal Wife: 31:10-31<\/h6>\n<p>Every verse of this poem, which was possibly anonymous, begins with a successive letter of the Hebrew alphabet, a device that often signified completeness. Coming at the end of Proverbs (a book that is forthright when dealing with the subject of the immoral woman), it gives, in antithesis, a refreshing picture of a cultured, well-to-do housewife and mother. At the same time, it provides an enlightening insight into several facets of contemporary life. As elsewhere in the book, her underlying relationship to God (v 30) results in desirable virtues that include trustworthiness (v 11), immense application (vv 13-19, 24, 27), charity (vv 19-20), foresight (vv 21, 25), wisdom, and kindness (v 26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Poetry, Biblical; Solomon (Person); Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROVERBS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Third poetical book in the OT. A collection of striking, epigrammatic expressions concerning practical wisdom by example, warning, or precept.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Authors<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authors\">Authors<\/p>\n<p>While there is an underlying unity of thought in the book of Proverbs, there is no presumption of unity of authorship, since the writers of the seven or more sections into which the book is divided are, in most cases, clearly noted.<\/p>\n<h5>1:1–9:18<\/h5>\n<p>There is a division of opinion as to whether the opening verse refers to the Solomonic authorship of this section or whether it simply underscores the name of the main contributor to the entire book. It is objected that the man who wrote so carefully about the danger of promiscuous relationships with immoral women—one of the main themes of this section—is not likely to be Solomon, who failed significantly in the matter of mixed marriages (1 Kgs 11:1-8). There are flaws in such an argument. One may be capable of giving excellent advice without necessarily having the strength of character to follow it oneself, and there is a distinction between the seductive prostitutes or adulteresses of Proverbs 5:1-21, 6:20-35, 7:1-27 and Solomon’s polygamous but respectable relationships. However, the question of authorship is probably best left open. Those who question the Solomonic origin of this section regard 1:2-7 as setting out the purpose of the whole book. Proverbs 1:8–9:18 is a series of 13 practical discourses on wisdom, lovingly and honestly given as by a father to a son. This provides an indispensable foundation for the more popular proverbial teaching in the remainder of the book.<\/p>\n<h5>10:1–22:16<\/h5>\n<p>Solomon is specifically noted as the author or compiler of this main section of Proverbs. The probability that he played a major part in the production of the book of Proverbs finds strong support in the historical books. Soon after his coronation he was endowed with the spirit of wisdom—in response to his request (1 Kgs 3:5-14). The incident concerning the two prostitutes (vv 16-28) provided public proof of this. His universal reputation, especially in connection with proverbial wisdom, is attested to in 1 Kings 4:29-34 and in the visit of the queen of Sheba (10:1-13).<\/p>\n<h5>22:17–24:34<\/h5>\n<p>The title “the words of the wise” (Prv 22:17, <span>neb<\/span>) is incorporated into the opening verse of this section. An evident difference of style, replacing the simple, one-verse proverb by a more discursive approach that deals with a subject over several verses, and the title of the next subsection “These also are sayings of the wise” (24:23), strongly suggest the independence of this collection. Of major interest is the remarkably close parallel between 22:17–23:11 and the Egyptian book of Amenemope, which has been dated variously between the 13th and 7th centuries <span>BC<\/span>. Scholars have detected as many as 30 connections between the two. Most think that this section in Proverbs is an adaptation of an Egyptian original (such selection and modification being entirely congruous with the doctrine of inspiration). However, a minority of scholars, including several prominent Egyptologists, argue persuasively on the basis of grammatical structure that Amenemope is derived from a Hebrew original.<\/p>\n<h5>25:1–29:27<\/h5>\n<p>Some material of Solomon’s has here been edited and incorporated by “the men of Hezekiah king of Judah” (25:1). In this section there is a tendency to group together proverbs dealing with specific subjects—for example, the relationship between a king and his subjects (vv 2-7), the lazy man (26:13-16), and the mischief maker (vv 17-27). Solomon and Hezekiah were frequently linked together in Jewish thought (e.g., 2 Chr 30:26), and rabbinic tradition credited Hezekiah with the production of both Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. The national prestige during the reigns of both kings would have been conducive to literary pursuits.<\/p>\n<h5>30:1-33<\/h5>\n<p>Nothing is known of Agur, of his father, Jakeh of Massa, or of the two other characters mentioned, Ithiel and Ucal. According to Genesis 25:14, Massa was one of the 12 sons of Ishmael, and it is likely that Agur came from north Arabia, an area traditionally renowned for its wisdom.<\/p>\n<h5>31:1-9<\/h5>\n<p>Lemuel, the author of this section, also came from Massa, but apart from this is unknown. The inclusion of wisdom sayings from sources outside Israel illustrates the international connections of the wisdom movement during the period of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<h5>31:10-31<\/h5>\n<p>It is possible that Lemuel’s authorship includes this superb acrostic poem on the ideal wife; its inspiration may have come from his mother, like the earlier section. But the pattern of life would fit more easily into the context of a prosperous, agricultural community in Palestine rather than in an Arabian nomadic or seminomadic community. For this reason, most scholars regard the poem as anonymous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The larger part of the book may, with confidence, be ascribed to Solomon (ruled c. 970–930 <span>BC<\/span>). But the considerable contribution of Hezekiah and his men rules out a date for the completion of the book before 700 <span>BC<\/span>. The inclusion of sections by non-Israelites, like Agur and Lemuel, is more likely in the preexilic period, with its wider international interests, than in the more particularistic atmosphere of postexilic Judaism. Probably the final, sophisticated acrostic poem was the last section to be included, but there is nothing in the book that demands a date later than the early seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In rabbinic tradition Proverbs was invariably grouped with Psalms and Job in the third section of the Jewish canon, the Writings or Holy Books. While the content of the Writings was not authoritatively finalized until the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, it is likely that Proverbs was accepted as inspired long before this, as witnessed by its inclusion in the Septuagint, the principal Greek translation. The order in our English versions may have been influenced by the rabbinic tradition that linked the books of Job, Psalms, and Proverbs with Moses, David, and Hezekiah, respectively.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The book of Proverbs is included in the OT corpus of books known as the Wisdom Literature. This corpus is further represented in Scripture by the books of Job and Ecclesiastes and some of the Psalms (e.g., Pss 1, 37, 73, 119). Proverbs represents one major class of this literature. Individual proverbs contain sharp, practical applications of wisdom covering many facets of life. Job and Ecclesiastes focus on one major problem, or a group of interrelated problems, in monologue or dialogue form.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, wisdom was originally connected with all skills, manual as well as intellectual, and was considered to be the gift of the gods. Gradually it acquired a dominantly intellectual significance, particularly in a cultic setting, in such magical or semimagical arts as exorcism. A wide range of wisdom literature from Egypt, Canaan, and Mesopotamia, of the two basic types noted in the preceding paragraph, has survived, making it possible to see its Hebrew counterpart against this background. There is no duplication, however, and the spirit of the Hebrew Wisdom Literature is markedly superior to anything comparable in the ancient world. This is due principally to the strong religious foundation in Israel, where wisdom’s first step was to trust and revere the Lord (Prv 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>When Israel emerged as a nation in the Mosaic period, it was in a world where individuals or groups of “the wise” already existed. Israel shared this inheritance, with both men and women being involved, as witnessed by the wise women of Tekoa and Abel in Beth-maacah (2 Sm 14:2; 20:16) and the professional military or civic court counselors Ahithophel and Hushai (2 Sm 15:1-2, 31; 16:15-19). Proverbs shows this group of “the wise” at its best; the life of uprightness, diligence, honesty, and self-control that it advocates sets a standard of morality that accords with the law on which it was based. But it is probable that many proverbs predate the emergence of a class of the wise. Most communities develop their own collections of short, witty sayings that express practical wisdom and form a store of primitive philosophy. Solomon’s part in giving definitive shape to Israel’s proverbs (1 Kgs 4:32) has already been noted. The antithetic form of Hebrew poetry, where the parallelism of the second line allows either a sharp contrast (as generally in Proverbs 10–15) or further support (i.e., synonymous parallelism, as in chs 16–22) is an ideal medium for the proverb. When the class of “the wise” developed, this popular wisdom became part of their provenance.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Close Relationship between Religion and Everyday Life<\/h5>\n<p>While the general tone of Proverbs is dominantly rational, the importance of fearing (showing reverence to) the Lord is stressed throughout the book (1:7; 2:5; 3:7; 8:13; etc.). This “fear of the Lord” is one of the main definitions of religion in the OT, the other being “the knowledge of God” stressed especially by Hosea and Jeremiah (Jer 9:24; Hos 4:1). Both are found in parallel in Proverbs 2:5 and 9:10. Far from there being an unbridgeable gap between religion and the secular world, Proverbs shows the results, in noble character and harmonious, happy homes, when the whole of life is brought under God’s control. A danger exists when the moral elements are taken in isolation from the religious foundation that is assumed throughout. Then the pursuit for happiness or success can become selfish, inward-looking, and ultimately self-defeating.<\/p>\n<h5>Proverbs and the Prophetic Movement<\/h5>\n<p>There are many similarities between Proverbs and the Prophets, including a down-to-earth realism; a championing of the poor and underprivileged groups (e.g., 14:31); a realization of the inefficacy of sacrifice apart from morality (15:8; 21:27); and an emphasis on the individual, which was sometimes overlooked because of the strong sense of corporate identity within the covenant community. Jeremiah and Ezekiel, especially, restated strongly the theme of individual responsibility (Jer 31:29-30; Ez 18). But there is a vital difference that Proverbs shares with the remainder of biblical Wisdom Literature, namely, the absence of any clear, historical reference to Israel’s election and covenant relationship with God. This was the consistent point of appeal of the great preexilic prophets. Similarly, Jerusalem and its temple theology are not mentioned, although the wisdom movement, especially as reflected in Proverbs, flourished under the patronage of the Davidic monarchy. Even the name Israel does not occur. This has lent strength to the view that Proverbs is the clearest and most comprehensive manual of universal, practical ethics existing in the ancient world. An educated contemporary Egyptian would have found Proverbs readily comprehensible and uplifting, and although this was not its primary purpose, the book still has a strong appeal to the moral non-Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Proverbs and Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>Proverbs shares many features with the book of Deuteronomy, especially its emphasis on retribution and reward (Prv 2:22; 3:9-10; 10:27-30; cf. Dt 28). This doctrine could be perverted into an invariable equation: the righteous are always rewarded and the wicked are always punished. That is a view against which Job (Jb 21:7-34) and Jeremiah (Jer 12:1-4) protested strongly. It could also result in a hypocritical, self-seeking approach; I want the blessings promised (e.g., Prv 3:9-10), therefore I will “honor” God in the matter of tithes. This substitution of an outward show for the inward dynamic of love, gratitude, and faith was often the curse of Israel’s formalized religion. However, the principle itself—that those who honor God and live in cooperation with him and his laws are generally those who are God-blessed (not necessarily in material terms)—is a scriptural one, and the authors of Proverbs must not be blamed for the perversions that arose subsequently.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction: 1:1-7<\/h5>\n<p>Proverbs 1:1-7 sets out the purpose of the wisdom movement in Israel. The subtitle of the whole book is found in verse 2: “The purpose of these proverbs is to teach people wisdom and discipline, and to help them understand wise sayings” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The question of the authorship of this section has already been discussed, but there is certainly nothing incongruous about Solomon’s authorship. In the earlier part of his reign, Solomon showed a deep longing for the wisdom that was required to govern his people rightly (1 Kgs 3:7-9), and there is the earnest desire here that his subjects might have a similar understanding. Verses 1-6 form one sentence in Hebrew and include no fewer than 11 different aspects of wisdom. The first of them, “wisdom,” occurs 37 times in Proverbs and indicates an informed, skillful use of knowledge. It is only by taking the first step of trusting in the Lord that a person can enter into wisdom. Morality is not situational, nor an absolute in itself; it requires an unchanging point of reference that can only be found in God.<\/p>\n<h5>Lessons on Wisdom: 1:8–9:18<\/h5>\n<p>This section is composed of 13 distinct lessons on wisdom, most of which are introduced by “My son” or something similar. The final lesson (8:1–9:18) is given by Wisdom herself. This method indicates the warm, personal relationship between the teacher and his pupils, who, in the ancient Near East, would be exclusively male. A similar style is found in both Egyptian and Mesopotamian wisdom literature and could well have been adopted by Solomon, who, in the humility and God-fearing concern for the national well-being of his earlier years, would have been a teacher par excellence.<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 1: Avoiding Evil Companions (1:8-33)<\/h6>\n<p>Three voices are raised: (1) the specious voice of those who promise quick gains by violence (vv 10-14); (2) the wise man himself (vv 15-19), who reinforces the advice of parents patiently given over the years (vv 8-9) and who advocates a clean break with violent men doomed to a violent end; and (3) Wisdom (vv 20-33), whose appeal is not furtive but open and who seeks to give others her own spirit of wisdom (v 23). Those who spurn the voice of wisdom will experience judgment (vv 29-33).<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 2: The Rewards of Wisdom (2:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>While wisdom is ultimately God-given (v 6), people must seek it with an intensity of desire that characterized the psalmist (Prv 2:2-4; cf. Ps 63:1). There is no contradiction here, but a paradox that underlines the fact that God’s gifts are not given lightly but are given to those who, by their attitude of heart and will, merit them. The benefits of wisdom outlined (Prv 2:7-22) have both negative and positive and both material and spiritual elements. The peril of associating with immoral women, which is referred to so frequently in Proverbs, is mentioned for the first time (vv 16-19).<\/p>\n<h6> Lesson 3: The Rewards of Complete Trust in God (3:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>For the Jew there was always the temptation to try to ensure blessing by an outward show of religion, and verses 9-10 could be misinterpreted. But the context stresses the requirement of heart loyalty and obedience (vv 1-8). “God first” (v 6) is the fundamental need; without this an individual or a nation is impoverished (cf. Hg 1:1-11).<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 4: The Need for Discipline (3:11-20)<\/h6>\n<p>One of the major themes in Proverbs is discipline, especially that of a father chastising his son (Prv 3:11-12; cf. Heb 12:5-11). The other theme here is the praise of wisdom and the benefits it bestows.<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 5: Wisdom and Common Sense (3:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>Wisdom and common sense will result in safety (vv 23-26) and guard against unwise acts (vv 27-32). But the underlying security is found in verse 26: “The <span>Lord<\/span> is your security.”<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 6: Determination (4:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>Here the teacher gives his own testimony and shows that he is drawing on the accumulated wisdom of an earlier generation (vv 1-6). There is an emphasis upon determination, with the will resolutely set to gain wisdom, as the verbs in verses 5-9 show.<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 7: The Straight Path (4:10-19)<\/h6>\n<p>An equal determination is necessary to keep clear of evil men and their pursuits (vv 14-17). Note the graphic description, both beautiful and frightening, of the two paths (vv 18-19).<\/p>\n<h6> Lesson 8: Pursuing Righteousness and Avoiding Evil (4:20-27)<\/h6>\n<p>The single-minded pursuit of righteousness and its corollary, the avoidance of every kind of evil (cf. 1 Thes 5:22), involves our hearing (Prv 4:20), memories (v 21), hearts (vv 21, 23), sight (v 25), and wills (vv 26-27). It means total commitment to God.<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 9: Sexual Purity (5:1-23)<\/h6>\n<p>In blunt language that cannot possibly be misunderstood, the perils of sexual prostitution and the wisdom of faithfulness within marriage are underscored. In sexual relationships there can be no purely private morality; others are necessarily involved, and God is more than a concerned spectator (v 21).<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 10: The Things God Hates (6:1-19)<\/h6>\n<p>First (vv 1-5), there is straightforward advice about the need to avoid rash pledges. If one is foolish enough to be already involved, the sensible thing is to swallow one’s pride and extricate oneself as soon as possible. The second lesson—to emulate the ants in their diligent preparation for future need (vv 6-11)—anticipates the contrasting attention later given to the sluggard (22:13; 26:13-16). The third lesson describes in detail the slick, deceitful “con man” (6:12-19). He is to be avoided.<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 11: Illicit Sexual Relationships (6:20-35)<\/h6>\n<p>This section continues with the subject of illicit sexual relationships, showing God’s attitude to this particular form of sin. The wounded husband will prove a formidable adversary, should he discover infidelity (vv 33-35), and the effect upon the adulterer himself will be utterly disastrous (vv 26-32).<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 12: The Wiles of the Prostitute (7:1-27)<\/h6>\n<p>This chapter gives a graphic illustration of the wiles of a prostitute. Speciously, the pleasures she offers appear alluring, enhanced by the element of risk, but in fact the night’s adventure invariably proves to be the road to hell (v 27).<\/p>\n<h6>Lesson 13: Wisdom’s Direct Appeal (8:1–9:18)<\/h6>\n<p>In contrast to the smooth-tongued, deadly seductress of chapter 7 and the brazen, loud-mouthed prostitute of 9:13-18, there are two complementary pictures of Wisdom. The first, in 8:1-36, is one of the most remarkable examples of personification in the OT. Wisdom seeks not the ruin of one but the welfare of all (vv 1-5). Wisdom and integrity, righteous conduct and frankness are pictured as inseparable entities (vv 6-13). But there remains an emphasis on the blessings that result from the quest for wisdom (vv 14-21). Kings, judges, and rulers are dependent on her, and success of the most desirable kind is her gift to her followers. Verses 22-31 are virtually a theological explanation for the preeminence of Wisdom, showing her close association with God’s creative activity.<\/p>\n<p>Understandably, many Christians have seen in these verses an anticipation of Christ himself. The NT sees Christ as the answer to two of the most vital religious issues: how does God approach mankind, and how did he create the world? Here is the answer—by Wisdom. The connection may be carried into the next section (vv 33-36), where Wisdom, like Christ in the NT, is seen as the one absolutely essential and desirable thing.<\/p>\n<p>In the second picture of Wisdom (9:1-6), she is seen as a gracious, generous hostess, offering a banquet that issues in life (cf. Jesus’ parable in Lk 14:15-24). A further contrast with the immoral woman in Proverbs 9:13-18 notes, pointedly, that the latter’s guests end up in hell. A series of proverbs on the contrast between the wise and foolish (vv 7-12) come between the two pictures. They show how teachable the wise man is, in contrast to the fool. Once more the true foundation of life is clearly defined (v 10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Collected Proverbs of Solomon: 10:1–22:16<\/h5>\n<p>The 375 proverbs in this section were probably selected from the 3,000 for which Solomon is credited (1 Kgs 4:32). Each verse is a unit, with a contrast or a comparison between its two lines. There are understandable repetitions (e.g., Prv 14:12; 16:25), almost inevitable in a large collection of this kind. The common sense of the proverbial sayings, each of which has been proved in experience, is evident, but one must allow for varying levels; some appear rather mundane and close to worldly wisdom. But taken as a whole, they provide a practical guide, sanctioned by God, for everyday life. Again, it must be stressed that the religious life, based on the law and the covenant relationship, is assumed. God is vitally concerned with the minute details of life, and religious issues are not entirely bypassed (e.g., 10:27-29; 14:27; 15:16, 33; 18:10). This section in Proverbs cannot be read quickly; each verse demands a pause to allow its point to penetrate the mind. Since there is no systematic arrangement of the proverbs, the most helpful way of approach into this section may be by a consideration of the principal themes. It would be a valuable study to collate the references to each subject:<\/p>\n<p> 1. The rewards of the righteous and the end of the ungodly (10:2, 7, 16, 27-30; 11:3-9).<\/p>\n<li> 2. The fool. The three Hebrew words translated “fool” can all have the sense of stubborn rebelliousness as well as dullness of intellect, so “rebel” is often an apt rendering. The fool gives his parents grief and is a menace to society. His mind is completely closed to reason and his unbridled words cause untold damage. In his case, correction is pointless; he is beyond hope.<\/li>\n<li> 3. The simple. The reference here is to the large, uncommitted group, neither fools nor wise, but those who are open to the gentle persuasion of concerned wisdom teachers. The main appeal of this section is to this group rather than to the wise and prudent, who have already “graduated.”<\/li>\n<li> 4. The lazy. This person is often contrasted with the industrious (e.g., 10:4-5) and is mercilessly satirized for his apathy and weak excuses.<\/li>\n<li> 5. The power of words. They can wound or heal (12:18). The stress on honest speech, in contrast to deceitful, thoughtless words, is well illustrated in the same chapter (e.g., 12:6, 13-14, 17-19, 22).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Wisdom. Chapter 13 shows how it may be derived from parents (v 1), the Scriptures (v 13), the class of the wise (v 14), and good company (v 20).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Justice. The stress on this echoes the great prophets. In particular, bribery is condemned (17:8, 23; 18:16), as are false witnesses (19:5, 9, 28), while open-mindedness is commended (18:17).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Neighborliness. Fair-weather “friends” are often referred to (e.g., 19:4-7) and contrasted with the true friend (17:17; 18:24).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Riches and poverty. These conditions are approached in a variety of ways, but always with an emphasis on moral and spiritual rather than merely material prosperity (e.g., 21:6; 22:1, 4). Care for the poor is frequently demanded (21:13)—to be accompanied with the highest motives (22:2).<\/li>\n<li>10. Family life. There is an attractive picture of an ideal family, with its industrious husband, an understanding wife who is a blessing to him (12:4; 14:1; 18:22; 19:14), and obedient children, disciplined when necessary by punishment (13:24; 19:18; 23:13-14).<\/li>\n<h5>The Final Section—More Wise Advice: 22:17–31:31<\/h5>\n<p>While the subjects considered and the general outlook are unchanged, the proverbs in this section are generally longer and there is an evident attempt to group together proverbs dealing with particular subjects—for example, the perils of strong drink (23:29-35). The religious motive of the editor of this section is evident; he writes that people should trust in the Lord (22:19).<\/p>\n<h6>Additional Proverbs: 22:17–24:34<\/h6>\n<p>This may be viewed as a supplement to the previous section dealing further with the subjects of justice, wise business policy, slander, and laziness. The humorous but pointed proverb of the lazy man’s field is the longest in the book.<\/p>\n<h6>Additional Solomonic Proverbs: 25:1–29:27<\/h6>\n<p>From the many Solomonic proverbs not included in the main collection (10:1–22:16), the aides of Hezekiah selected and edited a further group of Solomon’s proverbs. Again, there is evidence of an effort to group related proverbs—for example, the place of kings (25:2-7); unwise litigation (vv 8-10); the fool (26:1-12); laziness (vv 13-16); and the troublemaker (vv 17-27).<\/p>\n<h6>The Wisdom of Agur: 30:1-33<\/h6>\n<p>The humility of the wise man in the presence of an all-wise God emerges clearly in Agur’s introduction (vv 1-4), a passage paralleled in Job 38–39. His teaching method was apparently to confront his students with a number of examples of a point under discussion, the “two . . . three . . . four” method, indicating that the catalogue was not complete and encouraging them to add further illustrations from their own experience. Agur was evidently in close and perceptive touch with life at every level.<\/p>\n<h6>The Wisdom of Lemuel: 31:1-9<\/h6>\n<p>This section, inspired by his mother, deals yet again with sexual relationships, the perils of intoxication, and the need to champion the poor and oppressed. Lemuel’s name, meaning “belonging to God,” probably tells us still more about his mother.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ideal Wife: 31:10-31<\/h6>\n<p>Every verse of this poem, which was possibly anonymous, begins with a successive letter of the Hebrew alphabet, a device that often signified completeness. Coming at the end of Proverbs (a book that is forthright when dealing with the subject of the immoral woman), it gives, in antithesis, a refreshing picture of a cultured, well-to-do housewife and mother. At the same time, it provides an enlightening insight into several facets of contemporary life. As elsewhere in the book, her underlying relationship to God (v 30) results in desirable virtues that include trustworthiness (v 11), immense application (vv 13-19, 24, 27), charity (vv 19-20), foresight (vv 21, 25), wisdom, and kindness (v 26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Poetry, Biblical; Solomon (Person); Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROVERBS, Book of Third poetical book in the OT. A collection of striking, epigrammatic expressions concerning practical wisdom by example, warning, or precept. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors While there is an underlying unity of thought in the book of Proverbs, there is no presumption of unity of authorship, since the writers of the seven or more sections into which the book is divided are, in most cases, clearly noted. 1:1–9:18 There is a divi...","summary_en":"PROVERBS, Book of Third poetical book in the OT. A collection of striking, epigrammatic expressions concerning practical wisdom by example, warning, or precept. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors While there is an underlying unity of thought in the book of Proverbs, there is no presumption of unity of authorship, since the writers of the seven or more sections into which the book is divided are, in most cases, clearly noted. 1:1–9:18 There is a divi...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":14935,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hadad","title_en":"Hadad","content_ro":"<h3>HADAD<\/h3>\n<li>1. Eighth of the 12 sons of Ishmael, and thus a grandson of Abraham (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:30). The <span>kjv<\/span> reads “Hadar” in Genesis 25:15 and “Hadad” in 1 Chronicles 1:30, whereas <span>rsv<\/span> and <span>nlt<\/span> read “Hadad” in both passages.<\/li>\n<li>2. Edomite ruler, son of Bedad, who reigned before the Hebrew captivity in Egypt and who won an important victory over the Midianites in the plain of Moab (Gn 36:35-36; 1 Chr 1:46-47).<\/li>\n<li>3. Another king of Edom, one of the few whose wife, Mehetabel, was mentioned by name. His capital city was Pau (Gn 36:39; 1 Chr 1:50-51).<\/li>\n<li>4. Prince of the royal house of Edom who fled to Egypt after David and Joab conquered Edom and occupied the land. He grew up in Egypt and gained favor with the pharaoh, who gave him his sister-in-law as a wife. Later, when David was dead, he desired to return to Edom and lead a revolt against Solomon (1 Kgs 11:14-25). Some scholars have identified him with #3 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HADAD<\/h3>\n<li>1. Eighth of the 12 sons of Ishmael, and thus a grandson of Abraham (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:30). The <span>kjv<\/span> reads “Hadar” in Genesis 25:15 and “Hadad” in 1 Chronicles 1:30, whereas <span>rsv<\/span> and <span>nlt<\/span> read “Hadad” in both passages.<\/li>\n<li>2. Edomite ruler, son of Bedad, who reigned before the Hebrew captivity in Egypt and who won an important victory over the Midianites in the plain of Moab (Gn 36:35-36; 1 Chr 1:46-47).<\/li>\n<li>3. Another king of Edom, one of the few whose wife, Mehetabel, was mentioned by name. His capital city was Pau (Gn 36:39; 1 Chr 1:50-51).<\/li>\n<li>4. Prince of the royal house of Edom who fled to Egypt after David and Joab conquered Edom and occupied the land. He grew up in Egypt and gained favor with the pharaoh, who gave him his sister-in-law as a wife. Later, when David was dead, he desired to return to Edom and lead a revolt against Solomon (1 Kgs 11:14-25). Some scholars have identified him with #3 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"HADAD 1. Eighth of the 12 sons of Ishmael, and thus a grandson of Abraham (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:30). The kjv reads “Hadar” in Genesis 25:15 and “Hadad” in 1 Chronicles 1:30, whereas rsv and nlt read “Hadad” in both passages. 2. Edomite ruler, son of Bedad, who reigned before the Hebrew captivity in Egypt and who won an important victory over the Midianites in the plain of Moab (Gn 36:35-36; 1 Chr 1:46-47). 3. Another king of Edom, one of the few whose wife, Mehetabel, was mentioned by name. His ...","summary_en":"HADAD 1. Eighth of the 12 sons of Ishmael, and thus a grandson of Abraham (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:30). The kjv reads “Hadar” in Genesis 25:15 and “Hadad” in 1 Chronicles 1:30, whereas rsv and nlt read “Hadad” in both passages. 2. Edomite ruler, son of Bedad, who reigned before the Hebrew captivity in Egypt and who won an important victory over the Midianites in the plain of Moab (Gn 36:35-36; 1 Chr 1:46-47). 3. Another king of Edom, one of the few whose wife, Mehetabel, was mentioned by name. His ...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14950,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hadar*","title_en":"Hadar*","content_ro":"<h3>HADAR*<\/h3>\n<li>1. KJV spelling of Hadad, Ishmael’s son, in Genesis 25:15. <em>See<\/em> Hadad #1.<\/li>\n<li>2. Alternate spelling of Hadad, king of Edom, in Genesis 36:39. <em>See<\/em> Hadad #3.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HADAR*<\/h3>\n<li>1. KJV spelling of Hadad, Ishmael’s son, in Genesis 25:15. <em>See<\/em> Hadad #1.<\/li>\n<li>2. Alternate spelling of Hadad, king of Edom, in Genesis 36:39. <em>See<\/em> Hadad #3.<\/li>","summary_ro":"HADAR* 1. KJV spelling of Hadad, Ishmael’s son, in Genesis 25:15. See Hadad #1. 2. Alternate spelling of Hadad, king of Edom, in Genesis 36:39. See Hadad #3.","summary_en":"HADAR* 1. KJV spelling of Hadad, Ishmael’s son, in Genesis 25:15. See Hadad #1. 2. Alternate spelling of Hadad, king of Edom, in Genesis 36:39. See Hadad #3.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18111,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ituraea*, Iturea, Itureans*","title_en":"Ituraea*, Iturea, Itureans*","content_ro":"<h3>ITURAEA*, ITUREA, ITUREANS*<\/h3>\n<p>Small province mentioned with Trachonitis as forming the tetrarchy of Philip, brother of Herod the Great, during the reign of Tiberius Caesar (Lk 3:1). A reasonable assumption places Iturea northeast of the Sea of Galilee and in the area of Mt Hermon, but its location and boundaries have been much disputed. The name almost certainly comes from Jetur, a son of Ishmael (Gn 25:15), whose descendants were among those conquered by the Israelites east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19-20). Thereafter, the Itureans virtually drop from sight until Josephus records another defeat inflicted on them by Aristobulus in 105–104 <span>BC<\/span>, at which time many of them were faced with a choice between circumcision and exile.<\/p>\n<p>There are frequent mentions by classical writers of Itureans, sometimes described as Syrians or Arabians—skilled bowmen with the predatory tendencies often associated with groups unable or unwilling to settle for long in any one area. In view of this, it is not surprising that we know more about Itureans than we do about Iturea.<\/p>\n<p>Strabo speaks of them as inhabitants of a mountainous country; Dio Cassius a little later tells us that they had a king. Any attempt to understand their history is complicated by divisions in the Roman Empire that affected them, but by the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, many Itureans were to be found under the provincial rule of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>It is easier, then, to discuss the people than the place. Some scholars, indeed, hold that Luke could not have used the noun “Iturea,” for this was a form unknown until three centuries later, and that the adjectival form better fits the case. This prompts another question: Was this Iturean territory within Philip’s tetrarchy? Could Luke have made a slip and anticipated a later regional regrouping? Josephus at one point lists the constituent parts of Philip’s tetrarchy without including Iturea.<\/p>\n<p>Three facts are clear: (1) there is a certain flexibility and overlapping in descriptions of territorial demarcation; (2) the data we have is insufficient for exact conclusions about Iturea; and (3) the evidence is clear from other parts of Scripture that Luke is a careful and reliable writer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ITURAEA*, ITUREA, ITUREANS*<\/h3>\n<p>Small province mentioned with Trachonitis as forming the tetrarchy of Philip, brother of Herod the Great, during the reign of Tiberius Caesar (Lk 3:1). A reasonable assumption places Iturea northeast of the Sea of Galilee and in the area of Mt Hermon, but its location and boundaries have been much disputed. The name almost certainly comes from Jetur, a son of Ishmael (Gn 25:15), whose descendants were among those conquered by the Israelites east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19-20). Thereafter, the Itureans virtually drop from sight until Josephus records another defeat inflicted on them by Aristobulus in 105–104 <span>BC<\/span>, at which time many of them were faced with a choice between circumcision and exile.<\/p>\n<p>There are frequent mentions by classical writers of Itureans, sometimes described as Syrians or Arabians—skilled bowmen with the predatory tendencies often associated with groups unable or unwilling to settle for long in any one area. In view of this, it is not surprising that we know more about Itureans than we do about Iturea.<\/p>\n<p>Strabo speaks of them as inhabitants of a mountainous country; Dio Cassius a little later tells us that they had a king. Any attempt to understand their history is complicated by divisions in the Roman Empire that affected them, but by the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, many Itureans were to be found under the provincial rule of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>It is easier, then, to discuss the people than the place. Some scholars, indeed, hold that Luke could not have used the noun “Iturea,” for this was a form unknown until three centuries later, and that the adjectival form better fits the case. This prompts another question: Was this Iturean territory within Philip’s tetrarchy? Could Luke have made a slip and anticipated a later regional regrouping? Josephus at one point lists the constituent parts of Philip’s tetrarchy without including Iturea.<\/p>\n<p>Three facts are clear: (1) there is a certain flexibility and overlapping in descriptions of territorial demarcation; (2) the data we have is insufficient for exact conclusions about Iturea; and (3) the evidence is clear from other parts of Scripture that Luke is a careful and reliable writer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ITURAEA*, ITUREA, ITUREANS* Small province mentioned with Trachonitis as forming the tetrarchy of Philip, brother of Herod the Great, during the reign of Tiberius Caesar (Lk 3:1). A reasonable assumption places Iturea northeast of the Sea of Galilee and in the area of Mt Hermon, but its location and boundaries have been much disputed. The name almost certainly comes from Jetur, a son of Ishmael (Gn 25:15), whose descendants were among those conquered by the Israelites east of the Jordan (1 Ch...","summary_en":"ITURAEA*, ITUREA, ITUREANS* Small province mentioned with Trachonitis as forming the tetrarchy of Philip, brother of Herod the Great, during the reign of Tiberius Caesar (Lk 3:1). A reasonable assumption places Iturea northeast of the Sea of Galilee and in the area of Mt Hermon, but its location and boundaries have been much disputed. The name almost certainly comes from Jetur, a son of Ishmael (Gn 25:15), whose descendants were among those conquered by the Israelites east of the Jordan (1 Ch...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19749,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeturites Jetur","title_en":"Jeturites Jetur","content_ro":"<h3>JETUR, JETURITES<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Ishmael and his descendants (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31); the Israelite tribes who settled east of the Jordan had to fight them (1 Chr 5:19). Also called Itureans, they survived into NT times, giving their name to Iturea, an area northeast of Galilee (Lk 3:1). <em>See<\/em> Ituraea, Iturea, Itureans.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JETUR, JETURITES<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Ishmael and his descendants (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31); the Israelite tribes who settled east of the Jordan had to fight them (1 Chr 5:19). Also called Itureans, they survived into NT times, giving their name to Iturea, an area northeast of Galilee (Lk 3:1). <em>See<\/em> Ituraea, Iturea, Itureans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JETUR, JETURITES Son of Ishmael and his descendants (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31); the Israelite tribes who settled east of the Jordan had to fight them (1 Chr 5:19). Also called Itureans, they survived into NT times, giving their name to Iturea, an area northeast of Galilee (Lk 3:1). See Ituraea, Iturea, Itureans.","summary_en":"JETUR, JETURITES Son of Ishmael and his descendants (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31); the Israelite tribes who settled east of the Jordan had to fight them (1 Chr 5:19). Also called Itureans, they survived into NT times, giving their name to Iturea, an area northeast of Galilee (Lk 3:1). See Ituraea, Iturea, Itureans.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21543,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kedemah","title_en":"Kedemah","content_ro":"<h3>KEDEMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Ishmael (Gn 25:15) who gave his name to the tribe he fathered (1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KEDEMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Ishmael (Gn 25:15) who gave his name to the tribe he fathered (1 Chr 1:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KEDEMAH Son of Ishmael (Gn 25:15) who gave his name to the tribe he fathered (1 Chr 1:31).","summary_en":"KEDEMAH Son of Ishmael (Gn 25:15) who gave his name to the tribe he fathered (1 Chr 1:31).","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24606,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Massa","title_en":"Massa","content_ro":"<h3>MASSA<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael’s seventh son and Abraham’s grandson (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). His descendants inhabited northwestern Arabia. Tiglath-pileser III mentions these people, along with the inhabitants of Tema (cf. Gn 25:15) and others who were ruled by him and paid tribute to him. The people of Tema probably were descendants of Massa’s brother Tema.<\/p>\n<p>Massa forms part of the titles of Proverbs 30:1 and 31:1. The definite article precedes it in 30:1 and can be translated “the burden” or “the oracle.” It is frequently used in prophetic passages in the ominous sense of God’s impending judgment (Is 13:1; Na 1:1; Hb 1:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MASSA<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael’s seventh son and Abraham’s grandson (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). His descendants inhabited northwestern Arabia. Tiglath-pileser III mentions these people, along with the inhabitants of Tema (cf. Gn 25:15) and others who were ruled by him and paid tribute to him. The people of Tema probably were descendants of Massa’s brother Tema.<\/p>\n<p>Massa forms part of the titles of Proverbs 30:1 and 31:1. The definite article precedes it in 30:1 and can be translated “the burden” or “the oracle.” It is frequently used in prophetic passages in the ominous sense of God’s impending judgment (Is 13:1; Na 1:1; Hb 1:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MASSA Ishmael’s seventh son and Abraham’s grandson (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). His descendants inhabited northwestern Arabia. Tiglath-pileser III mentions these people, along with the inhabitants of Tema (cf. Gn 25:15) and others who were ruled by him and paid tribute to him. The people of Tema probably were descendants of Massa’s brother Tema. Massa forms part of the titles of Proverbs 30:1 and 31:1. The definite article precedes it in 30:1 and can be translated “the burden” or “the oracle.” It ...","summary_en":"MASSA Ishmael’s seventh son and Abraham’s grandson (Gn 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30). His descendants inhabited northwestern Arabia. Tiglath-pileser III mentions these people, along with the inhabitants of Tema (cf. Gn 25:15) and others who were ruled by him and paid tribute to him. The people of Tema probably were descendants of Massa’s brother Tema. Massa forms part of the titles of Proverbs 30:1 and 31:1. The definite article precedes it in 30:1 and can be translated “the burden” or “the oracle.” It ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26951,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Naphish","title_en":"Naphish","content_ro":"<h3>NAPHISH<\/h3>\n<p>Eleventh of Ishmael’s 12 sons (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31) and the founder of a tribe that later went to war against the tribes of Israel living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAPHISH<\/h3>\n<p>Eleventh of Ishmael’s 12 sons (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31) and the founder of a tribe that later went to war against the tribes of Israel living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAPHISH Eleventh of Ishmael’s 12 sons (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31) and the founder of a tribe that later went to war against the tribes of Israel living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19).","summary_en":"NAPHISH Eleventh of Ishmael’s 12 sons (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31) and the founder of a tribe that later went to war against the tribes of Israel living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36908,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tema (Person)","title_en":"Tema (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>TEMA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Ninth son of Ishmael who became chief of a powerful nomadic tribe in the north Arabian wilderness (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:30; Jer 25:23). The descendants of Tema were primarily caravan traders who controlled access to important routes across the desert (Jb 6:19). Tema was also associated with the territory and a town. <em>See<\/em> Tema (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEMA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Ninth son of Ishmael who became chief of a powerful nomadic tribe in the north Arabian wilderness (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:30; Jer 25:23). The descendants of Tema were primarily caravan traders who controlled access to important routes across the desert (Jb 6:19). Tema was also associated with the territory and a town. <em>See<\/em> Tema (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEMA (Person) Ninth son of Ishmael who became chief of a powerful nomadic tribe in the north Arabian wilderness (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:30; Jer 25:23). The descendants of Tema were primarily caravan traders who controlled access to important routes across the desert (Jb 6:19). Tema was also associated with the territory and a town. See Tema (Place).","summary_en":"TEMA (Person) Ninth son of Ishmael who became chief of a powerful nomadic tribe in the north Arabian wilderness (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:30; Jer 25:23). The descendants of Tema were primarily caravan traders who controlled access to important routes across the desert (Jb 6:19). Tema was also associated with the territory and a town. See Tema (Place).","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":43210,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:16","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:16<\/strong> Ishmael’s <em>twelve sons<\/em> fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:16<\/strong> Ishmael’s <em>twelve sons<\/em> fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:16 Ishmael’s twelve sons fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).","summary_en":"25:16 Ishmael’s twelve sons fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70836,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:16","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:16<\/strong> Ishmael’s <em>twelve sons<\/em> fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:16<\/strong> Ishmael’s <em>twelve sons<\/em> fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:16 Ishmael’s twelve sons fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).","summary_en":"25:16 Ishmael’s twelve sons fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98462,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:16","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:16<\/strong> Ishmael’s <em>twelve sons<\/em> fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:16<\/strong> Ishmael’s <em>twelve sons<\/em> fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:16 Ishmael’s twelve sons fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).","summary_en":"25:16 Ishmael’s twelve sons fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126088,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:16","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:16<\/strong> Ishmael’s <em>twelve sons<\/em> fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:16<\/strong> Ishmael’s <em>twelve sons<\/em> fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:16 Ishmael’s twelve sons fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).","summary_en":"25:16 Ishmael’s twelve sons fulfilled God’s promise of blessing (17:20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":40554,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68180,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95806,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123432,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ishmael<\/h3>\n<p>Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>When God announced that Sarah would have a son to fulfill the promise (17:15-16), Abraham asked God to accept Ishmael (17:17-18). Ishmael was not the promised son—the covenant would be established with Isaac (17:19)—but God did bless Ishmael and make him the father of a great nation (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>At age thirteen, Ishmael was circumcised in accordance with God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 23-27). Later, at Isaac’s weaning celebration (when Ishmael was about seventeen), Ishmael made fun of Isaac (21:9), and Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with provisions. The angel of God helped Hagar survive in the wilderness, and Ishmael became a wild game hunter. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). He assisted in Abraham’s burial (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage to Esau (28:9), and died at age 137 (25:17). His twelve sons are named in Genesis 25:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>Paul alluded to Ishmael when urging the Galatians to put their faith in God rather than in the law (see Gal 4:21-31). Those who trust the law will not inherit the kingdom, just as the slave woman’s son did not inherit with the son of the free woman (Gal 4:30).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:11-16; Gen 17:18-26; 21:8-21; 25:9-18; 28:9; Gal 4:21-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","summary_en":"Ishmael Ishmael was Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian servant. The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was eighty-six years old (Gen 13:18; 16:16). God had promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (12:2) and assured him that he would have a son to be his heir (15:4). Ishmael was born in Abraham’s attempt to fulfill God’s promise by human means (see 16:1-16; Gal 4:23), but God would nevertheless accomplish his purposes through Sarah (see Gen 17:15–18:15; 21...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17936,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ishmael","title_en":"Ishmael","content_ro":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ISHMAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness prompted the maid to behave contemptuously toward her mistress, and with Abraham’s consent Sarah dealt harshly with her and she fled. An angel sent Hagar back to submit to her mistress and promised her a son to be named Ishmael meaning “God hears” (16:9-11). The boy was born near Hebron when Abraham was 86 years old (13:18; 16:16).<\/li>\n<p>Abraham and Sarah received him as the son of God’s promise, as attested by their disbelief when the forthcoming birth of Isaac was announced (17:17; 18:12), and by Abraham’s subsequent wish that Ishmael should be accepted of God (17:18). At age 13 he participated in the institution of circumcision as a witness of God’s covenant with Abraham (17:9-14, 22-27), and the Lord promised to make Ishmael the father of 12 princes, from which would come a great nation, though the covenant was to be established with Isaac (17:20-21).<\/p>\n<p>There is no evidence that Ishmael was out of favor until Isaac’s weaning at about three years of age. When Sarah saw Ishmael “making fun” of her son Isaac, she determined that the son of a slave woman should not be heir with her son Isaac, and she demanded that Ishmael and Hagar be banished. Although vexed, Abraham received reassurance from the Lord and sent them away with some provisions. It was then clear to Abraham that Isaac, not Ishmael, was the son of God’s promise.<\/p>\n<p>Hagar survived in the wilderness with the guidance of an angel, and Ishmael became a hunter of wild animals. He settled in the wilderness of Paran and married an Egyptian woman (21:20-21). Little else is recorded of him, except that he lived to assist in the burial of Abraham (25:9-10), gave his daughter Mahalath in marriage (28:9), and died at the age of 137 (25:17). The names of his 12 sons and their settlements are recorded in Genesis 25:13-16. In subsequent history, a caravan of Ishmaelite traders (also called Midianites, cf. Jgs 8:22-24) bought Joseph from his brothers and sold him in Egypt (Gn 37:25-28; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though Isaac, rather than Ishmael, inherited the covenantal blessings, it is clear that the covenant was not the only means whereby divine favor could be bestowed. Abraham and Sarah overestimated the importance of Ishmael in God’s plan by mistaking him for the heir of covenant promises, but they also underrated God’s intentions for him by excluding him altogether from inheritance with Isaac.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Paul alludes to Ishmael while urging the Galatians not to see the law as a yoke (Gal 4:22). He states that those who trust the law instead of putting their faith in God’s promises do not inherit the kingdom, just as the son of the slave woman did not receive inheritance with the son of the free woman (v 30).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, of the royal family of Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:25). He was prompted by Baalis, king of the Ammonites, to assassinate Gedaliah, Judean governor of the puppet regime, which Nebuchadnezzar left behind at Mizpah at the time of the Babylonian exile. Gedaliah ignored advance warning of the plot and refused to allow Johanan to assassinate Ishmael first (Jer 40:14-16). While sharing a meal with Gedaliah, Ishmael and ten companions killed him, along with the Babylonian troops accompanying him. The next day he persuaded a group of 80 pilgrims passing from the north to the temple at Jerusalem to enter Mizpah, where he killed all but 10 who ransomed their lives with stores of food. Hiding all the bodies in a cistern, Ishmael took captive the rest of the population of Mizpah, including Jeremiah and women of the royal family, and set out to join the Ammonites. But Johanan, with an armed force, overtook Ishmael at Gibeon and rescued the captives, whereupon Ishmael fled to Ammonite territory (Jer 41).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Azel, a Benjamite of the family of Saul (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Zebadiah, the governor of the house of Judah under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 19:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Jehohanan, and one of the commanders who allied with Jehoiada the priest to enthrone the child Joash and thus end the reign of Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Pashhur, and one of the priests who put away foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","summary_en":"ISHMAEL 1. Abraham’s first son, born of Hagar, Sarah’s Egyptian handmaid, at the instigation of Sarah herself. God promised to make a great nation of the childless Abraham (Gn 12:2), assuring him that his son would be his heir (15:4). But when Sarah was past 75 years old and still barren, she invoked the custom whereby a childless wife gave her maid to her husband as concubine and laid claim to the offspring of their union (16:1-2). When Hagar conceived, the reproach attendant on barrenness p...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":29052,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Period of the Patriarchs","title_en":"Period of the Patriarchs","content_ro":"<h3>PATRIARCHS, P<span>eriod of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Period of time during which the biblical fathers of Israel lived. The Bible tells of long-lived patriarchs before the Flood (Gn 1–5), of Noah (chs 6–9), and of a line of patriarchs after the Flood (chs 10–11). However, the word in the narrower sense usually refers to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (chs 12–36), with the addition of Joseph (chs 37–50).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Exact dating of the patriarchs is difficult because, apart from the kings mentioned in Genesis 14:1-2, we do not have any fixed external point of reference from which to calculate. While this chapter does refer to historical persons and places, we cannot identify with certainty any one of the kings. The Italian excavators of Tell Mardikh (ancient Ebla) have reported finding the names of the “Cities of the Plain” of Genesis 14:2 (whose destruction is reported in Gn 19) and even the name of one of their kings on the clay tablets excavated. These clay tablets seem to date from well before 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, which is too early for Abraham; all that they would prove is that the cities were in existence long before his time. What we can say is that the patriarchs must have belonged to the middle Bronze Age, probably early in the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, and that this was the general period of the Amorite “drift” into Palestine from the north and the west. The most usual modern view is that the Amorite migration was in two “waves,” the earlier one being seminomadic (like Abraham’s friends Aner, Eshcol, and Mamre, Gn 14:13), and the second and later wave, probably from Syria in the north, being urbanizers and settlers (the group usually described as “the Amorites” in the catalog of the various races in Canaan, e.g., Ex 3:8). The society of the time of the patriarchs has been described as “dimorphic,” or twofold. On the one hand, there were the city communities, while on the other there were open village settlements and seminomadic tribes that at times were loosely grouped around the towns and at times drifted away from them. It is against this sort of background that we must imagine the patriarchs. Joseph, of course, lived in the fully settled world of Egypt, but Scripture does not give us the name of the pharaoh of his day.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalRange\">Geographical Range<\/p>\n<p>For such an early period, and seeing that it is really only the chronicle of one family, the patriarchal history has a remarkable geographic and climatic range, covering many hundreds of miles of varied country. It begins at Ur, an old Sumerian city on the Persian Gulf at one extreme end of the Fertile Crescent. Then the center of interest moves far to the northwest, to Haran on the Balikh River, between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers in their upper courses. Then the action sweeps far southwest to Palestine. But twice the interest moves back to Haran, and twice it goes into the Egyptian Delta. This is truly history on a wide canvas. Even when in Palestine, there is no fixed, quiet center of life. The patriarchs are endlessly on the move, backward and forward, mostly along the north-south mountain spine, but sometimes also in the coastal plain and even in Transjordan. Nor is there steady development; some groups slip away from the seminomadic life to join the city cultures (like Lot in Gn 13:12), while others melt back into the desert or semidesert (like Ishmael in 25:18, or Esau in 36:6-8). Yet always at the center the life of the patriarchs goes on.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Importance\">Importance<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of the place of the patriarchs in God’s gradually unfolding plan of redemption. The process that is to culminate in the coming of Christ begins with Abraham (Jn 8:56). This is not, of course, to deny that in a more general sense God’s plan of salvation begins to unfold in the opening chapters of Genesis. But in a more special way, God’s particular revelation begins with the call of Abraham (Gn 12:1-3) and continues, with ever-increasing clarity, through the lives of the other patriarchs. It is no accident that the Bible speaks of God as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob even at the moment when a further revelation is about to be made to Moses (Ex 3:6). This is because the revelation made to the earlier patriarchs is the foundation of all that follows; indeed, we in the New Covenant look back to Abraham as our “father” too (Rom 4:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Isaac; Israel, History of; Jacob #1; Joseph #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PATRIARCHS, P<span>eriod of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Period of time during which the biblical fathers of Israel lived. The Bible tells of long-lived patriarchs before the Flood (Gn 1–5), of Noah (chs 6–9), and of a line of patriarchs after the Flood (chs 10–11). However, the word in the narrower sense usually refers to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (chs 12–36), with the addition of Joseph (chs 37–50).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Exact dating of the patriarchs is difficult because, apart from the kings mentioned in Genesis 14:1-2, we do not have any fixed external point of reference from which to calculate. While this chapter does refer to historical persons and places, we cannot identify with certainty any one of the kings. The Italian excavators of Tell Mardikh (ancient Ebla) have reported finding the names of the “Cities of the Plain” of Genesis 14:2 (whose destruction is reported in Gn 19) and even the name of one of their kings on the clay tablets excavated. These clay tablets seem to date from well before 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, which is too early for Abraham; all that they would prove is that the cities were in existence long before his time. What we can say is that the patriarchs must have belonged to the middle Bronze Age, probably early in the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, and that this was the general period of the Amorite “drift” into Palestine from the north and the west. The most usual modern view is that the Amorite migration was in two “waves,” the earlier one being seminomadic (like Abraham’s friends Aner, Eshcol, and Mamre, Gn 14:13), and the second and later wave, probably from Syria in the north, being urbanizers and settlers (the group usually described as “the Amorites” in the catalog of the various races in Canaan, e.g., Ex 3:8). The society of the time of the patriarchs has been described as “dimorphic,” or twofold. On the one hand, there were the city communities, while on the other there were open village settlements and seminomadic tribes that at times were loosely grouped around the towns and at times drifted away from them. It is against this sort of background that we must imagine the patriarchs. Joseph, of course, lived in the fully settled world of Egypt, but Scripture does not give us the name of the pharaoh of his day.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalRange\">Geographical Range<\/p>\n<p>For such an early period, and seeing that it is really only the chronicle of one family, the patriarchal history has a remarkable geographic and climatic range, covering many hundreds of miles of varied country. It begins at Ur, an old Sumerian city on the Persian Gulf at one extreme end of the Fertile Crescent. Then the center of interest moves far to the northwest, to Haran on the Balikh River, between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers in their upper courses. Then the action sweeps far southwest to Palestine. But twice the interest moves back to Haran, and twice it goes into the Egyptian Delta. This is truly history on a wide canvas. Even when in Palestine, there is no fixed, quiet center of life. The patriarchs are endlessly on the move, backward and forward, mostly along the north-south mountain spine, but sometimes also in the coastal plain and even in Transjordan. Nor is there steady development; some groups slip away from the seminomadic life to join the city cultures (like Lot in Gn 13:12), while others melt back into the desert or semidesert (like Ishmael in 25:18, or Esau in 36:6-8). Yet always at the center the life of the patriarchs goes on.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Importance\">Importance<\/p>\n<p>It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of the place of the patriarchs in God’s gradually unfolding plan of redemption. The process that is to culminate in the coming of Christ begins with Abraham (Jn 8:56). This is not, of course, to deny that in a more general sense God’s plan of salvation begins to unfold in the opening chapters of Genesis. But in a more special way, God’s particular revelation begins with the call of Abraham (Gn 12:1-3) and continues, with ever-increasing clarity, through the lives of the other patriarchs. It is no accident that the Bible speaks of God as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob even at the moment when a further revelation is about to be made to Moses (Ex 3:6). This is because the revelation made to the earlier patriarchs is the foundation of all that follows; indeed, we in the New Covenant look back to Abraham as our “father” too (Rom 4:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Isaac; Israel, History of; Jacob #1; Joseph #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PATRIARCHS, Period of the Period of time during which the biblical fathers of Israel lived. The Bible tells of long-lived patriarchs before the Flood (Gn 1–5), of Noah (chs 6–9), and of a line of patriarchs after the Flood (chs 10–11). However, the word in the narrower sense usually refers to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (chs 12–36), with the addition of Joseph (chs 37–50). Date Exact dating of the patriarchs is difficult because, apart from the kings mentioned in Genesis 14:1-2, we do not have ...","summary_en":"PATRIARCHS, Period of the Period of time during which the biblical fathers of Israel lived. The Bible tells of long-lived patriarchs before the Flood (Gn 1–5), of Noah (chs 6–9), and of a line of patriarchs after the Flood (chs 10–11). However, the word in the narrower sense usually refers to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (chs 12–36), with the addition of Joseph (chs 37–50). Date Exact dating of the patriarchs is difficult because, apart from the kings mentioned in Genesis 14:1-2, we do not have ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35249,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shur","title_en":"Shur","content_ro":"<h3>SHUR<\/h3>\n<p>Wilderness region located in the Sinai Peninsula east of Egypt’s Nile Delta and west of the Negev. In antiquity, a caravan route passed through this region from Egypt to Palestine. Abraham lived for a time between Shur and Kadesh (Gn 20:1), and it was part of the territory occupied by the Ishmaelites (25:18). After crossing the Red Sea, Moses led Israel on a three-day trek through this arid wasteland (Ex 15:22). King Saul of Israel (1020–1000 <span>BC<\/span>) conquered the Amalekites in the vicinity of Shur (1 Sm 15:7), and later David (1000–961 <span>BC<\/span>) defeated the Geshurites, Girzites, and Amalekites here (27:8). The wilderness of Etham in Numbers 33:8 is identical with the wilderness of Shur.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Sina, Sinai; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHUR<\/h3>\n<p>Wilderness region located in the Sinai Peninsula east of Egypt’s Nile Delta and west of the Negev. In antiquity, a caravan route passed through this region from Egypt to Palestine. Abraham lived for a time between Shur and Kadesh (Gn 20:1), and it was part of the territory occupied by the Ishmaelites (25:18). After crossing the Red Sea, Moses led Israel on a three-day trek through this arid wasteland (Ex 15:22). King Saul of Israel (1020–1000 <span>BC<\/span>) conquered the Amalekites in the vicinity of Shur (1 Sm 15:7), and later David (1000–961 <span>BC<\/span>) defeated the Geshurites, Girzites, and Amalekites here (27:8). The wilderness of Etham in Numbers 33:8 is identical with the wilderness of Shur.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Sina, Sinai; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHUR Wilderness region located in the Sinai Peninsula east of Egypt’s Nile Delta and west of the Negev. In antiquity, a caravan route passed through this region from Egypt to Palestine. Abraham lived for a time between Shur and Kadesh (Gn 20:1), and it was part of the territory occupied by the Ishmaelites (25:18). After crossing the Red Sea, Moses led Israel on a three-day trek through this arid wasteland (Ex 15:22). King Saul of Israel (1020–1000 BC) conquered the Amalekites in the vicinity ...","summary_en":"SHUR Wilderness region located in the Sinai Peninsula east of Egypt’s Nile Delta and west of the Negev. In antiquity, a caravan route passed through this region from Egypt to Palestine. Abraham lived for a time between Shur and Kadesh (Gn 20:1), and it was part of the territory occupied by the Ishmaelites (25:18). After crossing the Red Sea, Moses led Israel on a three-day trek through this arid wasteland (Ex 15:22). King Saul of Israel (1020–1000 BC) conquered the Amalekites in the vicinity ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43211,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:18","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:18<\/strong> <em>Havilah<\/em> was a region in north-central Arabia. • <em>Shur<\/em> was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • <em>in open hostility toward all their relatives:<\/em> The wording is close to that of 16:12.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:18<\/strong> <em>Havilah<\/em> was a region in north-central Arabia. • <em>Shur<\/em> was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • <em>in open hostility toward all their relatives:<\/em> The wording is close to that of 16:12.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:18 Havilah was a region in north-central Arabia. • Shur was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • in open hostility toward all their relatives: The wording is close to that of 16:12.","summary_en":"25:18 Havilah was a region in north-central Arabia. • Shur was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • in open hostility toward all their relatives: The wording is close to that of 16:12.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70837,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:18","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:18<\/strong> <em>Havilah<\/em> was a region in north-central Arabia. • <em>Shur<\/em> was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • <em>in open hostility toward all their relatives:<\/em> The wording is close to that of 16:12.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:18<\/strong> <em>Havilah<\/em> was a region in north-central Arabia. • <em>Shur<\/em> was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • <em>in open hostility toward all their relatives:<\/em> The wording is close to that of 16:12.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:18 Havilah was a region in north-central Arabia. • Shur was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • in open hostility toward all their relatives: The wording is close to that of 16:12.","summary_en":"25:18 Havilah was a region in north-central Arabia. • Shur was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • in open hostility toward all their relatives: The wording is close to that of 16:12.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98463,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:18","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:18<\/strong> <em>Havilah<\/em> was a region in north-central Arabia. • <em>Shur<\/em> was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • <em>in open hostility toward all their relatives:<\/em> The wording is close to that of 16:12.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:18<\/strong> <em>Havilah<\/em> was a region in north-central Arabia. • <em>Shur<\/em> was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • <em>in open hostility toward all their relatives:<\/em> The wording is close to that of 16:12.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:18 Havilah was a region in north-central Arabia. • Shur was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • in open hostility toward all their relatives: The wording is close to that of 16:12.","summary_en":"25:18 Havilah was a region in north-central Arabia. • Shur was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • in open hostility toward all their relatives: The wording is close to that of 16:12.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126089,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:18","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:18<\/strong> <em>Havilah<\/em> was a region in north-central Arabia. • <em>Shur<\/em> was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • <em>in open hostility toward all their relatives:<\/em> The wording is close to that of 16:12.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:18<\/strong> <em>Havilah<\/em> was a region in north-central Arabia. • <em>Shur<\/em> was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • <em>in open hostility toward all their relatives:<\/em> The wording is close to that of 16:12.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:18 Havilah was a region in north-central Arabia. • Shur was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • in open hostility toward all their relatives: The wording is close to that of 16:12.","summary_en":"25:18 Havilah was a region in north-central Arabia. • Shur was a region between Beersheba and Egypt. • in open hostility toward all their relatives: The wording is close to that of 16:12.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":40634,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40887,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68260,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68513,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95886,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96139,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123512,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123765,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":5127,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Birthright","title_en":"Birthright","content_ro":"<h3>BIRTHRIGHT<\/h3>\n<p>Right or privilege belonging to the firstborn son in a Hebrew family. The eldest son ranked highest after the father and in the father’s absence had the father’s authority and responsibility, as illustrated by Reuben’s relationship to his younger brothers (Gn 37:19-22, 28-30). However, because he later committed incest, Reuben forfeited his birthright (Gn 49:1-4). Next in line were Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35), but Jacob, their father, passed over Simeon and Levi because of their lack of character (Gn 49:5-7). Although he praised Judah (Gn 49:8-10), Jacob gave the birthright to his favorite son, Joseph (Gn 49:22-26; 1 Chr 5:1-2; cf. Gn 37:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Tablets recovered from Nuzi in Mesopotamia have shown that the birthright could be exchanged among members of the same family (cf. Gn 25:19-34). The holder of the birthright appears to have been in possession of the “teraphim,” or household idols (31:19, 32, 34), which were small terra-cotta images, presumably of the particular deity worshiped locally. These tokens would reinforce the position and authority of the firstborn.<\/p>\n<p>The birthright meant not only the honor of family leadership but also an inheritance of twice the amount received by every other son. In polygamous Israelite society the birthright belonged to the actual firstborn of the father and could not be transferred to the son of a favorite wife without just cause (Dt 21:15-17). However, the birthright did not belong to the firstborn son if his mother was a concubine or slave (Gn 21:9-13; Jgs 11:1-2). The rights of the firstborn son of a king included the right of succession to the throne (2 Chr 21:1-3). When King Rehoboam of Judah violated custom by making his favorite son, Abijah, his successor, he had to pay off his other sons to avoid trouble (11:18-23; 12:16).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, reference is made to the OT account of Esau, the son of the patriarch Isaac, who impulsively traded his birthright for a bowl of lentil stew (Heb 12:16-17; cf. Gn 25:19-34). Christians are warned not to throw away their inheritance of spiritual blessing from God the way Esau lost his birthright and his father’s blessing (Gn 27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Inheritance; Heir; Firstborn.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIRTHRIGHT<\/h3>\n<p>Right or privilege belonging to the firstborn son in a Hebrew family. The eldest son ranked highest after the father and in the father’s absence had the father’s authority and responsibility, as illustrated by Reuben’s relationship to his younger brothers (Gn 37:19-22, 28-30). However, because he later committed incest, Reuben forfeited his birthright (Gn 49:1-4). Next in line were Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35), but Jacob, their father, passed over Simeon and Levi because of their lack of character (Gn 49:5-7). Although he praised Judah (Gn 49:8-10), Jacob gave the birthright to his favorite son, Joseph (Gn 49:22-26; 1 Chr 5:1-2; cf. Gn 37:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Tablets recovered from Nuzi in Mesopotamia have shown that the birthright could be exchanged among members of the same family (cf. Gn 25:19-34). The holder of the birthright appears to have been in possession of the “teraphim,” or household idols (31:19, 32, 34), which were small terra-cotta images, presumably of the particular deity worshiped locally. These tokens would reinforce the position and authority of the firstborn.<\/p>\n<p>The birthright meant not only the honor of family leadership but also an inheritance of twice the amount received by every other son. In polygamous Israelite society the birthright belonged to the actual firstborn of the father and could not be transferred to the son of a favorite wife without just cause (Dt 21:15-17). However, the birthright did not belong to the firstborn son if his mother was a concubine or slave (Gn 21:9-13; Jgs 11:1-2). The rights of the firstborn son of a king included the right of succession to the throne (2 Chr 21:1-3). When King Rehoboam of Judah violated custom by making his favorite son, Abijah, his successor, he had to pay off his other sons to avoid trouble (11:18-23; 12:16).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, reference is made to the OT account of Esau, the son of the patriarch Isaac, who impulsively traded his birthright for a bowl of lentil stew (Heb 12:16-17; cf. Gn 25:19-34). Christians are warned not to throw away their inheritance of spiritual blessing from God the way Esau lost his birthright and his father’s blessing (Gn 27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Inheritance; Heir; Firstborn.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIRTHRIGHT Right or privilege belonging to the firstborn son in a Hebrew family. The eldest son ranked highest after the father and in the father’s absence had the father’s authority and responsibility, as illustrated by Reuben’s relationship to his younger brothers (Gn 37:19-22, 28-30). However, because he later committed incest, Reuben forfeited his birthright (Gn 49:1-4). Next in line were Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35), but Jacob, their father, passed over Simeon and Levi because o...","summary_en":"BIRTHRIGHT Right or privilege belonging to the firstborn son in a Hebrew family. The eldest son ranked highest after the father and in the father’s absence had the father’s authority and responsibility, as illustrated by Reuben’s relationship to his younger brothers (Gn 37:19-22, 28-30). However, because he later committed incest, Reuben forfeited his birthright (Gn 49:1-4). Next in line were Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35), but Jacob, their father, passed over Simeon and Levi because o...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13572,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Genesis","title_en":"Book of Genesis","content_ro":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","summary_en":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43212,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:19–35:29<\/strong> This<em> account of the family of Isaac<\/em>, the chosen <em>son of Abraham<\/em>, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:19–35:29<\/strong> This<em> account of the family of Isaac<\/em>, the chosen <em>son of Abraham<\/em>, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:19–35:29 This account of the family of Isaac, the chosen son of Abraham, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).","summary_en":"25:19–35:29 This account of the family of Isaac, the chosen son of Abraham, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43213,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:19-26<\/strong> Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:19-26<\/strong> Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:19-26 Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).","summary_en":"25:19-26 Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43214,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:19-20<\/strong> <em>Isaac . . . married Rebekah:<\/em> Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:19-20<\/strong> <em>Isaac . . . married Rebekah:<\/em> Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:19-20 Isaac . . . married Rebekah: Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.","summary_en":"25:19-20 Isaac . . . married Rebekah: Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70838,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:19–35:29<\/strong> This<em> account of the family of Isaac<\/em>, the chosen <em>son of Abraham<\/em>, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:19–35:29<\/strong> This<em> account of the family of Isaac<\/em>, the chosen <em>son of Abraham<\/em>, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:19–35:29 This account of the family of Isaac, the chosen son of Abraham, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).","summary_en":"25:19–35:29 This account of the family of Isaac, the chosen son of Abraham, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70839,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:19-26<\/strong> Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:19-26<\/strong> Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:19-26 Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).","summary_en":"25:19-26 Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70840,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:19-20<\/strong> <em>Isaac . . . married Rebekah:<\/em> Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:19-20<\/strong> <em>Isaac . . . married Rebekah:<\/em> Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:19-20 Isaac . . . married Rebekah: Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.","summary_en":"25:19-20 Isaac . . . married Rebekah: Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98464,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:19–35:29<\/strong> This<em> account of the family of Isaac<\/em>, the chosen <em>son of Abraham<\/em>, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:19–35:29<\/strong> This<em> account of the family of Isaac<\/em>, the chosen <em>son of Abraham<\/em>, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:19–35:29 This account of the family of Isaac, the chosen son of Abraham, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).","summary_en":"25:19–35:29 This account of the family of Isaac, the chosen son of Abraham, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98465,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:19-26<\/strong> Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:19-26<\/strong> Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:19-26 Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).","summary_en":"25:19-26 Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98466,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:19-20<\/strong> <em>Isaac . . . married Rebekah:<\/em> Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:19-20<\/strong> <em>Isaac . . . married Rebekah:<\/em> Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:19-20 Isaac . . . married Rebekah: Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.","summary_en":"25:19-20 Isaac . . . married Rebekah: Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126090,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:19–35:29<\/strong> This<em> account of the family of Isaac<\/em>, the chosen <em>son of Abraham<\/em>, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:19–35:29<\/strong> This<em> account of the family of Isaac<\/em>, the chosen <em>son of Abraham<\/em>, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:19–35:29 This account of the family of Isaac, the chosen son of Abraham, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).","summary_en":"25:19–35:29 This account of the family of Isaac, the chosen son of Abraham, mostly recounts Jacob’s struggle for the blessing (25:27-34; chs 27–33).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126091,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:19-26<\/strong> Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:19-26<\/strong> Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:19-26 Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).","summary_en":"25:19-26 Jacob’s struggle for supremacy began before the twins were born (see Hos 12:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126092,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:19","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:19-20<\/strong> <em>Isaac . . . married Rebekah:<\/em> Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:19-20<\/strong> <em>Isaac . . . married Rebekah:<\/em> Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:19-20 Isaac . . . married Rebekah: Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.","summary_en":"25:19-20 Isaac . . . married Rebekah: Isaac’s marriage tied him and his family even more closely to Abraham’s ancestors. Had he married a Canaanite, the covenant faith would have been imperiled by this corrupt, syncretistic people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":40660,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":41586,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68286,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69212,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95912,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96838,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123538,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124464,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4580,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bethuel (Person)","title_en":"Bethuel (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>BETHUEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Youngest son of Abraham’s brother Nahor and his wife, Milcah. Bethuel was thus Abraham’s nephew (Gn 22:23). He was the father of Rebekah (24:15, 24) and was referred to as an Aramean of Paddan-aram (25:20; 28:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETHUEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Youngest son of Abraham’s brother Nahor and his wife, Milcah. Bethuel was thus Abraham’s nephew (Gn 22:23). He was the father of Rebekah (24:15, 24) and was referred to as an Aramean of Paddan-aram (25:20; 28:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETHUEL (Person) Youngest son of Abraham’s brother Nahor and his wife, Milcah. Bethuel was thus Abraham’s nephew (Gn 22:23). He was the father of Rebekah (24:15, 24) and was referred to as an Aramean of Paddan-aram (25:20; 28:5).","summary_en":"BETHUEL (Person) Youngest son of Abraham’s brother Nahor and his wife, Milcah. Bethuel was thus Abraham’s nephew (Gn 22:23). He was the father of Rebekah (24:15, 24) and was referred to as an Aramean of Paddan-aram (25:20; 28:5).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22365,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laban (Person)","title_en":"Laban (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LABAN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (<span>kjv<\/span> “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to Haran to find a wife for Isaac. Laban greeted Eliezer hospitably and made provision for him and his camels (Gn 24:29-33, 54). Laban acted as the head of the house; he made the decision concerning Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (vv 50-51), and it was to him and his mother that Eliezer made gifts of costly ornaments (v 53).<\/p>\n<p>Laban figures largely in the narrative of his nephew Jacob in his quest for a wife. After the deception of Isaac by Rebekah and Jacob, Rebekah feared that Esau would kill Jacob, so she suggested that he flee to her brother, Laban (Gn 27:43); meanwhile, she persuaded Isaac that Jacob should go to Haran to find a wife from among their own people. When Jacob arrived in the area of Haran, he met Rachel, the younger daughter of Laban, and was warmly welcomed (29:13). Laban hired Jacob to tend his flocks, and it was agreed that after seven years of work Jacob would receive Rachel as his wages. At the end of that period Laban substituted Leah, his older daughter. Jacob protested, but the two men finally decided that Jacob should serve another seven years for Rachel.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jacob and Laban were schemers and had serious disputes about wages. Jacob proposed that his wages should be a certain portion of the flocks. When this was accepted, the Lord blessed Jacob and his flocks, and Laban became angry. Jacob claimed that Laban had changed his wages ten times (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob fled from Haran. Laban pursued him because he was missing his household gods, whose possession made the holder heir to Laban’s estate. Rachel had taken them but adroitly concealed them from her father’s search.<\/p>\n<p>Laban and Jacob parted after making a covenant of peace and erecting a pillar of stones to serve as a witness between them (Gn 31:46-50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jacob #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","summary_en":"LABAN (Person) Bethuel’s son (Gn 24:24, 29), brother of Rebekah (vv 15, 29), father of Leah and Rachel (29:16), and the uncle and father-in-law of Jacob. Laban’s forebears lived in Ur, but his father, Bethuel, was called the Aramean of Paddan-aram, and Laban also is referred to as the Aramean (kjv “Syrian,” 25:20; cf. 28:5). Their hometown was Haran, which was in Syria and which, like Ur, was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin or Nannar. When Isaac came of age, Abraham sent his serv...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32509,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rebecca*, Rebekah","title_en":"Rebecca*, Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>REBECCA*, REBEKAH<\/h3>\n<p>Daughter of Bethuel and the wife of the patriarch Isaac. Her name, which means “well fed” or “choice,” appears 31 times in Genesis (primarily in chs 24–27) and once in Romans 9:10.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah’s father was Bethuel, who in turn was the son of Milcah and Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gn 22:20-23). Abraham was her great-uncle and eventually, of course, her father-in-law. Laban, the father of Leah and Rachel, was her brother. Thus her son Jacob married his two cousins, who were sisters.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 24 is the account of the successful search by Abraham’s servant for a wife for Isaac. He went to Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia) in obedience to Abraham, who did not want his son to marry a local Canaanite. In answer to the servant’s prayer, Rebekah not only gave a drink to the man but also watered his camels. After a certain amount of hospitality was extended and payment was made, Rebekah willingly went to meet her new husband.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-27). She preferred Jacob, the younger, over Esau and was a party to the deception of her husband in securing the right of the firstborn for Jacob. Disguising Jacob to feel, look, and smell like Esau the outdoorsman was her idea. She also prepared Isaac’s favorite dish in order to facilitate the event (27:5-17).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture records little more of her life but does report that she was buried next to her husband in the cave of Machpelah near Mamre (49:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaac.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REBECCA*, REBEKAH<\/h3>\n<p>Daughter of Bethuel and the wife of the patriarch Isaac. Her name, which means “well fed” or “choice,” appears 31 times in Genesis (primarily in chs 24–27) and once in Romans 9:10.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah’s father was Bethuel, who in turn was the son of Milcah and Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gn 22:20-23). Abraham was her great-uncle and eventually, of course, her father-in-law. Laban, the father of Leah and Rachel, was her brother. Thus her son Jacob married his two cousins, who were sisters.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 24 is the account of the successful search by Abraham’s servant for a wife for Isaac. He went to Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia) in obedience to Abraham, who did not want his son to marry a local Canaanite. In answer to the servant’s prayer, Rebekah not only gave a drink to the man but also watered his camels. After a certain amount of hospitality was extended and payment was made, Rebekah willingly went to meet her new husband.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-27). She preferred Jacob, the younger, over Esau and was a party to the deception of her husband in securing the right of the firstborn for Jacob. Disguising Jacob to feel, look, and smell like Esau the outdoorsman was her idea. She also prepared Isaac’s favorite dish in order to facilitate the event (27:5-17).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture records little more of her life but does report that she was buried next to her husband in the cave of Machpelah near Mamre (49:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaac.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REBECCA*, REBEKAH Daughter of Bethuel and the wife of the patriarch Isaac. Her name, which means “well fed” or “choice,” appears 31 times in Genesis (primarily in chs 24–27) and once in Romans 9:10. Rebekah’s father was Bethuel, who in turn was the son of Milcah and Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gn 22:20-23). Abraham was her great-uncle and eventually, of course, her father-in-law. Laban, the father of Leah and Rachel, was her brother. Thus her son Jacob married his two cousins, who were sisters....","summary_en":"REBECCA*, REBEKAH Daughter of Bethuel and the wife of the patriarch Isaac. Her name, which means “well fed” or “choice,” appears 31 times in Genesis (primarily in chs 24–27) and once in Romans 9:10. Rebekah’s father was Bethuel, who in turn was the son of Milcah and Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gn 22:20-23). Abraham was her great-uncle and eventually, of course, her father-in-law. Laban, the father of Leah and Rachel, was her brother. Thus her son Jacob married his two cousins, who were sisters....","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36552,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Syrians Syria","title_en":"Syrians Syria","content_ro":"<h3>SYRIA, SYRIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoryoftheArameans\">History of the Arameans<\/p>\n<p>According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they were to go back to their original home. The precise origins of this group of people are, however, lost in antiquity. When they emerged clearly into history, they were settled around the central Euphrates from which they were spread out east, west, and north.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans were traditionally thought to have been established in upper Mesopotamia in the first part of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gn 25:20; 28:1-7); the home of Bethuel was in Paddan-aram (25:20). The prophet Hosea recalls the tradition by noting that Jacob fled to “the field of Aram” (Hos 12:12) or “Aram-naharaim” (Aram of the two rivers), which was the northern part of Mesopotamia between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. In the creedal confession in Deuteronomy 26:5, the Israelite who brought his firstfruits confessed, “My father [probably Jacob] was a wandering Aramean.”<\/p>\n<p>Probably the best early evidence of an Aramean presence in this area comes from Tiglath-pileser I. In his annals of his fourth year (1112 <span>BC<\/span>), he speaks of a campaign among the “Akhlama, Arameans” in the Middle Euphrates area and the sacking of six Aramean villages in the Mt Bishri area.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans of upper Mesopotamia became important in biblical history. They set up a number of separate Aramean states, two of which were especially important for the people of Israel—Aram-zobah in the days of David, and Aram-damascus from the days of Solomon onward.<\/p>\n<p>By about 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, the Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan, where they came into conflict with the Israelites. At his peak Hadadezer, king of Aram-zobah, embraced several vassals, such as Damascus, Maacah, and Tob. He was eventually defeated by King David (2 Sm 8:3-4; 10:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Events in Israel and Judah had some bearing on Damascus. After the death of Solomon, when the formerly united kingdom became divided into Judah and Israel, tension arose between the two small states. War broke out between Baasha of Israel and Asa of Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>. Asa sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18). Lands in Transjordan changed hands several times. The successors of Omri of Israel—namely Ahab, Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and Jehoash—had many conflicts with Damascus. Ahab fought Ben-hadad and his 32 allies who besieged Samaria (20:1), but Israel defeated him. A second time Ben-hadad entered Israelite territory and reached Aphek (20:26), but he was again defeated and captured. As a consequence of his defeat and for the price of his release, he was obliged to make bazaars available in Damascus for Israelite trade. After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again and resulted in a battle in the region of Ramoth-gilead in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aram-damascus was eventually defeated by King Jehoash of Israel (2 Kgs 13:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SyriaaftertheCollapseoftheArameanKingdoms\">Syria after the Collapse of the Aramean Kingdoms<\/p>\n<p>After the collapse of Aram-damascus in 733–732 <span>BC<\/span>, the political character of the whole region changed. Over the centuries that followed and on into Christian times, the region passed under the control of several great powers and no independent Aramean state survived. When Assyria collapsed in 612–609 <span>BC<\/span>, the region came under Babylonian control, but only for a comparatively short period. With the rise of Cyrus the Persian, the Syrian region was quickly overrun by Persian armies. Palestine, Asia Minor, and Egypt were absorbed into the Persian Empire at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>The next significant political change that affected the region came with the appearance of Philip of Macedon in 360 <span>BC<\/span>. His son Alexander the Great (336–323 <span>BC<\/span>) consolidated Greek power throughout western Asia and as far as the borders of India. On his death in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, at the age of 33, the control of western Asia passed to Alexander’s generals. General Seleucus I (312–280 <span>BC<\/span>) controlled the southern half of Asia Minor, the region of Syria, Mesopotamia, and eastward to the borders of India. Syria thus fell under the influence of Hellenist rulers, the Seleucids, who founded a new capital at Antioch.<\/p>\n\n<p>Further west, Rome was rising to power and cast her eyes eastward. It was General Pompey who overcame Mithridates, the young king of Pontus, and moved to crush the remnants of the kingdom of the Seleucids. The western parts of Syria were formed into a Roman province in 64 <span>BC<\/span>. Pompey finally moved into Palestine, which came under Roman control in 63 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman province of Syria included Cilicia, a strip of territory in the southeastern corner of Asia Minor. The northern boundary reached to the Euphrates River. The boundary then swung south well to the east of Damascus and then turned west about halfway down the Dead Sea and continued west to the Mediterranean Sea. Syria was bound to the west by the Mediterranean up to the Gulf of Alexandretta, where it turned west. The province of Syria and Cilicia (Acts 15:23, 41; Gal 1:21) was governed by an imperial legate (<em>legatis<\/em>) who commanded a strong force of legionary troops. One such governor, Quirinius, governed Syria at the time of the census of Caesar Augustus; this census brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem for the birth of Jesus (Lk 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the following centuries the population of Damascus was Christianized, and Christianity spread throughout the Roman province of Syria, giving rise to the Old Syrian Church, which remains to this day. It has left a remarkable legacy of Christian literature written in Syriac (Aramaic). The old Aramaic language remained, though a modified alphabet was used to write it.<\/p>\n<p>It was the rise of Islam in the seventh century <span>AD<\/span> that brought about a considerable weakening of the Syrian church, although it has never been completely destroyed. Scattered communities of Aramaic-speaking people still survive in parts of Syria, and numerous remains of Christian churches have been brought to light as a result of modern archaeological work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguageandCulture\">Language and Culture<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic was the language of the Arameans, of which numerous inscriptions have been discovered. The Aramaic script was adapted for use by the Israelites, and the language became the international language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East. It was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> of the Persian period from Egypt to India and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day. The words “<em>talitha cumi<\/em>” (Mk 5:41) and “<em>marana tha<\/em>” (1 Cor 16:22) are Aramaic.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations in many sites have provided a good idea of the Aramean architecture, sculpture, pottery, and other arts. The religion of the Arameans was polytheistic. The people adopted many foreign deities as well. The principal Aramean deity was the ancient west Semitic storm god Hadad. In the days of Ahaz of Judah, the Damascus cult was forced on the people of Jerusalem when an altar based on a Damascus model was placed in the temple (2 Kgs 16:10-13). Arameans exiled to Samaria by the Assyrian ruler Sargon brought foreign Aramean cults with them (17:24-34).<\/p>\n<p>Through the centuries that followed the disappearance of the Aramean states, the Aramaic language has survived. The Christian form of Aramaic, Syriac, has left behind a vast legacy of literature, histories, theologies, commentaries, treatises, and translations, which have been carefully preserved in ancient monastic libraries, particularly in northern Syria, northern Iraq, and southern Turkey.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aramaic.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SYRIA, SYRIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoryoftheArameans\">History of the Arameans<\/p>\n<p>According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they were to go back to their original home. The precise origins of this group of people are, however, lost in antiquity. When they emerged clearly into history, they were settled around the central Euphrates from which they were spread out east, west, and north.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans were traditionally thought to have been established in upper Mesopotamia in the first part of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gn 25:20; 28:1-7); the home of Bethuel was in Paddan-aram (25:20). The prophet Hosea recalls the tradition by noting that Jacob fled to “the field of Aram” (Hos 12:12) or “Aram-naharaim” (Aram of the two rivers), which was the northern part of Mesopotamia between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. In the creedal confession in Deuteronomy 26:5, the Israelite who brought his firstfruits confessed, “My father [probably Jacob] was a wandering Aramean.”<\/p>\n<p>Probably the best early evidence of an Aramean presence in this area comes from Tiglath-pileser I. In his annals of his fourth year (1112 <span>BC<\/span>), he speaks of a campaign among the “Akhlama, Arameans” in the Middle Euphrates area and the sacking of six Aramean villages in the Mt Bishri area.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans of upper Mesopotamia became important in biblical history. They set up a number of separate Aramean states, two of which were especially important for the people of Israel—Aram-zobah in the days of David, and Aram-damascus from the days of Solomon onward.<\/p>\n<p>By about 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, the Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan, where they came into conflict with the Israelites. At his peak Hadadezer, king of Aram-zobah, embraced several vassals, such as Damascus, Maacah, and Tob. He was eventually defeated by King David (2 Sm 8:3-4; 10:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Events in Israel and Judah had some bearing on Damascus. After the death of Solomon, when the formerly united kingdom became divided into Judah and Israel, tension arose between the two small states. War broke out between Baasha of Israel and Asa of Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>. Asa sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18). Lands in Transjordan changed hands several times. The successors of Omri of Israel—namely Ahab, Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and Jehoash—had many conflicts with Damascus. Ahab fought Ben-hadad and his 32 allies who besieged Samaria (20:1), but Israel defeated him. A second time Ben-hadad entered Israelite territory and reached Aphek (20:26), but he was again defeated and captured. As a consequence of his defeat and for the price of his release, he was obliged to make bazaars available in Damascus for Israelite trade. After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again and resulted in a battle in the region of Ramoth-gilead in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aram-damascus was eventually defeated by King Jehoash of Israel (2 Kgs 13:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SyriaaftertheCollapseoftheArameanKingdoms\">Syria after the Collapse of the Aramean Kingdoms<\/p>\n<p>After the collapse of Aram-damascus in 733–732 <span>BC<\/span>, the political character of the whole region changed. Over the centuries that followed and on into Christian times, the region passed under the control of several great powers and no independent Aramean state survived. When Assyria collapsed in 612–609 <span>BC<\/span>, the region came under Babylonian control, but only for a comparatively short period. With the rise of Cyrus the Persian, the Syrian region was quickly overrun by Persian armies. Palestine, Asia Minor, and Egypt were absorbed into the Persian Empire at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>The next significant political change that affected the region came with the appearance of Philip of Macedon in 360 <span>BC<\/span>. His son Alexander the Great (336–323 <span>BC<\/span>) consolidated Greek power throughout western Asia and as far as the borders of India. On his death in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, at the age of 33, the control of western Asia passed to Alexander’s generals. General Seleucus I (312–280 <span>BC<\/span>) controlled the southern half of Asia Minor, the region of Syria, Mesopotamia, and eastward to the borders of India. Syria thus fell under the influence of Hellenist rulers, the Seleucids, who founded a new capital at Antioch.<\/p>\n\n<p>Further west, Rome was rising to power and cast her eyes eastward. It was General Pompey who overcame Mithridates, the young king of Pontus, and moved to crush the remnants of the kingdom of the Seleucids. The western parts of Syria were formed into a Roman province in 64 <span>BC<\/span>. Pompey finally moved into Palestine, which came under Roman control in 63 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman province of Syria included Cilicia, a strip of territory in the southeastern corner of Asia Minor. The northern boundary reached to the Euphrates River. The boundary then swung south well to the east of Damascus and then turned west about halfway down the Dead Sea and continued west to the Mediterranean Sea. Syria was bound to the west by the Mediterranean up to the Gulf of Alexandretta, where it turned west. The province of Syria and Cilicia (Acts 15:23, 41; Gal 1:21) was governed by an imperial legate (<em>legatis<\/em>) who commanded a strong force of legionary troops. One such governor, Quirinius, governed Syria at the time of the census of Caesar Augustus; this census brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem for the birth of Jesus (Lk 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the following centuries the population of Damascus was Christianized, and Christianity spread throughout the Roman province of Syria, giving rise to the Old Syrian Church, which remains to this day. It has left a remarkable legacy of Christian literature written in Syriac (Aramaic). The old Aramaic language remained, though a modified alphabet was used to write it.<\/p>\n<p>It was the rise of Islam in the seventh century <span>AD<\/span> that brought about a considerable weakening of the Syrian church, although it has never been completely destroyed. Scattered communities of Aramaic-speaking people still survive in parts of Syria, and numerous remains of Christian churches have been brought to light as a result of modern archaeological work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguageandCulture\">Language and Culture<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic was the language of the Arameans, of which numerous inscriptions have been discovered. The Aramaic script was adapted for use by the Israelites, and the language became the international language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East. It was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> of the Persian period from Egypt to India and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day. The words “<em>talitha cumi<\/em>” (Mk 5:41) and “<em>marana tha<\/em>” (1 Cor 16:22) are Aramaic.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations in many sites have provided a good idea of the Aramean architecture, sculpture, pottery, and other arts. The religion of the Arameans was polytheistic. The people adopted many foreign deities as well. The principal Aramean deity was the ancient west Semitic storm god Hadad. In the days of Ahaz of Judah, the Damascus cult was forced on the people of Jerusalem when an altar based on a Damascus model was placed in the temple (2 Kgs 16:10-13). Arameans exiled to Samaria by the Assyrian ruler Sargon brought foreign Aramean cults with them (17:24-34).<\/p>\n<p>Through the centuries that followed the disappearance of the Aramean states, the Aramaic language has survived. The Christian form of Aramaic, Syriac, has left behind a vast legacy of literature, histories, theologies, commentaries, treatises, and translations, which have been carefully preserved in ancient monastic libraries, particularly in northern Syria, northern Iraq, and southern Turkey.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aramaic.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SYRIA, SYRIANS Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans. History of the Arameans According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they w...","summary_en":"SYRIA, SYRIANS Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans. History of the Arameans According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they w...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":40608,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40690,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40835,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68234,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68316,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68461,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95860,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95942,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96087,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123486,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaac","title_en":"Isaac","content_ro":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaac<\/h3>\n<p>The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obeyed, and Isaac submitted to his father. God then intervened to provide a sacrificial ram in Isaac’s place. Abraham’s faith in God was rewarded with the promise of great blessings (22:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac married Rebekah and was ready to carry on the chosen line, but Rebekah was unable to bear children (25:21). Rather than take matters into his own hands as his father had done (see 16:1-16), Isaac “pleaded with the <span>Lord<\/span>” and Rebekah bore twin sons. Isaac favored Esau, the older son, while Rebekah preferred Jacob. This favoritism led to Isaac’s being deceived by his son Jacob when he was old and blind (27:1-40). Favoritism remained a problem among Isaac’s descendants (see 29:30; 33:1-2; 37:4).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac followed his father Abraham’s example in relating to surrounding nations. When visiting another kingdom during a famine, he fearfully claimed that his wife was his sister (26:1-11; cp. 12:10-20; 20:1-18). Like his father, Isaac became prosperous in that land and was asked to leave (26:12-16; cp. 12:16-20); he experienced conflict over water and land with other herdsmen (26:17-22; cp. 21:25-31); and he made a treaty with the king of the Philistines (26:26-31; cp. 21:22-32).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac was given the same promise that his father had received (26:2-5, 23-25; cp. 22:16-18), and he demonstrated his participation by carrying on the practice of circumcision, which signified the covenant (see Acts 7:8). As the child of promise, Isaac represents all who are children of Abraham by faith in Christ and are thereby free to live as God’s children rather than as slaves (see Gal 4:21–5:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:19-21; 21:1-12; 22:1-19; 24:1-8, 14, 62-67; 25:5-11, 19-28; 26:1–28:9; 31:42; 35:12, 27-28; 48:15-16; 49:31; Exod 3:6; Josh 24:3-4; Rom 9:6-10; Gal 4:21-31; Heb 11:8-9, 17-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","summary_en":"Isaac The name Isaac means “he laughs,” reflecting the circumstances of his birth. When God promised that Isaac would be born, both Abraham and Sarah first laughed in disbelief (Gen 17:15-19; 18:9-15). God had promised Abraham a son (15:4-6), but no son had come, and Abraham and Sarah were beyond childbearing age. So at Isaac’s birth, they laughed for joy (21:6-7). During Isaac’s adolescence, God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac (22:1-19). Abraham’s faith remained firm; he obe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123568,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123713,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3845,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Barrenness","title_en":"Barrenness","content_ro":"<h3>BARRENNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Condition of being barren or childless. A closed womb was a personal tragedy in OT times. God’s command to people after the Flood was to be fruitful and increase in number and fill the earth (Gn 9:1); later, Jeremiah offered the same advice (Jer 29:6). A barren wife in a polygamous marriage was subject to ridicule (Gn 16:4) or extreme jealousy (30:1). The social pressure to bear children for her husband was so great that the barren wife sometimes offered her husband a surrogate mother (16:1-2; 30:3). If a husband died without children, it was the responsibility of his brother to have children by his wife for him (38:8).<\/p>\n<p>Barrenness could be a curse (Hos 9:11, 14) or a divine punishment (Gn 20:17-18). It could be removed after earnest prayers (Gn 25:21; 1 Sm 1:16, 20) or by God’s prophet (2 Kgs 4:16) or messenger (Gn 18:14). On one occasion, a wife who had stopped having children was able to trade some mandrakes in exchange for sleeping privileges with her husband and had three more children (Gn 30:14-21). God promised Israel no infertility if they obeyed his laws (Dt 7:14). Unique among ancient writings is the concept here that barrenness could be a result of male infertility. Finally, as bad as barrenness was, Jesus told the women of Jerusalem that barrenness and dry breasts would be better than what they were going to go through (Lk 23:29). He was teaching that physical problems are never ultimate; spiritual ones are.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BARRENNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Condition of being barren or childless. A closed womb was a personal tragedy in OT times. God’s command to people after the Flood was to be fruitful and increase in number and fill the earth (Gn 9:1); later, Jeremiah offered the same advice (Jer 29:6). A barren wife in a polygamous marriage was subject to ridicule (Gn 16:4) or extreme jealousy (30:1). The social pressure to bear children for her husband was so great that the barren wife sometimes offered her husband a surrogate mother (16:1-2; 30:3). If a husband died without children, it was the responsibility of his brother to have children by his wife for him (38:8).<\/p>\n<p>Barrenness could be a curse (Hos 9:11, 14) or a divine punishment (Gn 20:17-18). It could be removed after earnest prayers (Gn 25:21; 1 Sm 1:16, 20) or by God’s prophet (2 Kgs 4:16) or messenger (Gn 18:14). On one occasion, a wife who had stopped having children was able to trade some mandrakes in exchange for sleeping privileges with her husband and had three more children (Gn 30:14-21). God promised Israel no infertility if they obeyed his laws (Dt 7:14). Unique among ancient writings is the concept here that barrenness could be a result of male infertility. Finally, as bad as barrenness was, Jesus told the women of Jerusalem that barrenness and dry breasts would be better than what they were going to go through (Lk 23:29). He was teaching that physical problems are never ultimate; spiritual ones are.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BARRENNESS Condition of being barren or childless. A closed womb was a personal tragedy in OT times. God’s command to people after the Flood was to be fruitful and increase in number and fill the earth (Gn 9:1); later, Jeremiah offered the same advice (Jer 29:6). A barren wife in a polygamous marriage was subject to ridicule (Gn 16:4) or extreme jealousy (30:1). The social pressure to bear children for her husband was so great that the barren wife sometimes offered her husband a surrogate mot...","summary_en":"BARRENNESS Condition of being barren or childless. A closed womb was a personal tragedy in OT times. God’s command to people after the Flood was to be fruitful and increase in number and fill the earth (Gn 9:1); later, Jeremiah offered the same advice (Jer 29:6). A barren wife in a polygamous marriage was subject to ridicule (Gn 16:4) or extreme jealousy (30:1). The social pressure to bear children for her husband was so great that the barren wife sometimes offered her husband a surrogate mot...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43215,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:21","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:21<\/strong> For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • <em>Isaac pleaded with the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> and <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>answered Isaac’s prayer<\/em>. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:21<\/strong> For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • <em>Isaac pleaded with the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> and <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>answered Isaac’s prayer<\/em>. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:21 For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • Isaac pleaded with the Lord and the Lord answered Isaac’s prayer. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.","summary_en":"25:21 For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • Isaac pleaded with the Lord and the Lord answered Isaac’s prayer. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70841,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:21","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:21<\/strong> For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • <em>Isaac pleaded with the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> and <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>answered Isaac’s prayer<\/em>. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:21<\/strong> For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • <em>Isaac pleaded with the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> and <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>answered Isaac’s prayer<\/em>. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:21 For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • Isaac pleaded with the Lord and the Lord answered Isaac’s prayer. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.","summary_en":"25:21 For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • Isaac pleaded with the Lord and the Lord answered Isaac’s prayer. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98467,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:21","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:21<\/strong> For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • <em>Isaac pleaded with the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> and <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>answered Isaac’s prayer<\/em>. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:21<\/strong> For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • <em>Isaac pleaded with the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> and <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>answered Isaac’s prayer<\/em>. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:21 For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • Isaac pleaded with the Lord and the Lord answered Isaac’s prayer. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.","summary_en":"25:21 For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • Isaac pleaded with the Lord and the Lord answered Isaac’s prayer. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126093,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:21","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:21<\/strong> For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • <em>Isaac pleaded with the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> and <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>answered Isaac’s prayer<\/em>. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:21<\/strong> For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • <em>Isaac pleaded with the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> and <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>answered Isaac’s prayer<\/em>. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:21 For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • Isaac pleaded with the Lord and the Lord answered Isaac’s prayer. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.","summary_en":"25:21 For twenty years, Rebekah was barren (cp. 25:20, 26), like Sarah (see 16:1). This condition tested their faith (see study note on 16:1-3). How could they be childless when God promised that nations would issue from them? • Isaac pleaded with the Lord and the Lord answered Isaac’s prayer. Isaac apparently learned from his father’s mistake and responded in faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59978,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87604,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115230,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142856,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Infertility","title_en":"Infertility","content_ro":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Infertility<\/h3>\n<p>With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; Prov 30:15-16; Isa 54:1), who understood herself to be created as a vessel of life (Gen 1:28; 3:20). It was considered a denial of blessing, design, and desire (1:28), and it brought shame (1 Sam 1:7), ridicule (Gen 16:4), and vicious jealousy (30:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, childlessness is a theological issue. Fertility is controlled by the Creator (20:17-18; 30:2, 22-23; 1 Sam 1:6, 27), who causes fertility and infertility according to his purpose and his promises (Gen 17:19; 30:2; Ps 113:9; Luke 1:11-20; Rom 4:19). God often chose infertility as a precursor to the birth of a promised or unique child, marking the birth as God’s own work. Childlessness is thus a trial of patience that prompts prayer and faith (Gen 25:21; 1 Sam 1:11). Abraham learned to nurture faith in God’s promise long before his child arrived (Gen 15:4-6; 17:15-21; Rom 4:20-22). When a couple has been infertile, a child’s arrival is marked as a special display of God’s faithfulness and creative authority.<\/p>\n<p>God’s delays are not necessarily denials, but they remind longing men and women to use trials for growth and to see children as a gift that cannot be taken for granted. A childless home can be filled with devotion to God as human expectations are submitted to his will. And for whatever reason, a couple may remain infertile their entire lives. God’s people must not isolate their brothers and sisters who are experiencing infertility but must surround them with love and support.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 16:1-6; 17:15-21; 20:17-18; 25:21; 29:31; 30:1-2, 22-24; Exod 23:25-26; Deut 7:12-15; Judg 13:2-5; 1 Sam 1:2-28; 2:5-7; Ps 113:5-9; Isa 54:1-3; Luke 1:5-25; Rom 4:19-22; Gal 4:24-28; Heb 11:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","summary_en":"Infertility With the apparent exception of Leah—and only then for a time—each of the patriarchs’ wives suffered infertility before eventually having children (Gen 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; see also 1 Sam 1:1-18). Children continued the family line, helped protect the tribe, and provided labor. They ensured that hereditary property would stay within the family, guaranteed assistance in old age, and enacted the proper funeral rites. Infertility was therefore a crushing stigma for a woman (Ps 113:9; ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":43216,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:22","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:22<\/strong> When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah <em>went to ask the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> about it<\/em>, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:22<\/strong> When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah <em>went to ask the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> about it<\/em>, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:22 When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah went to ask the Lord about it, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).","summary_en":"25:22 When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah went to ask the Lord about it, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70842,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:22","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:22<\/strong> When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah <em>went to ask the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> about it<\/em>, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:22<\/strong> When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah <em>went to ask the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> about it<\/em>, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:22 When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah went to ask the Lord about it, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).","summary_en":"25:22 When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah went to ask the Lord about it, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98468,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:22","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:22<\/strong> When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah <em>went to ask the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> about it<\/em>, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:22<\/strong> When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah <em>went to ask the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> about it<\/em>, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:22 When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah went to ask the Lord about it, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).","summary_en":"25:22 When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah went to ask the Lord about it, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126094,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:22","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:22<\/strong> When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah <em>went to ask the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> about it<\/em>, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:22<\/strong> When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah <em>went to ask the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> about it<\/em>, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:22 When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah went to ask the Lord about it, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).","summary_en":"25:22 When the pregnancy was difficult, Rebekah went to ask the Lord about it, probably by visiting a prophet—perhaps Abraham (20:7; see study note on 25:7-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":40666,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40836,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68292,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68462,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95918,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96088,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123544,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rebekah","title_en":"Rebekah","content_ro":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebekah<\/h3>\n<p>Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matter but would also demonstrate her character, hospitality, and work ethic.<\/p>\n<p>God decisively answered his prayer with Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel (22:23; 25:20), the son of Abraham’s brother Nahor (24:24).<\/p>\n<p>When Abraham’s servant described how God had led him (24:34-49), Rebekah’s family recognized it as God’s hand, but they were reluctant to let her go immediately (24:50-56). Rebekah, however, demonstrated faith in God’s plan; she was willing to leave her family without delay to marry Isaac (24:57-58). Rebekah’s faith was richly rewarded; the blessing her family gave her in parting (24:59-60) came true when she bore to Isaac the next generation of God’s chosen line.<\/p>\n<p>Rebekah bore twins, Esau and Jacob (25:20-26). She preferred Jacob, the younger son, who God had told her would be the stronger one and the leader of the two (25:23). Rebekah helped Jacob seize the blessing of the firstborn by deceiving Isaac (27:1-40). Afterward, she arranged for Jacob to be sent to Haran to get away from his brother’s resulting anger (27:41–28:5). Rebekah’s deceptive scheme created a lasting schism in the family, and she apparently never saw her favorite son again. She was, however, buried with Isaac in the family burial site (49:31), and she fulfilled God’s plan as the mother of Jacob, the founding father of Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 22:23; Gen 24:12-67; 25:20-28; 26:7-8, 35; 27:5-17, 42-46; 29:12; 35:8; 49:31; Rom 9:10-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","summary_en":"Rebekah Genesis 24 describes the mission of Abraham’s servant to find a wife for Isaac. At Abraham’s command, he went to Haran in Aram-naharaim (northwest Mesopotamia), to Abraham’s relatives, because Abraham did not want Isaac to marry a local Canaanite. The servant prayed that the young woman God had selected to be Isaac’s wife would answer his request for a drink by immediately giving it and watering his camels as well (24:12-14). This would not only serve to confirm God’s will in the matt...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123714,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17443,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Inheritance","title_en":"Inheritance","content_ro":"<h3>INHERITANCE<\/h3>\n<p>Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LegalandHistoricalAspect\">Legal and Historical Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchs<\/h5>\n<p>We learn something of early-second-millennium <span>BC<\/span> practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. Yet exceptions abound. Ishmael (Gn 16:15; 17:15-21), Esau (25:23), and Reuben (49:3-4) did not receive the birthright. Another item of special interest is Abraham’s suggestion that, in the absence of a son, his servant Eliezer might be regarded as the heir (15:2-5); scholars have found confirmation of this practice in Hurrian legal documents of the second millennium.<\/p>\n<h5>The Hebrew Nation<\/h5>\n<p>According to Deuteronomy 21:15-17, Hebrew firstborns were legally entitled to a double portion of the inheritance. Israelite law also made provision for widows through the practice of levirate marriage (Dt 25:5; see Gn 38:8; Ru 4:5).<\/p>\n<p>According to Numbers 27:1-11, the daughters of Zelophehad argued that they should receive the inheritance since their father had died without sons. Consequently, God decreed that if a man died without sons, the inheritance should be transferred to his daughter; if he had no daughter, to his brothers; if he had no brothers, to his nearest relatives. This particular incident also illustrates the importance of preserving tribal possessions: the daughters of Zelophehad were not allowed to marry outside the tribe of Manasseh, for this would mean transferral of the property to another tribe (Nm 36).<\/p>\n<p>How highly the Israelites valued their family’s inherited possessions may be gathered from Leviticus 25:25-28. If an individual sold his land for financial reasons, provision must be made for a relative to redeem it; if he had no near relative, he could still purchase it back at a later time, and even if he could not afford to do so, the land automatically reverted to him in the Year of Jubilee, when all debts were canceled (note also Lv 27:14-25).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Apart from the reference to levirate marriage in Matthew 22:23-33 (Mk 12:18-27; Lk 20:27-40), the NT has little to say about principles of property transferral during Roman times.<\/p>\n<p>In the parable of the prodigal son, the younger son in the family requested his share of the inheritance (Lk 15:12). One should also note that the elder son, who with false piety looked down on his brother’s behavior, had not protested when his brother asked for the inheritance; on the contrary, the elder brother too, without complaining, received his share—presumably a double portion.<\/p>\n<p>In another significant passage (Gal 4:1-2) Paul, seeking to illustrate a theological point, refers to secular practices. An heir, he tells us, is subject to guardians and managers during his childhood, up to the time he actually inherits. The point Paul wants to establish is clear enough, but the illustration does not coincide with what we know of Roman law and unfortunately scholars have been unable to identify the precise social custom in view. It may be that Paul was making reference, in general rather than strict legal terms, to some practice with which he and the Galatians were familiar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalAspect\">Theological Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>Canaan as Israel’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>The conviction that God gave Palestine to the Israelites for their inheritance serves as a bridge between the historical and the theological data. The historical element lies in the obvious fact that the Promised Land, a physical entity, was certainly occupied by the Hebrews and distributed among their tribes. Theologically, however, the Scriptures speak of this occupation as a divine gift; in effect, even the method of distribution was based on the concept that the land belongs to God (Lv 25:23; see Ex 15:17; Jos 22:27; Ez 38:16; Jl 1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The theme goes back to Genesis 12:1-3. God, in choosing Abraham, instructed him to move to a new country and promised to make him a great and blessed nation (Heb 11:8). The significance of the land in this Abrahamic promise is made more explicit later, when we are told that God promised to give Canaan to Abraham’s descendants after four centuries of Egyptian bondage (Gn 15:12-21; see Acts 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>Since Canaan was occupied by wicked inhabitants, the land was to be taken by force; to inherit the land therefore really means <em>to take possession<\/em> of it. Israel must trust God, whose land it is, to give them the victory (Jos 1:1-9; 21:43-45; Jgs 7:2; Ps 44:1-3; Acts 13:19). Once they conquered the land, it was apportioned among the tribes according to their size (following the instructions in Nm 26:52-54). God further commanded the people to divide the land by lot (vv 55-56). Thus, from the initial promise to Abraham, to the actual apportionment of the land and even with reference to the future (Is 60:21; Ez 45:1-8; 47:13–48:29), the people were made fully aware that their inheritance lay in the hands of a sovereign Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Believer’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT we find the concept of inheritance transferred from the purely physical to the spiritual. The tribe of Levi, which constituted the priestly clan, received no inheritance, because “the Lord is their inheritance” (Dt 18:1-2; see Nm 18:8-24). The Levites, in other words, received no land apportionment, but in their service to God they could begin to enjoy the fuller blessings to which the land inheritance pointed.<\/p>\n<p>That this truth could not be restricted to Levites is hinted at in Exodus 19:6, where the whole nation is called “a kingdom of priests” (see 1 Pt 2:9). Psalm 16 makes it clear that no one understood more clearly than David what those words entailed. Even if he were deprived of Israel’s physical inheritance, he had received by lot a more beautiful heritage, the Lord himself, in whose presence he found full joy and everlasting pleasures (Ps 16:5-6, 11; see also Pss 73:25-26; 142:5; Is 58:14; Lam 3:24).<\/p>\n<p>In later Judaism, during and after the intertestamental period, the figure was extended considerably. For example, the rabbis began to speak of the law as the inheritance of the faithful. Further, they might give the idea a negative turn, as when the wicked are said to inherit hell (cf. Jb 27:13). Neither of these figures is found in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>We also read in Jewish literature statements about inheriting the age to come, the kingdom, eternal life; these ideas occur frequently in the NT (Mt 19:29; 25:34; Lk 10:25; 18:18; 1 Cor 6:9-10; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; Ti 3:7; Jas 2:5). Such an inheritance, however, belongs only to those who are sanctified by God’s word (Acts 20:32; 26:18; Col 1:12; note also Jn 17:17; Col 3:23-24). These future blessings do not exclude the physical (Mt 5:5; note Ps 37:11, 29; Is 60:21; Rom 4:13; 2 Pt 3:13), but they certainly exclude human frailty, for God’s inheritance is imperishable (1 Cor 15:50). In short, our heritage is nothing less than full salvation (Heb 1:14; 11:7), which God carefully guards for us in heaven (1 Pt 1:4).<\/p>\n<p>Doubtless, the most significant feature in the NT is its emphasis that, as a result of the work of Christ, his people begin even <em>now<\/em> to receive the promised inheritance. The Gospel of John frequently stresses the present reality of eternal life, as does the Letter to the Hebrews (cf. 6:12-17 with 9:15 and 11:13, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>Paul treats this whole matter thoroughly in Galatians 3:7–4:7. In response to the Judaizers, who claim that the Abrahamic inheritance is restricted to those who become Jews through circumcision, Paul argues vigorously that Abraham’s true children are those who believe, whether Jew or Gentile (3:7; see Acts 26:16-18; Eph 3:6). They become heirs of God’s promise, for they receive the Spirit (Gal 3:14). The principle of inheritance is promise, not the Law (v 18). Those who believe are brought into union with Christ (vv 27-29); but then they are not merely Abraham’s children but God’s (v 26), for Christ is the Son of God and God has determined to send the Spirit of his Son to believers so that they too may call God <em>Father<\/em> (Gal 4:4-7; see also Rom 8:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, Christ himself as the Son is the true heir (Mt 21:38; Mk 12:7; Lk 20:14); he has inherited a name above every name (Phil 2:9; Heb 1:4) and has been appointed heir of all things (Heb 1:2; see Ps 2:7-8; Mt 28:18). But by his grace, all who become his through faith are counted joint heirs with him (Rom 8:17).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>With a bold shift in the metaphor, the Scriptures speak of believers as God’s inheritance. In the beautiful “Song of Moses” the author speaks of God as the Israelites’ Father (Dt 32:6), who has taken special interest in their inheritance (v 8). Then we are told why God cares: “For the <span>Lord<\/span>’s portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance” (Dt 32:9, <span>niv<\/span>). This theme becomes very prominent throughout the OT (e.g., Dt 9:26-29; 1 Kgs 8:51-53; Pss 28:9; 33:12; 74:2; Is 19:25; Jer 10:16; Zec 2:12). Elsewhere, Israel is spoken of as God’s special possession (e.g., Ex 19:5; Dt 7:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians 1:14 “the redemption of the possession” refers to the final salvation of believers, who are God’s treasure. Further, “we have obtained an inheritance” (Eph 1:11) may well be translated, “we have been made an inheritance,” that is, been “chosen as God’s portion,” a view supported by verse 18. No more fundamental idea than this can be found in Scripture, and its essence is expressed by the words of the One who sits on the throne: “He who conquers shall have this heritage, and I will be his God and he shall be my son” (Rv 21:7, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Lv 26:11-12; 2 Sm 7:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adoption; Birthright; Firstborn; Heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>INHERITANCE<\/h3>\n<p>Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LegalandHistoricalAspect\">Legal and Historical Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchs<\/h5>\n<p>We learn something of early-second-millennium <span>BC<\/span> practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. Yet exceptions abound. Ishmael (Gn 16:15; 17:15-21), Esau (25:23), and Reuben (49:3-4) did not receive the birthright. Another item of special interest is Abraham’s suggestion that, in the absence of a son, his servant Eliezer might be regarded as the heir (15:2-5); scholars have found confirmation of this practice in Hurrian legal documents of the second millennium.<\/p>\n<h5>The Hebrew Nation<\/h5>\n<p>According to Deuteronomy 21:15-17, Hebrew firstborns were legally entitled to a double portion of the inheritance. Israelite law also made provision for widows through the practice of levirate marriage (Dt 25:5; see Gn 38:8; Ru 4:5).<\/p>\n<p>According to Numbers 27:1-11, the daughters of Zelophehad argued that they should receive the inheritance since their father had died without sons. Consequently, God decreed that if a man died without sons, the inheritance should be transferred to his daughter; if he had no daughter, to his brothers; if he had no brothers, to his nearest relatives. This particular incident also illustrates the importance of preserving tribal possessions: the daughters of Zelophehad were not allowed to marry outside the tribe of Manasseh, for this would mean transferral of the property to another tribe (Nm 36).<\/p>\n<p>How highly the Israelites valued their family’s inherited possessions may be gathered from Leviticus 25:25-28. If an individual sold his land for financial reasons, provision must be made for a relative to redeem it; if he had no near relative, he could still purchase it back at a later time, and even if he could not afford to do so, the land automatically reverted to him in the Year of Jubilee, when all debts were canceled (note also Lv 27:14-25).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Apart from the reference to levirate marriage in Matthew 22:23-33 (Mk 12:18-27; Lk 20:27-40), the NT has little to say about principles of property transferral during Roman times.<\/p>\n<p>In the parable of the prodigal son, the younger son in the family requested his share of the inheritance (Lk 15:12). One should also note that the elder son, who with false piety looked down on his brother’s behavior, had not protested when his brother asked for the inheritance; on the contrary, the elder brother too, without complaining, received his share—presumably a double portion.<\/p>\n<p>In another significant passage (Gal 4:1-2) Paul, seeking to illustrate a theological point, refers to secular practices. An heir, he tells us, is subject to guardians and managers during his childhood, up to the time he actually inherits. The point Paul wants to establish is clear enough, but the illustration does not coincide with what we know of Roman law and unfortunately scholars have been unable to identify the precise social custom in view. It may be that Paul was making reference, in general rather than strict legal terms, to some practice with which he and the Galatians were familiar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalAspect\">Theological Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>Canaan as Israel’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>The conviction that God gave Palestine to the Israelites for their inheritance serves as a bridge between the historical and the theological data. The historical element lies in the obvious fact that the Promised Land, a physical entity, was certainly occupied by the Hebrews and distributed among their tribes. Theologically, however, the Scriptures speak of this occupation as a divine gift; in effect, even the method of distribution was based on the concept that the land belongs to God (Lv 25:23; see Ex 15:17; Jos 22:27; Ez 38:16; Jl 1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The theme goes back to Genesis 12:1-3. God, in choosing Abraham, instructed him to move to a new country and promised to make him a great and blessed nation (Heb 11:8). The significance of the land in this Abrahamic promise is made more explicit later, when we are told that God promised to give Canaan to Abraham’s descendants after four centuries of Egyptian bondage (Gn 15:12-21; see Acts 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>Since Canaan was occupied by wicked inhabitants, the land was to be taken by force; to inherit the land therefore really means <em>to take possession<\/em> of it. Israel must trust God, whose land it is, to give them the victory (Jos 1:1-9; 21:43-45; Jgs 7:2; Ps 44:1-3; Acts 13:19). Once they conquered the land, it was apportioned among the tribes according to their size (following the instructions in Nm 26:52-54). God further commanded the people to divide the land by lot (vv 55-56). Thus, from the initial promise to Abraham, to the actual apportionment of the land and even with reference to the future (Is 60:21; Ez 45:1-8; 47:13–48:29), the people were made fully aware that their inheritance lay in the hands of a sovereign Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Believer’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT we find the concept of inheritance transferred from the purely physical to the spiritual. The tribe of Levi, which constituted the priestly clan, received no inheritance, because “the Lord is their inheritance” (Dt 18:1-2; see Nm 18:8-24). The Levites, in other words, received no land apportionment, but in their service to God they could begin to enjoy the fuller blessings to which the land inheritance pointed.<\/p>\n<p>That this truth could not be restricted to Levites is hinted at in Exodus 19:6, where the whole nation is called “a kingdom of priests” (see 1 Pt 2:9). Psalm 16 makes it clear that no one understood more clearly than David what those words entailed. Even if he were deprived of Israel’s physical inheritance, he had received by lot a more beautiful heritage, the Lord himself, in whose presence he found full joy and everlasting pleasures (Ps 16:5-6, 11; see also Pss 73:25-26; 142:5; Is 58:14; Lam 3:24).<\/p>\n<p>In later Judaism, during and after the intertestamental period, the figure was extended considerably. For example, the rabbis began to speak of the law as the inheritance of the faithful. Further, they might give the idea a negative turn, as when the wicked are said to inherit hell (cf. Jb 27:13). Neither of these figures is found in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>We also read in Jewish literature statements about inheriting the age to come, the kingdom, eternal life; these ideas occur frequently in the NT (Mt 19:29; 25:34; Lk 10:25; 18:18; 1 Cor 6:9-10; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; Ti 3:7; Jas 2:5). Such an inheritance, however, belongs only to those who are sanctified by God’s word (Acts 20:32; 26:18; Col 1:12; note also Jn 17:17; Col 3:23-24). These future blessings do not exclude the physical (Mt 5:5; note Ps 37:11, 29; Is 60:21; Rom 4:13; 2 Pt 3:13), but they certainly exclude human frailty, for God’s inheritance is imperishable (1 Cor 15:50). In short, our heritage is nothing less than full salvation (Heb 1:14; 11:7), which God carefully guards for us in heaven (1 Pt 1:4).<\/p>\n<p>Doubtless, the most significant feature in the NT is its emphasis that, as a result of the work of Christ, his people begin even <em>now<\/em> to receive the promised inheritance. The Gospel of John frequently stresses the present reality of eternal life, as does the Letter to the Hebrews (cf. 6:12-17 with 9:15 and 11:13, 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>Paul treats this whole matter thoroughly in Galatians 3:7–4:7. In response to the Judaizers, who claim that the Abrahamic inheritance is restricted to those who become Jews through circumcision, Paul argues vigorously that Abraham’s true children are those who believe, whether Jew or Gentile (3:7; see Acts 26:16-18; Eph 3:6). They become heirs of God’s promise, for they receive the Spirit (Gal 3:14). The principle of inheritance is promise, not the Law (v 18). Those who believe are brought into union with Christ (vv 27-29); but then they are not merely Abraham’s children but God’s (v 26), for Christ is the Son of God and God has determined to send the Spirit of his Son to believers so that they too may call God <em>Father<\/em> (Gal 4:4-7; see also Rom 8:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, Christ himself as the Son is the true heir (Mt 21:38; Mk 12:7; Lk 20:14); he has inherited a name above every name (Phil 2:9; Heb 1:4) and has been appointed heir of all things (Heb 1:2; see Ps 2:7-8; Mt 28:18). But by his grace, all who become his through faith are counted joint heirs with him (Rom 8:17).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Inheritance<\/h5>\n<p>With a bold shift in the metaphor, the Scriptures speak of believers as God’s inheritance. In the beautiful “Song of Moses” the author speaks of God as the Israelites’ Father (Dt 32:6), who has taken special interest in their inheritance (v 8). Then we are told why God cares: “For the <span>Lord<\/span>’s portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance” (Dt 32:9, <span>niv<\/span>). This theme becomes very prominent throughout the OT (e.g., Dt 9:26-29; 1 Kgs 8:51-53; Pss 28:9; 33:12; 74:2; Is 19:25; Jer 10:16; Zec 2:12). Elsewhere, Israel is spoken of as God’s special possession (e.g., Ex 19:5; Dt 7:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians 1:14 “the redemption of the possession” refers to the final salvation of believers, who are God’s treasure. Further, “we have obtained an inheritance” (Eph 1:11) may well be translated, “we have been made an inheritance,” that is, been “chosen as God’s portion,” a view supported by verse 18. No more fundamental idea than this can be found in Scripture, and its essence is expressed by the words of the One who sits on the throne: “He who conquers shall have this heritage, and I will be his God and he shall be my son” (Rv 21:7, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Lv 26:11-12; 2 Sm 7:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adoption; Birthright; Firstborn; Heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"INHERITANCE Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times. Legal and Historical Aspect The Patriarchs We learn something of early-second-millennium BC practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. ...","summary_en":"INHERITANCE Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times. Legal and Historical Aspect The Patriarchs We learn something of early-second-millennium BC practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. ...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18221,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","summary_en":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27042,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nations","title_en":"Nations","content_ro":"<h3>NATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origins\">Origins<\/p>\n<p>The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and language (vv 5, 20, 31). The story of the tower (ziggurat) of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven (ch 11), explains that ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically so that they might not collaborate on presumptuous ventures.<\/p>\n<p>Paul, in his sermon in Athens, assumes that the various nations had a common origin, just as the writer of Genesis did, and accepts as part of the design of God the fact that nations should be separated by geographical boundaries (Acts 17:26). The prophet Zephaniah looked forward to the day when God would reverse this state of affairs and cause all the nations to speak one language (Zep 3:9). The writer of Revelation, in his vision of the new heaven and the new earth, saw these natural boundaries abolished. The nations freely intermingle in the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:22-26).<\/p>\n<p>The distinction between “Israel” and “the nations” is not clear-cut. “Israel” evolved from various ethnic groups, and several of “the nations” traced their origins to prominent figures in the Israelite community. Abraham, the father of the Jewish nation, lived in Ur of the Chaldees in the delta region of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. With his father he migrated north to Haran, and finally southwest to the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:9). Deuteronomy 26:5 (“a wandering Aramean was my father”) suggests Abraham’s residence was in the district of Mesopotamia known as Aram-naharaim. When Abraham entered into covenant with God, God gave him the token of the covenant relationship: circumcision. Foreigners purchased as slaves were circumcised, thus including them in the covenant community. When Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt into the wilderness, a mixed multitude also went up with them (Ex 12:38), which suggests again that people not biologically related nevertheless identified themselves with the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel did not include all of those physically descended from Abraham. The first son of Abraham, Ishmael, had an Egyptian mother and is the ancestor of the Ishmaelites, bedouins who roamed the southern wilderness region (Gn 16). Of the twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah, Esau, the firstborn, is the father of the Edomites living in the southeast, traditional enemies of Israel (Gn 25:23; Nm 20:21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GodandtheNations\">God and the Nations<\/p>\n<p>Scripture presents negative and positive attitudes toward the nations. The nations inhabiting the territory between the Tigris-Euphrates valley and the Nile River were wicked nations. Therefore, God took away their land and gave it to the descendants of Abraham (Gn 15:16-20). Incestuous relationships, adultery, homosexuality, and sexual relationships between men and animals characterized the nations and incurred God’s displeasure (Lv 18). The nations indulged in the practice of spiritism, augury, witchcraft, and necromancy, so the Hebrews were instructed to avoid such activities (19:26; 20:6). The nations worshiped many gods and included in their worship the practice of human sacrifice, often the sacrifice of children—a ritual that God abhors (Lv 20:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:29-34). The prophet Isaiah spoke scathingly of the craftsman who, taking a branch of a tree, used part of it to kindle a fire and fashioned from the remainder a graven image that he then worshiped (Is 44:12-20). The Baalim and Ashteroth, fertility gods of the Canaanites, were a constant source of temptation to the people of Israel. The message repeated throughout Scripture is that for these reasons God would drive out the nations and give their territory to Israel (Ex 34:24; Dt 12:29-31). The prophetic oracles against the nations reinforced this negative attitude (Jer 46–51; Am 1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, the Scripture also reflects a more positive attitude toward the nations. As revealed in the book of Psalms, God is not only concerned about Israel; his eyes keep watch over the nations, and all the earth praises and worships him (Ps 66:1-8). The psalmist prays that God’s saving power may be known among all the nations. He affirms that God righteously judges the peoples and guides the nations. All the ends of the earth should fear him (67:7). The prophet Isaiah declares that the Jerusalem temple is to be a house of prayer for all peoples and that God welcomes the foreigner who comes with sacrifices and offering worship (Is 56:6-8). Isaiah’s vision of hope for the latter days pictures people of all nations pouring into Jerusalem to worship the Lord and learn his ways. Instead of nation warring against nation, all will live in peace, ruled by God (2:2-4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNationsintheNewTestament\">The Nations in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>According to the Gospels, Jesus ministered not only to the Jews but also to the Gentile nations in accordance with ancient prophecy (Mt 4:15-16). Jesus taught in Galilee, a predominantly non-Jewish area, traveled to Tyre and Sidon (Mk 7:24) and through the Decapolis (v 31). He ministered to a Roman centurion (Lk 7:1-10), the widow of Nain (vv 11-17), and a Syrophoenician woman (Mk 7:26). People from Idumea came to observe his miracles (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The teaching of Jesus was also wide in scope. The narrative of the great judgment (Mt 25:31-46) depicts all nations gathered before the Son of Man, and Jesus commissions the apostles to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Acts does not overlook the nations’ role in the death of Jesus (Acts 4:27) and their role in opposing the ministry of Paul (26:17), it nevertheless clearly indicates that the church fulfilled its commission to present the gospel to non-Jewish peoples. Peter proclaims the message about Jesus to the household of Cornelius, a Roman soldier of the Italian Cohort (ch 10). Although the early church resisted the fact that non-Jewish peoples might freely receive the gift of the Spirit, they eventually welcomed this conclusion (11:1-8; 15:1-29). Paul traveled through Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, founding or visiting churches that were predominantly Gentile. The book of Acts ends dramatically with Paul preaching the gospel in the city of Rome, the heart of the Roman Empire.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origins\">Origins<\/p>\n<p>The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and language (vv 5, 20, 31). The story of the tower (ziggurat) of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven (ch 11), explains that ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically so that they might not collaborate on presumptuous ventures.<\/p>\n<p>Paul, in his sermon in Athens, assumes that the various nations had a common origin, just as the writer of Genesis did, and accepts as part of the design of God the fact that nations should be separated by geographical boundaries (Acts 17:26). The prophet Zephaniah looked forward to the day when God would reverse this state of affairs and cause all the nations to speak one language (Zep 3:9). The writer of Revelation, in his vision of the new heaven and the new earth, saw these natural boundaries abolished. The nations freely intermingle in the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:22-26).<\/p>\n<p>The distinction between “Israel” and “the nations” is not clear-cut. “Israel” evolved from various ethnic groups, and several of “the nations” traced their origins to prominent figures in the Israelite community. Abraham, the father of the Jewish nation, lived in Ur of the Chaldees in the delta region of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. With his father he migrated north to Haran, and finally southwest to the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:9). Deuteronomy 26:5 (“a wandering Aramean was my father”) suggests Abraham’s residence was in the district of Mesopotamia known as Aram-naharaim. When Abraham entered into covenant with God, God gave him the token of the covenant relationship: circumcision. Foreigners purchased as slaves were circumcised, thus including them in the covenant community. When Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt into the wilderness, a mixed multitude also went up with them (Ex 12:38), which suggests again that people not biologically related nevertheless identified themselves with the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel did not include all of those physically descended from Abraham. The first son of Abraham, Ishmael, had an Egyptian mother and is the ancestor of the Ishmaelites, bedouins who roamed the southern wilderness region (Gn 16). Of the twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah, Esau, the firstborn, is the father of the Edomites living in the southeast, traditional enemies of Israel (Gn 25:23; Nm 20:21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GodandtheNations\">God and the Nations<\/p>\n<p>Scripture presents negative and positive attitudes toward the nations. The nations inhabiting the territory between the Tigris-Euphrates valley and the Nile River were wicked nations. Therefore, God took away their land and gave it to the descendants of Abraham (Gn 15:16-20). Incestuous relationships, adultery, homosexuality, and sexual relationships between men and animals characterized the nations and incurred God’s displeasure (Lv 18). The nations indulged in the practice of spiritism, augury, witchcraft, and necromancy, so the Hebrews were instructed to avoid such activities (19:26; 20:6). The nations worshiped many gods and included in their worship the practice of human sacrifice, often the sacrifice of children—a ritual that God abhors (Lv 20:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:29-34). The prophet Isaiah spoke scathingly of the craftsman who, taking a branch of a tree, used part of it to kindle a fire and fashioned from the remainder a graven image that he then worshiped (Is 44:12-20). The Baalim and Ashteroth, fertility gods of the Canaanites, were a constant source of temptation to the people of Israel. The message repeated throughout Scripture is that for these reasons God would drive out the nations and give their territory to Israel (Ex 34:24; Dt 12:29-31). The prophetic oracles against the nations reinforced this negative attitude (Jer 46–51; Am 1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, the Scripture also reflects a more positive attitude toward the nations. As revealed in the book of Psalms, God is not only concerned about Israel; his eyes keep watch over the nations, and all the earth praises and worships him (Ps 66:1-8). The psalmist prays that God’s saving power may be known among all the nations. He affirms that God righteously judges the peoples and guides the nations. All the ends of the earth should fear him (67:7). The prophet Isaiah declares that the Jerusalem temple is to be a house of prayer for all peoples and that God welcomes the foreigner who comes with sacrifices and offering worship (Is 56:6-8). Isaiah’s vision of hope for the latter days pictures people of all nations pouring into Jerusalem to worship the Lord and learn his ways. Instead of nation warring against nation, all will live in peace, ruled by God (2:2-4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNationsintheNewTestament\">The Nations in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>According to the Gospels, Jesus ministered not only to the Jews but also to the Gentile nations in accordance with ancient prophecy (Mt 4:15-16). Jesus taught in Galilee, a predominantly non-Jewish area, traveled to Tyre and Sidon (Mk 7:24) and through the Decapolis (v 31). He ministered to a Roman centurion (Lk 7:1-10), the widow of Nain (vv 11-17), and a Syrophoenician woman (Mk 7:26). People from Idumea came to observe his miracles (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The teaching of Jesus was also wide in scope. The narrative of the great judgment (Mt 25:31-46) depicts all nations gathered before the Son of Man, and Jesus commissions the apostles to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Acts does not overlook the nations’ role in the death of Jesus (Acts 4:27) and their role in opposing the ministry of Paul (26:17), it nevertheless clearly indicates that the church fulfilled its commission to present the gospel to non-Jewish peoples. Peter proclaims the message about Jesus to the household of Cornelius, a Roman soldier of the Italian Cohort (ch 10). Although the early church resisted the fact that non-Jewish peoples might freely receive the gift of the Spirit, they eventually welcomed this conclusion (11:1-8; 15:1-29). Paul traveled through Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, founding or visiting churches that were predominantly Gentile. The book of Acts ends dramatically with Paul preaching the gospel in the city of Rome, the heart of the Roman Empire.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NATIONS Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews. Origins The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and languag...","summary_en":"NATIONS Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews. Origins The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and languag...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43217,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:23<\/strong> <em>rivals:<\/em>Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • <em>your older son will serve your younger son:<\/em> God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:23<\/strong> <em>rivals:<\/em>Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • <em>your older son will serve your younger son:<\/em> God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:23 rivals:Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • your older son will serve your younger son: God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).","summary_en":"25:23 rivals:Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • your older son will serve your younger son: God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70843,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:23<\/strong> <em>rivals:<\/em>Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • <em>your older son will serve your younger son:<\/em> God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:23<\/strong> <em>rivals:<\/em>Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • <em>your older son will serve your younger son:<\/em> God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:23 rivals:Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • your older son will serve your younger son: God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).","summary_en":"25:23 rivals:Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • your older son will serve your younger son: God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98469,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:23<\/strong> <em>rivals:<\/em>Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • <em>your older son will serve your younger son:<\/em> God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:23<\/strong> <em>rivals:<\/em>Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • <em>your older son will serve your younger son:<\/em> God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:23 rivals:Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • your older son will serve your younger son: God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).","summary_en":"25:23 rivals:Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • your older son will serve your younger son: God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126095,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:23","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:23<\/strong> <em>rivals:<\/em>Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • <em>your older son will serve your younger son:<\/em> God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:23<\/strong> <em>rivals:<\/em>Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • <em>your older son will serve your younger son:<\/em> God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:23 rivals:Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • your older son will serve your younger son: God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).","summary_en":"25:23 rivals:Jacob and Esau fought in the womb, and their descendants (Israel and Edom) fought continuously throughout their history. In their many conflicts, Israel achieved supremacy over Edom. • your older son will serve your younger son: God’s choice of the younger son over the elder ran against natural order (cp. 48:12-14; see Mal 1:1-3; Rom 9:11-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":40677,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68303,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95929,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123555,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11046,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>ESAU<\/h3>\n<p>Isaac’s son, and the older twin brother of Jacob (Gn 25:24-26), who was given this name because of the hair on his body at birth. The reddish color of the baby, together with the color appearing in the episode of the lentil soup (v 30), led to the use of the term Edom, or “red.” The Edomites claimed to be descended from Esau, and naming their land Seir may have been an attempt to retain an association with the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sair<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “hairy.”<\/p>\n<p>A proficient hunter, Esau brought tasty wild meat to his father, who enjoyed its stronger flavor much more than that of the mild meat provided from the family flocks by Jacob. On a certain day Esau returned home from an unsuccessful hunting expedition; he was very hungry. Esau was persuaded by Jacob to surrender his birthright in return for food (Gn 25:29-34).<\/p>\n<p>Archaeological information from Nuzi shows that giving up the birthright to another member of the family was not unknown. Esau’s marriage to two local women who were not descendants of Abraham made life extremely difficult for his parents (Gn 26:34-35). This may have been the reason why his mother, Rebekah, decided to coach Jacob to obtain the patriarchal blessing that normally belonged to his elder brother Esau (ch 27). Esau’s anger on discovering the deception of his brother prompted Jacob to leave for Haran, though 20 years later, through the generous forgiveness of Esau, the brothers were reunited (33:4-16).<\/p>\n<p>At birth Jacob had come into the world grasping the heel of Esau, an omen that was interpreted to show that the Edomite descendants of Esau would be subject to the offspring of Jacob. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites in the time of David (2 Sm 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:13) continued until the time of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites gained their independence for a while but were reconquered by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). Regaining their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span>, they subsequently remained independent of Judah. <em>See<\/em> Edom, Edomites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESAU<\/h3>\n<p>Isaac’s son, and the older twin brother of Jacob (Gn 25:24-26), who was given this name because of the hair on his body at birth. The reddish color of the baby, together with the color appearing in the episode of the lentil soup (v 30), led to the use of the term Edom, or “red.” The Edomites claimed to be descended from Esau, and naming their land Seir may have been an attempt to retain an association with the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sair<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “hairy.”<\/p>\n<p>A proficient hunter, Esau brought tasty wild meat to his father, who enjoyed its stronger flavor much more than that of the mild meat provided from the family flocks by Jacob. On a certain day Esau returned home from an unsuccessful hunting expedition; he was very hungry. Esau was persuaded by Jacob to surrender his birthright in return for food (Gn 25:29-34).<\/p>\n<p>Archaeological information from Nuzi shows that giving up the birthright to another member of the family was not unknown. Esau’s marriage to two local women who were not descendants of Abraham made life extremely difficult for his parents (Gn 26:34-35). This may have been the reason why his mother, Rebekah, decided to coach Jacob to obtain the patriarchal blessing that normally belonged to his elder brother Esau (ch 27). Esau’s anger on discovering the deception of his brother prompted Jacob to leave for Haran, though 20 years later, through the generous forgiveness of Esau, the brothers were reunited (33:4-16).<\/p>\n<p>At birth Jacob had come into the world grasping the heel of Esau, an omen that was interpreted to show that the Edomite descendants of Esau would be subject to the offspring of Jacob. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites in the time of David (2 Sm 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:13) continued until the time of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites gained their independence for a while but were reconquered by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). Regaining their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span>, they subsequently remained independent of Judah. <em>See<\/em> Edom, Edomites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESAU Isaac’s son, and the older twin brother of Jacob (Gn 25:24-26), who was given this name because of the hair on his body at birth. The reddish color of the baby, together with the color appearing in the episode of the lentil soup (v 30), led to the use of the term Edom, or “red.” The Edomites claimed to be descended from Esau, and naming their land Seir may have been an attempt to retain an association with the word sair, meaning “hairy.” A proficient hunter, Esau brought tasty wild meat ...","summary_en":"ESAU Isaac’s son, and the older twin brother of Jacob (Gn 25:24-26), who was given this name because of the hair on his body at birth. The reddish color of the baby, together with the color appearing in the episode of the lentil soup (v 30), led to the use of the term Edom, or “red.” The Edomites claimed to be descended from Esau, and naming their land Seir may have been an attempt to retain an association with the word sair, meaning “hairy.” A proficient hunter, Esau brought tasty wild meat ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11965,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18220,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","summary_en":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43218,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:24","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:24-26<\/strong> When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:24-26<\/strong> When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:24-26 When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.","summary_en":"25:24-26 When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70844,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:24","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:24-26<\/strong> When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:24-26<\/strong> When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:24-26 When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.","summary_en":"25:24-26 When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98470,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:24","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:24-26<\/strong> When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:24-26<\/strong> When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:24-26 When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.","summary_en":"25:24-26 When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126096,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:24","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:24-26<\/strong> When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:24-26<\/strong> When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:24-26 When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.","summary_en":"25:24-26 When the twins were born, the unusual circumstances inspired each boy’s name and hinted at what would happen to them in the future.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":40678,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68304,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95930,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123556,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7108,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Color","title_en":"Color","content_ro":"<h3>COLOR<\/h3>\n<p>The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages.<\/p>\n<p>The word most frequently translated “colour” in the <span>kjv<\/span> literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span>. Other words translated as “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span> refer to facial appearance (Dn 5:6-10; 7:28), fabrics of variegated colors (Prv 7:16; Ez 17:3; 27:24), stones (1 Chr 29:2), and breastplates (Rv 9:17). Joseph’s “coat of many colours” (Gn 37:3, <span>kjv<\/span>) and Tamar’s “garment of divers colours” (2 Sm 13:18-19, <span>kjv<\/span>) were either long-sleeved robes or richly ornamented tunics that served as a mark of preferred status.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, a word that means “pretense” is used archaically in Acts 27:30 and was interpreted as “colour” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. They also added the word “colour” to Revelation 17:4, evidently to clarify the meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Though many colors are mentioned in the Bible, colors are not particularly singled out for emphasis. Natural colors are seldom mentioned in descriptions. Colors that appear frequently and that are most carefully differentiated are manufactured colors, especially dyes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ColorsMentionedintheBible\">Colors Mentioned in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>Because the Hebrews perceived color differently than we do in Western culture, it is sometimes difficult to translate precisely the various Hebrew words denoting colors. Thus there is often a wide variation in translations of such words in English Bibles. To provide a base for comparison, this article will follow the <span>rsv<\/span> except as noted.<\/p>\n<p>Colors mentioned most often in the OT and NT are the following:<\/p>\n<p>“Black” is the translation of five words in the OT and one in the NT, expressing varying degrees of darkness. The words describe the color of lambs (Gn 30:32-33, 35, 40), hair (Lv 13:31, 37; Sg 5:11; Mt 5:36), skin (Jb 30:30), horses (Zec 6:2, 6; Rv 6:5), the sky (1 Kgs 18:45; Is 50:3; Jer 4:28), the day (Jb 3:5; Mi 3:6), the darkened sun (Rv 6:12), and an invading army (Jl 2:2). Job’s “blackness” (Jb 30:28) has been understood as disease or sadness.<\/p>\n<p>“Blue” probably refers to a blue-purple dye obtained from Mediterranean mollusks. A popular color, it was considered less desirable in antiquity than “royal” purple. Both dyes were produced in Tyre, which at one time had a monopoly on the manufacture of blue and purple dye (2 Chr 2:7, 14; Ez 27:24). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7). Blue was used in the tabernacle fabrics (Ex 26:1; Nm 4:6-9), the priests’ garments (Ex 28:5-6), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14), and in the Persian court (Est 1:6; 8:15). Blue is not mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>“Crimson” is the English translation of three different Hebrew words. This red color of varying shades was derived from certain insects. The word describes certain fabrics in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14) and was used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). The word translated “crimsoned” to describe garments from Bozrah (63:1) probably means “vivid colors” rather than a specific hue.<\/p>\n<p>“Gray,” a color found only in the OT, is used exclusively to describe old age—as in gray hair or gray-headed (Gn 42:38; 44:29-31; Dt 32:25; 1 Sm 12:2; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Jb 15:10; Ps 71:18; Prv 20:29; Is 46:4; Hos 7:9). A different word used to describe dappled gray horses (Zec 6:3) probably means “spotted” or “speckled.”<\/p>\n<p>“Green” translates seven words in the OT and two in the NT. Most of the words refer to vegetation and are descriptive of the fresh or moist condition of plants rather than their color. The following are described as “green”: plants (Gn 1:30), trees (1 Kgs 14:23), branches (Jb 15:32), pastures (Ps 23:2; Jl 2:22), herbs (Ps 37:2), olive trees (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16), thorns (Ps 58:9), leaves (Jer 17:8), grass (Mk 6:39; Rv 8:7), and wood (Lk 23:31). In addition to various plants, a dove’s wing (Ps 68:13), a couch (Sg 1:16), and a righteous person (Ps 92:14) are also described as “green.” Idolatrous worship practices took place under “every green tree” (Dt 12:2; 2 Kgs 16:4; Is 57:5; Jer 2:20; Ez 6:13), although the word actually describes the luxurious growth of the leaves rather than their color.<\/p>\n<p>Another word, “greenish,” is derived from one of the OT words for “green” and refers to disease (Lv 13:49) and fungus that forms on the walls of houses (14:37).<\/p>\n<p>“Purple” was the most highly valued dye in the ancient world. Encompassing shades varying from actual purple to red, it was obtained from mollusks of the Gastropoda class. The first people to use the dye were perhaps the ancient Phoenicians, whose name may come from a Greek word meaning “bloodred.” At any rate, the Phoenicians monopolized the purple industry for many years. Some fabrics were described as being purple: those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1), in the garments of the priests (28:5-8, 15, 33), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7), in the upholstery of Solomon’s chariot (Sg 3:10), and in decorations of the Persian court (Est 1:6). Purple was customarily worn by wealthy people and royalty (Jgs 8:26; Prv 31:22; Dn 5:7). Mordecai was rewarded with a garment of purple (Est 8:15). Daniel was given a similar garment (Dn 5:29). It was worn by Assyrian soldiers (Ez 23:6). Jeremiah described idols that were robed in blue and purple garments (Jer 10:9). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7), and purple dye was an item of trade between Tyre and the people of Aram (v 16). It is used once to describe the color of hair (Sg 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>References to purple in the NT are fewer than in the OT but affirm the continued economic importance of the dye. Purple clothing denoted wealth (Lk 16:19). Jesus was robed in purple by Roman soldiers (Mk 15:17, 20; Jn 19:2, 5; cf. Mt 27:28, “scarlet”). The purple and scarlet garment of the harlot Babylon symbolized royal rank (Rv 17:4). Lydia of Thyatira was a seller of purple fabrics (Acts 16:14).<\/p>\n<p>“Red” frequently refers to the natural color of certain objects mentioned in the Bible: skin (Gn 25:25), pottage (v 30), the eye (49:12, though the word used here may mean “sparkling” or “dark”), a sacrificial heifer (Nm 19:2), water (2 Kgs 3:22), the face of a weeping person (Jb 16:16), wine (Prv 23:31), the eyes of one drinking wine (v 29), clothing (Is 63:2), a shield (Na 2:3), and horses (Zec 1:8; 6:2). It is used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). A leprous disease (Lv 13:49), a spot on the skin (vv 19, 24, 42-43), and fungus on the wall of a house (14:37) were discolored with a reddish hue. The Red Sea is mentioned frequently in the OT (Ex 10:19; 15:4), but the Hebrew words thus translated actually mean “Sea of Reeds.” However, in the NT the Greek word is actually the word “red” (Acts 7:36; Heb 11:29). In the NT, red is used to describe the color of the sky (Mt 16:2-3), a horse (Rv 6:4), and a dragon (12:3).<\/p>\n<p>“Scarlet,” a brilliant red hue derived from certain insects, was used for fabrics and yarns and was highly valued in the ancient world (Rv 18:12). It is difficult to distinguish between “scarlet” and “crimson” in the Bible. A scarlet thread was bound to the hand of Zerah at birth (Gn 38:28, 30). The word describes certain fabrics in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 27:16), the priests’ garments (28:5-8, 15, 33), rope (Jos 2:18, 21), clothing (2 Sm 1:24; Prv 31:21; Jer 4:30), lips (Sg 4:3), and soldiers’ uniforms (Na 2:3). Some kind of scarlet material was used during the ratification of the covenant at Sinai (Heb 9:19), for the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:4-6) and of a house (vv 49-52), for covering the articles on the table of the bread of the Presence (Nm 4:8), and for the ritual of the red heifer (19:6). Matthew described Jesus’ robe at his trial as scarlet (Mt 27:28). The woman of Revelation 17:3-4 was dressed in purple and scarlet and seated upon a scarlet beast. The luxury associated with Rome is suggested by the description of clothing of purple and scarlet (Rv 18:16). Scarlet, like crimson and red, is also used figuratively of sins (Is 1:18).<\/p>\n<p> “White” translates a number of words found in the Bible. It is generally the color of natural objects such as goats (Gn 30:35), hair (Lv 13:10; Mt 5:36; Rv 1:14), diseased skin (Ex 4:6; Lv 13:4, 17), manna (Ex 16:31), snow (2 Kgs 5:27), milk and teeth (Gn 49:12), horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3; Rv 6:2; 19:11), a donkey (Jgs 5:10, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>rsv<\/span> “tawny”), wool (Ez 27:18), special stones (Rv 2:17), light (Mt 17:2), clouds (Rv 14:14), and fields ready for harvest (Jn 4:35). It is used to describe the color of curtains (Est 1:6), clothing (Est 8:15; Eccl 9:8; Dn 7:9; Mk 16:5; Rv 3:5, 18; 4:4), the garments of angels (Jn 20:12; Acts 1:10), and a throne (Rv 20:11). It is used figuratively to describe cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Is 1:18; Dn 12:10) and the appearance of princes (Lam 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing; Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COLOR<\/h3>\n<p>The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages.<\/p>\n<p>The word most frequently translated “colour” in the <span>kjv<\/span> literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span>. Other words translated as “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span> refer to facial appearance (Dn 5:6-10; 7:28), fabrics of variegated colors (Prv 7:16; Ez 17:3; 27:24), stones (1 Chr 29:2), and breastplates (Rv 9:17). Joseph’s “coat of many colours” (Gn 37:3, <span>kjv<\/span>) and Tamar’s “garment of divers colours” (2 Sm 13:18-19, <span>kjv<\/span>) were either long-sleeved robes or richly ornamented tunics that served as a mark of preferred status.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, a word that means “pretense” is used archaically in Acts 27:30 and was interpreted as “colour” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. They also added the word “colour” to Revelation 17:4, evidently to clarify the meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Though many colors are mentioned in the Bible, colors are not particularly singled out for emphasis. Natural colors are seldom mentioned in descriptions. Colors that appear frequently and that are most carefully differentiated are manufactured colors, especially dyes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ColorsMentionedintheBible\">Colors Mentioned in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>Because the Hebrews perceived color differently than we do in Western culture, it is sometimes difficult to translate precisely the various Hebrew words denoting colors. Thus there is often a wide variation in translations of such words in English Bibles. To provide a base for comparison, this article will follow the <span>rsv<\/span> except as noted.<\/p>\n<p>Colors mentioned most often in the OT and NT are the following:<\/p>\n<p>“Black” is the translation of five words in the OT and one in the NT, expressing varying degrees of darkness. The words describe the color of lambs (Gn 30:32-33, 35, 40), hair (Lv 13:31, 37; Sg 5:11; Mt 5:36), skin (Jb 30:30), horses (Zec 6:2, 6; Rv 6:5), the sky (1 Kgs 18:45; Is 50:3; Jer 4:28), the day (Jb 3:5; Mi 3:6), the darkened sun (Rv 6:12), and an invading army (Jl 2:2). Job’s “blackness” (Jb 30:28) has been understood as disease or sadness.<\/p>\n<p>“Blue” probably refers to a blue-purple dye obtained from Mediterranean mollusks. A popular color, it was considered less desirable in antiquity than “royal” purple. Both dyes were produced in Tyre, which at one time had a monopoly on the manufacture of blue and purple dye (2 Chr 2:7, 14; Ez 27:24). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7). Blue was used in the tabernacle fabrics (Ex 26:1; Nm 4:6-9), the priests’ garments (Ex 28:5-6), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14), and in the Persian court (Est 1:6; 8:15). Blue is not mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>“Crimson” is the English translation of three different Hebrew words. This red color of varying shades was derived from certain insects. The word describes certain fabrics in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14) and was used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). The word translated “crimsoned” to describe garments from Bozrah (63:1) probably means “vivid colors” rather than a specific hue.<\/p>\n<p>“Gray,” a color found only in the OT, is used exclusively to describe old age—as in gray hair or gray-headed (Gn 42:38; 44:29-31; Dt 32:25; 1 Sm 12:2; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Jb 15:10; Ps 71:18; Prv 20:29; Is 46:4; Hos 7:9). A different word used to describe dappled gray horses (Zec 6:3) probably means “spotted” or “speckled.”<\/p>\n<p>“Green” translates seven words in the OT and two in the NT. Most of the words refer to vegetation and are descriptive of the fresh or moist condition of plants rather than their color. The following are described as “green”: plants (Gn 1:30), trees (1 Kgs 14:23), branches (Jb 15:32), pastures (Ps 23:2; Jl 2:22), herbs (Ps 37:2), olive trees (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16), thorns (Ps 58:9), leaves (Jer 17:8), grass (Mk 6:39; Rv 8:7), and wood (Lk 23:31). In addition to various plants, a dove’s wing (Ps 68:13), a couch (Sg 1:16), and a righteous person (Ps 92:14) are also described as “green.” Idolatrous worship practices took place under “every green tree” (Dt 12:2; 2 Kgs 16:4; Is 57:5; Jer 2:20; Ez 6:13), although the word actually describes the luxurious growth of the leaves rather than their color.<\/p>\n<p>Another word, “greenish,” is derived from one of the OT words for “green” and refers to disease (Lv 13:49) and fungus that forms on the walls of houses (14:37).<\/p>\n<p>“Purple” was the most highly valued dye in the ancient world. Encompassing shades varying from actual purple to red, it was obtained from mollusks of the Gastropoda class. The first people to use the dye were perhaps the ancient Phoenicians, whose name may come from a Greek word meaning “bloodred.” At any rate, the Phoenicians monopolized the purple industry for many years. Some fabrics were described as being purple: those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1), in the garments of the priests (28:5-8, 15, 33), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7), in the upholstery of Solomon’s chariot (Sg 3:10), and in decorations of the Persian court (Est 1:6). Purple was customarily worn by wealthy people and royalty (Jgs 8:26; Prv 31:22; Dn 5:7). Mordecai was rewarded with a garment of purple (Est 8:15). Daniel was given a similar garment (Dn 5:29). It was worn by Assyrian soldiers (Ez 23:6). Jeremiah described idols that were robed in blue and purple garments (Jer 10:9). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7), and purple dye was an item of trade between Tyre and the people of Aram (v 16). It is used once to describe the color of hair (Sg 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>References to purple in the NT are fewer than in the OT but affirm the continued economic importance of the dye. Purple clothing denoted wealth (Lk 16:19). Jesus was robed in purple by Roman soldiers (Mk 15:17, 20; Jn 19:2, 5; cf. Mt 27:28, “scarlet”). The purple and scarlet garment of the harlot Babylon symbolized royal rank (Rv 17:4). Lydia of Thyatira was a seller of purple fabrics (Acts 16:14).<\/p>\n<p>“Red” frequently refers to the natural color of certain objects mentioned in the Bible: skin (Gn 25:25), pottage (v 30), the eye (49:12, though the word used here may mean “sparkling” or “dark”), a sacrificial heifer (Nm 19:2), water (2 Kgs 3:22), the face of a weeping person (Jb 16:16), wine (Prv 23:31), the eyes of one drinking wine (v 29), clothing (Is 63:2), a shield (Na 2:3), and horses (Zec 1:8; 6:2). It is used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). A leprous disease (Lv 13:49), a spot on the skin (vv 19, 24, 42-43), and fungus on the wall of a house (14:37) were discolored with a reddish hue. The Red Sea is mentioned frequently in the OT (Ex 10:19; 15:4), but the Hebrew words thus translated actually mean “Sea of Reeds.” However, in the NT the Greek word is actually the word “red” (Acts 7:36; Heb 11:29). In the NT, red is used to describe the color of the sky (Mt 16:2-3), a horse (Rv 6:4), and a dragon (12:3).<\/p>\n<p>“Scarlet,” a brilliant red hue derived from certain insects, was used for fabrics and yarns and was highly valued in the ancient world (Rv 18:12). It is difficult to distinguish between “scarlet” and “crimson” in the Bible. A scarlet thread was bound to the hand of Zerah at birth (Gn 38:28, 30). The word describes certain fabrics in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 27:16), the priests’ garments (28:5-8, 15, 33), rope (Jos 2:18, 21), clothing (2 Sm 1:24; Prv 31:21; Jer 4:30), lips (Sg 4:3), and soldiers’ uniforms (Na 2:3). Some kind of scarlet material was used during the ratification of the covenant at Sinai (Heb 9:19), for the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:4-6) and of a house (vv 49-52), for covering the articles on the table of the bread of the Presence (Nm 4:8), and for the ritual of the red heifer (19:6). Matthew described Jesus’ robe at his trial as scarlet (Mt 27:28). The woman of Revelation 17:3-4 was dressed in purple and scarlet and seated upon a scarlet beast. The luxury associated with Rome is suggested by the description of clothing of purple and scarlet (Rv 18:16). Scarlet, like crimson and red, is also used figuratively of sins (Is 1:18).<\/p>\n<p> “White” translates a number of words found in the Bible. It is generally the color of natural objects such as goats (Gn 30:35), hair (Lv 13:10; Mt 5:36; Rv 1:14), diseased skin (Ex 4:6; Lv 13:4, 17), manna (Ex 16:31), snow (2 Kgs 5:27), milk and teeth (Gn 49:12), horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3; Rv 6:2; 19:11), a donkey (Jgs 5:10, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>rsv<\/span> “tawny”), wool (Ez 27:18), special stones (Rv 2:17), light (Mt 17:2), clouds (Rv 14:14), and fields ready for harvest (Jn 4:35). It is used to describe the color of curtains (Est 1:6), clothing (Est 8:15; Eccl 9:8; Dn 7:9; Mk 16:5; Rv 3:5, 18; 4:4), the garments of angels (Jn 20:12; Acts 1:10), and a throne (Rv 20:11). It is used figuratively to describe cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Is 1:18; Dn 12:10) and the appearance of princes (Lam 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing; Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COLOR The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages. The word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv refer t...","summary_en":"COLOR The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages. The word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv refer t...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43219,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:25","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:25<\/strong> Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. <em>Esau<\/em> sounds like Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">se‘ar,<\/span> which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as <em>Seir<\/em> (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • <em>red<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’admoni<\/span>) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s <em>>hair<\/em> was <em>like<\/em> the <em>fur coat<\/em> of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words that highlight the Edomites’ nature.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:25<\/strong> Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. <em>Esau<\/em> sounds like Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">se‘ar,<\/span> which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as <em>Seir<\/em> (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • <em>red<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’admoni<\/span>) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s <em>>hair<\/em> was <em>like<\/em> the <em>fur coat<\/em> of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words that highlight the Edomites’ nature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:25 Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. Esau sounds like Hebrew se‘ar, which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as Seir (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • red (Hebrew ’admoni) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s >hair was like the fur coat of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words tha...","summary_en":"25:25 Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. Esau sounds like Hebrew se‘ar, which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as Seir (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • red (Hebrew ’admoni) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s >hair was like the fur coat of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words tha...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70845,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:25","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:25<\/strong> Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. <em>Esau<\/em> sounds like Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">se‘ar,<\/span> which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as <em>Seir<\/em> (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • <em>red<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’admoni<\/span>) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s <em>>hair<\/em> was <em>like<\/em> the <em>fur coat<\/em> of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words that highlight the Edomites’ nature.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:25<\/strong> Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. <em>Esau<\/em> sounds like Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">se‘ar,<\/span> which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as <em>Seir<\/em> (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • <em>red<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’admoni<\/span>) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s <em>>hair<\/em> was <em>like<\/em> the <em>fur coat<\/em> of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words that highlight the Edomites’ nature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:25 Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. Esau sounds like Hebrew se‘ar, which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as Seir (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • red (Hebrew ’admoni) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s >hair was like the fur coat of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words tha...","summary_en":"25:25 Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. Esau sounds like Hebrew se‘ar, which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as Seir (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • red (Hebrew ’admoni) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s >hair was like the fur coat of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words tha...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98471,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:25","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:25<\/strong> Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. <em>Esau<\/em> sounds like Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">se‘ar,<\/span> which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as <em>Seir<\/em> (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • <em>red<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’admoni<\/span>) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s <em>>hair<\/em> was <em>like<\/em> the <em>fur coat<\/em> of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words that highlight the Edomites’ nature.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:25<\/strong> Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. <em>Esau<\/em> sounds like Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">se‘ar,<\/span> which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as <em>Seir<\/em> (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • <em>red<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’admoni<\/span>) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s <em>>hair<\/em> was <em>like<\/em> the <em>fur coat<\/em> of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words that highlight the Edomites’ nature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:25 Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. Esau sounds like Hebrew se‘ar, which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as Seir (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • red (Hebrew ’admoni) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s >hair was like the fur coat of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words tha...","summary_en":"25:25 Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. Esau sounds like Hebrew se‘ar, which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as Seir (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • red (Hebrew ’admoni) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s >hair was like the fur coat of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words tha...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126097,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:25","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:25<\/strong> Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. <em>Esau<\/em> sounds like Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">se‘ar,<\/span> which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as <em>Seir<\/em> (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • <em>red<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’admoni<\/span>) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s <em>>hair<\/em> was <em>like<\/em> the <em>fur coat<\/em> of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words that highlight the Edomites’ nature.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:25<\/strong> Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. <em>Esau<\/em> sounds like Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">se‘ar,<\/span> which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as <em>Seir<\/em> (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • <em>red<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’admoni<\/span>) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s <em>>hair<\/em> was <em>like<\/em> the <em>fur coat<\/em> of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words that highlight the Edomites’ nature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:25 Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. Esau sounds like Hebrew se‘ar, which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as Seir (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • red (Hebrew ’admoni) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s >hair was like the fur coat of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words tha...","summary_en":"25:25 Two wordplays anticipate Esau’s later life. Esau sounds like Hebrew se‘ar, which means “hair”; Esau’s later homeland, Edom, was known as Seir (“hairy”) because it was wooded (as though covered with hair). • red (Hebrew ’admoni) sounds like Esau’s other name, Edom (25:27-34); Edom had red soil. • Esau’s >hair was like the fur coat of an animal, foreshadowing his unspiritual character (25:34; Heb 12:16; cp. Lev 26:22; Deut 7:22; 1 Cor 15:32). The description of the child uses words tha...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":6428,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible* (Old Testament), Chronology","title_en":"of the Bible* (Old Testament), Chronology","content_ro":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (Old Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to assign dates and sequences to OT events. Chronology is a science. It deals with evidence, theories, assumptions, and the balance of probabilities. Often it boils down to a matter of choosing among theories that are equally unable to solve all the problems raised by other points of view. OT chronology is an accredited branch of biblical studies primarily because it is essential for understanding the proper historical background of the biblical texts. In general, the chronology of the OT is understood well enough to vindicate the basic accuracy and sequential order of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Both biblical and nonbiblical materials are utilized by students of OT chronology. Biblical data include (1) genealogies showing personal and tribal affiliations among various peoples; (2) specific numbers given by biblical authors to indicate a person’s longevity, a king’s reign, or the duration of a specific event; (3) synchronizing statements that date an event in a specific year of a king’s reign or relate it to a natural phenomenon assumed to be common knowledge at the time of writing (e.g., Am 1:1; Zec 14:5).<\/p>\n<p>From the abundance of such chronological passages in the OT, one might conclude that establishment of OT dates and sequences would be a simple procedure. Each of the three kinds of biblical materials, however, exhibits special problems that must be solved first.<\/p>\n<p>Nonbiblical materials that shed light on OT chronology are quite numerous, and more are discovered year by year. They include (1) official records of important affairs such as military campaigns from countries like Egypt or Babylonia; (2) official inscriptions that are dedicatory or commemorate a great victory; (3) annals listing major accomplishments of a ruler year by year; (4) ostraca (inscribed pieces of pottery) containing letters, tax transactions and economic records, military dispatches between field leaders and command headquarters, or other information. Ostraca may be dated archaeologically and are often used to supplement the biblical record.<\/p>\n<p>The chronologist tries to examine the pertinent biblical and nonbiblical information, notes areas of correlation among all the data, and finally establishes a working system into which the most facts can be fitted. New evidence uncovered at any time may necessitate shifts in the present working system. Although the basic structure of biblical chronology seems reasonably firm, many details will no doubt be subject to change as new evidence is discovered.<\/p>\n<p>As a general rule, the earlier the period, the less certain one can be of one’s dating. In the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, for example, many dates can be assigned within a range of about 100 years. By the time of David and Solomon (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>), the margin of error over which scholars debate is a decade or less. The range narrows as one comes toward the present, so that, with the exception of one or two problem eras, dates accurate to within one or two years are possible by roughly the middle of the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. Such limitations must be kept in mind in any examination of the major periods of OT history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prepatriarchal Period<\/p>\n<p>• From Abraham to Moses<\/p>\n<p>• Conquest and Consolidation<\/p>\n<p>• The Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>• Judah after the Fall of Israel<\/p>\n<p>• Beyond 587 <span>BC<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrepatriarchalPeriod\">Prepatriarchal Period<\/p>\n<h5>Biblical Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>In the first 11 chapters of Genesis are found accounts of the Creation (chs 1–2), the fall (ch 3), Cain and Abel (ch 4), the Flood (chs 6–9), and the Tower of Babel (ch 11). Those events are set within a certain chronological framework.<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 5, a period of 10 generations elapsed between the Creation and the Flood. Although the individuals listed enjoyed a total life span of a hefty 847 years plus, the total time elapsing between Adam and the Flood was only 1,656 years.<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 11, another 10 generations elapsed from the time of the Flood until the time of Abraham (at least in the Septuagint, the third-century <span>BC<\/span> Greek translation of the OT; the Hebrew Masoretic text has 9). In that period the average age attained by individuals in the list is 346 years (using a figure of 460 for Arphaxad’s son Cainan, who is included in v 13 of the LXX; cf. Lk 3:36); the total elapsed time from the Flood to Abraham is only 520 years. Taken literally, that would mean that all of Abraham’s ancestors as far back as Noah’s son Shem were still alive at Abraham’s birth, and that a total of only 2,176 years elapsed from the time of Creation to Abraham.<\/p>\n<h5>Interpretation of the Biblical Data<\/h5>\n<p>A literalistic or slavishly mathematical interpretation of the figures, as has appeared in the margin of many <span>kjv<\/span> Bibles, requires a number of assumptions: that no names are omitted from the genealogies, that all the numbers given are consecutive, and especially that numbers used in an ancient biblical source carry the same meaning as that associated with them in the modern Western mind. Each assumption needs serious examination in the light of other established facts.<\/p>\n<p>A cursory reading of other biblical genealogies, for example, reveals that not all the names of a given family were always included. Even Matthew recorded a total of 28 generations (two sets of 14 each) between David and Jesus, and comparison with OT genealogies reveals that Matthew omitted several names. Luke listed a total of 42 generations for the same interval. Omissions are also obvious when one compares the genealogical lists given in 1 Chronicles 1–8 with those recorded earlier in Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Joshua, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings.<\/p>\n<p>Further, ancient peoples thought of numbers in a schematic or stylized way. Use of numbers among the ancient Near Eastern nations differed sharply from current Western practice. Examples of that practice are known from both biblical and nonbiblical sources. For example, a list of eight Sumerian kings who ruled in the city of Shurruppak before the “great flood” of the Jemdet Nar era (c. 3000 <span>BC<\/span>) assigns each man an average reign of more than 30,000 years. Berossus, a Babylonian priest of Marduk living in the third century <span>BC<\/span>, added two names to the eight found in that earlier list of kings and assigned an average of 43,200 years to each king. Such extraordinarily high numbers provide a perspective for considering the numbers of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, although one can assume that the numbers assigned to the ages of the patriarchs preceding Abraham in Genesis had real meaning for those responsible for their preservation, they should not be employed in a purely literal sense to compute the length of the various generations mentioned in the text. Further, the numbers given in the Septuagint and in the Samaritan Pentateuch, another early version of the Pentateuch, diverge in many details from those of the Hebrew Masoretic Text. That means, among other things, that the Genesis numbers caused problems for even the earliest scholars of Scripture.<\/p>\n<h5>Nonbiblical Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>Archaeology provides no evidence that may be used to date either the Creation or any other account preserved in Genesis 1–11. The Flood is an example that illustrates some of the difficulties. Many claims have been made by persons from a wide variety of backgrounds (scientists, explorers, theologians, and others) to the effect that archaeology has proven the Genesis Flood narrative to be true. Yet no city so far excavated in Palestine and Syria (including some of the oldest towns in the world) shows archaeological evidence of the Flood.<\/p>\n<p>Although several cities in Mesopotamia do exhibit evidence of a flood, three factors make it difficult to link that evidence with Genesis 6–9. Each of the flood levels so far discovered dates from a different period. Further, since nearby sites show no evidence of flooding, all of the Mesopotamian flood evidence points to relatively small local floods. Finally, the evidence indicates no great cultural discontinuities of the sort that would result from destruction of an entire population. Thus, it seems that the ancient Mesopotamian floods discovered through archaeological research are of the same kind as the floods that still occur in the Euphrates River valley.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, certain questions one might ask of the Genesis narratives simply cannot be answered. Many who regard the Bible as the Word of God have concluded that the dating of events found in Genesis 1–11 must be less important than the theological truths of salvation, faith, and obedience that these accounts present.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FromAbrahamtoMoses\">From Abraham to Moses<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchal Age<\/h5>\n<p>The date of Abraham is still a lively topic among biblical scholars who agree that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were indeed historical persons. Opinions range from an early-date view that estimates that the patriarchal age extended from 2086 to 1871 <span>BC<\/span>, to a late-date view placing Abraham at around 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. Since each position claims to fit the biblical data, a closer look at the two points of view is in order.<\/p>\n<p>Many OT passages seem to support the view that puts Abraham at a comparatively early date. First Kings 6:1 computes 480 years back from the founding of the temple in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign (961 <span>BC<\/span>, according to the early-date view) to the exodus from Egypt, which would then be dated 1441 <span>BC<\/span>. Counting 430 years as the period of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt (see Gn 15:13; Ex 12:40) takes the date back to 1871 <span>BC<\/span>. To that date are added the 215 years demanded by the total of (1) Abraham’s age upon entering Canaan (75 years according to Gn 12:4); (2) 25 additional years before the birth of Isaac (Gn 21:5); (3) 60 more years to the birth of Jacob (Gn 25:26); and (4) the appearance of Jacob before the pharaoh at age 130 (Gn 47:9). Those 215 years added to the previous total give a date of 2086 <span>BC<\/span> for the entrance of Abraham into Canaan and a date of 2161 <span>BC<\/span> for his birth.<\/p>\n<p>Such a calculation does not use all of the chronological evidence presented in the OT; consequently, the date for Abraham is open to challenge. For example, the 480 years between the exodus and Solomon’s fourth regnal year represent a period of time into which the wilderness wanderings, the career of Joshua and his immediate successors, the period of the judges, Samuel, Saul, and David must all be placed. Although the OT does not specifically say how long were the careers of Joshua, Samuel, or Saul, even a modest reckoning pushes the total years required by all the biblical data together to approximately 600.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the length of time to be assigned to the Egyptian sojourn is problematic. The Samaritan Pentateuch and the Septuagint both view the number 430 (in Ex 12:40) as applicable not only to the years in Egypt but to the years of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in Canaan as well. Evidently Paul followed the Septuagint tradition when he dated the giving of the law 430 years later than the time of God’s promise to Abraham (see Gal 3:15-18). That means the Septuagint figure cannot be dismissed lightly.<\/p>\n<p>The late dating of Abraham (c. 1400 <span>BC<\/span>) is based on two propositions: (1) The picture of patriarchal society portrayed in Genesis most closely parallels that reflected in the cuneiform tablets recovered from Nuzi, a town in northeastern Mesopotamia about 175 miles (282 kilometers) north of Baghdad. (2) Because those tablets must be dated in the 15th and 14th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, the parallel patriarchal age must have fallen within the same general time period.<\/p>\n<p>Those who hold the late-date view are aware that their date for Abraham cannot be equated with the set of numbers on which the early-date view depends. They point to other data, also from the OT. Joseph, who was already a highly placed Egyptian official when Jacob moved to Egypt, lived to be 110 years old (Gn 50:26). Moses was a great-grandson of Levi, Joseph’s older brother. Since Joseph lived to see his own greatgrandchildren born (who would probably be younger than Moses since their great-grandfather was younger than his), the late-date view concludes that Joseph could have been alive when Moses was born. The four-generation genealogy of Moses (Levi-Kohath-Amram-Moses, in Ex 6:16-20; Nm 3:17-19; 26:58-59; 1 Chr 6:1-3) was evidently thought to be complete according to Genesis 15:16, which predicted that Abraham’s descendants would be freed from Egyptian bondage “in the fourth generation.”<\/p>\n<p>However, a date of around 1400 <span>BC<\/span> for Abraham cannot be aligned with certain other biblical data, including the long Egyptian sojourn demanded by Genesis 15:13 and Exodus 12:40 and a 40-year (or “one-generation”) wilderness existence. Some normally moderate scholars are forced to reduce the wilderness time to two years in order to maintain their late date for Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>In short, the late-date theory is consistent with part of the biblical evidence (the genealogies of Moses), but the early-date theory conforms to another part (the actual year figures listed in scattered verses from Genesis and Exodus). The late-date theory holds that the genealogies represent more reliable information in Semitic societies generally, whereas the early-date theory computes years given in the biblical account literally throughout its scheme.<\/p>\n<p>Because of problems attached to both positions, a large group of scholars take a middle ground in dating the patriarchal age. Archaeologically, they say, Abraham and his life and times fit perfectly within the early second millennium, but imperfectly within any later period. By placing Abraham roughly between 1800 and 1600 <span>BC<\/span>, they provide enough latitude for a merging of all the available evidence, biblical and nonbiblical, into a workable chronological scheme. Archaeology provides four major bits of evidence for an early second-millennium patriarchal era.<\/p>\n<p>1. Though the Nuzi tablets furnish a clear parallel to patriarchal social life, other tablets from other towns and an earlier era reflect many of the same customs common to Nuzi and Genesis. Since the Nuzians were Hurrians who came to northeastern Mesopotamia from elsewhere (perhaps Armenia), their social customs originated no doubt much earlier than the time of their tablets now in our possession. Accordingly, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> date of the Nuzi tablets does not preclude an earlier date for Abraham.<\/p>\n<li>2. The names of several of Abraham’s ancestors listed in Genesis 11 can now be identified with towns in the northern area of Mesopotamia around Haran, the city from which Abraham migrated to Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:3). Significantly, Haran flourished in the 19th and 18th centuries <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>3. Shortly after 2000 <span>BC<\/span> Semitic nomads from the desert invaded the civilized communities of the Fertile Crescent. Those invaders, called Amorites in the OT, established themselves in several cities in northern Syria and Mesopotamia. One of the Amorite cities was Babylon, ruled by Hammurabi sometime around the beginning of the 18th century <span>BC<\/span>. Although the King Amraphel of Genesis 14:1 is not linguistically identifiable with the Babylonian king Hammurabi, as earlier scholars believed, the picture of the times following the Amorite invasion still accords well with the Genesis narratives generally.<\/li>\n<li>4. Mari, another Amorite town, is now well known because of more than 20,000 tablets recovered from its royal palace and archives. Geographically, Mari is located in the general area of Haran. Chronologically, the tablets recovered come from the 18th century <span>BC<\/span>. One 18th-century king of Mari, Zimri Lim, carried on extensive correspondence with Hammurabi of Babylon. The tablets from Mari also furnish valuable information about tribal and ethnic groups and their movements in the general region. Of basic importance for dating the Genesis materials are certain documents from Mari that include personal names very similar to Abraham (Abi-ram), Jacob, Laban, and several other West Semitic names.<\/li>\n<p>Archaeological evidence neither proves nor disproves the actual existence of Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob. That is admitted on all sides. What archaeology has done is to provide a framework of probabilities within which the biblical patriarchal narratives appear more and more to be at home.<\/p>\n<h5>Date of the Exodus<\/h5>\n<p>The problem of dating the patriarchal age is closely related to the problem of assigning a date to the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. Since the evidence does not permit a precise date for Abraham, a precise date for the entry of Joseph or Jacob into Egypt is likewise unobtainable. Further, the biblical evidence does not yield an exact figure for the length of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>For many years biblical scholars viewed 1 Kings 6:1 as a foundation upon which to build an unshakable date for the exodus. Because Solomon’s fourth year could be unquestionably fixed to within at least a 10-year span (967–958 <span>BC<\/span>), the exodus too could be dated with the same precision simply by adding 480 years. But other biblical data raise serious questions about that simple procedure. When the Bible deals with all the events between the time of the exodus and the founding of Solomon’s temple, that is, from Numbers to 1 Kings 5:18, the precise numbers given total not 480 but closer to 600 years.<\/p>\n<p>Because the evidence is insufficient to allow a precise date for the exodus, scholarly opinion remains divided between two possibilities. A 15th-century exodus is supported by several pieces of evidence. The chronology in 1 Kings 6:1 appears to be independently corroborated by a passage in Judges 11:26. It claims that Israel had occupied the area around Heshbon for 300 years preceding Jephthah’s own day. If Jephthah is dated at roughly 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, one is obviously led back to an exodus in the middle of the 15th century. Also, three successive generations of pharaohs who ruled in the 16th and 15th centuries produced no male offspring, making it more likely that Moses would have become the foster son of a royal princess during that time; all of the 19th-dynasty kings (1306–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) had legitimate male heirs.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, a 15th-century date makes possible a connection between the Habiru invasion of Canaan (1400–1350 <span>BC<\/span>)—described in the Amarna letters found at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt—and the invasion of Canaan by the Hebrews described in the OT book of Joshua. Related to that is a reference to “Israel” in the Merneptah Stele, a stone pillar inscribed with the deeds of the Egyptian king, Merneptah, of about 1220 <span>BC<\/span>. It implies that the people referred to, met by Merneptah in the course of a Canaanite military campaign, had been in existence for some time. Finally, an excavator of Jericho, John Garstang, placed the destruction of that city at around 1400 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Other evidence, however, strongly implies not a 15th- but a 13th-century date for the exodus. Many scholars assign a date between 1290 and 1275 <span>BC<\/span> on the basis of that evidence. First, the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 discussed above may be interpreted as schematically representing 12 generations, as indicated by 1 Chronicles 6:3-8. Thus if 12 generations averaged 25 years instead of 40 years, the reduction of 480 schematized years to 300 actual years would point to an exodus date of around 1266 <span>BC<\/span>. Second, archaeological evidence exists that dates destruction at the assumed sites of several cities conquered by Joshua (Lachish, Debir, Bethel, and Hazor) to the late 13th century. Third, there is no biblical mention of Egyptian military campaigns (such as Merneptah’s 1220 <span>BC<\/span> incursion); Israelites living in Canaan before the time of the militarily active pharaohs Seti I (1319–1301 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ramses II (1301–1234 <span>BC<\/span>) would certainly have been affected by such activity. Fourth, Exodus 1:11 mentions the city of Rameses, the capital built by Ramses II, according to his own inscriptions. A fifth line of argument comes from archaeological conclusions that Transjordan and the Negev Desert were not occupied by sedentary people between 1900 and 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas the Bible states clearly that the Israelites encountered stiff opposition from groups in that same region. Thus, it is argued, the Israelites must have entered that region after 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. Sixth, connecting the Habiru with the Israelites of the Conquest lacks weight because many texts besides the Amarna tablets attest to the existence of Habiru groups virtually all over the ancient Near East. “Habiru” seems to be a much broader term, possibly meaning “trespasser,” and is probably unrelated etymologically or semantically to “Hebrew.” Seventh, and finally, Garstang’s work at Jericho has now been revised by archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon, who showed that the fallen walls that Garstang had dated about 1400 <span>BC<\/span> in reality were destroyed in 1800 <span>BC<\/span> or earlier.<\/p>\n<p>So far, it has been impossible to decide with precision between the two centuries proposed for the exodus. The majority opinion among OT scholars generally, including a growing number of moderate or conservative scholars, is in favor of the 13th-century option. On the other hand, many other conservative scholars continue to favor the 15th-century date. Dogmatism is unwarranted since problems remain unresolved with either option.<\/p>\n<p>In accordance with the majority opinion, however, a date of about 1290 <span>BC<\/span> for the exodus will be used in dealing with subsequent problems.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConquestandConsolidation\">Conquest and Consolidation<\/p>\n<p>The chronological task for the period of conquest and consolidation is to fit all the events narrated by the OT, chiefly in Joshua and Judges, between the exodus (c. 1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the times of David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>) and Solomon (d. 930 <span>BC<\/span>). In other words, one must fit roughly 550 years of biblical events between Moses and David into a 290-year span.<\/p>\n<p>Although assigning an early date for the exodus (c. 1447 <span>BC<\/span>) would make the task somewhat easier, the mere addition of about 157 years does not by itself solve all the problems. Neither date allows enough time for all the OT events from Joshua to David to take place singly and consecutively. Accordingly, advocates of both dates assume that some of the judges ruled simultaneously rather than consecutively. The difference is one of degree only.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua furnishes most of the OT evidence regarding the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. Unfortunately, the book of Joshua has no chronological notes that specify the amount of time elapsing during Joshua’s career. Further, there are no biblical references to major contemporary events in other parts of the ancient world, the dates of which could be used to fix the chronology. Rather, in what is obviously a telescoped account, the book of Joshua records the fall of Jericho and Ai, followed closely by a southern and then a northern campaign. After those victories, covering much of the total territory of Canaan, various parcels of land were distributed to the tribal groups of Israel; the tribes were expected to complete the task of destroying whatever Canaanite inhabitants remained in their particular region. One seeks in vain, however, for any statements indicating how long those events took.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Judges a slightly different circumstance prevails. There the OT furnishes a rather complete list of figures to indicate the duration of periods of foreign oppression, judgeships, and ensuing peace. The total number of years described for that period is 410, but that total does not include any time for the many “minor” judges. It seems obvious, therefore, that most if not all of the judges were simply local chieftains whose activity was simultaneous with that of other judges, at least for part of their reign. Unfortunately, the book of Judges provides no cross-reference system to indicate which judges were contemporaries of which others. Perhaps the best one can do is to assume general guidelines for the chronology of that period between Moses and David.<\/p>\n<p>Two significant facts should be kept in mind. First, archaeological information seems to demand a Conquest date beginning about 1250 <span>BC<\/span> rather than 200 years earlier. Assuming concurrent careers for the judges allows one to compress the literal OT figures into the general scheme demanded by other evidence.<\/p>\n<p>Second, the ancient scribes evidently related the chronology of the period to a 40-year or generation-based schema, a practice that lasted until the time of the divided kingdom, when a regular dynastic chronology was introduced. In the face of so many careers being assigned exactly 40 years, the fact remains that the literal totals of such numbers cannot be harmonized with either the biblical or the archaeological evidence for the period. Accordingly, most scholars doubt that the number 40 was ever intended to be an exact mathematical calculation. That view permits enough leeway for cautious fitting of biblical and other evidence into a general timetable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMonarchy\">The Monarchy<\/p>\n<h5>Types of Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>For the period of the Israelite monarchy, chronological evidence is abundant.<\/p>\n<p>The OT itself strives to provide all the information necessary for the chronology of the period, including (1) a complete list of all the kings in Israel and in Judah both before and after the division of the kingdom; (2) the age of each king (except Saul) at his accession; (3) synchronisms of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah showing in what year of his contemporary in the other kingdom each king came to the throne; and (4) precise calculations of the length of each king’s reign. In addition some important events are dated by reference to another event; others are coordinated with concurrent events in secular history.<\/p>\n<p>Outside the OT an abundance of material provides evidence for a chronology of the period. By far the most important single source is a collection of Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists. In Assyria a record of each king’s reign was kept on a particular kind of annal. Each year of reign was named after an individual of high rank in the court; the first year was named after the king himself, the second after the next highest-ranking official (though that name appears to have been selected by lot originally), and so on, down until the death of the king. The word <em>limmu<\/em> was used to introduce the name of the official after whom the current year was to be named, hence the designation <em>“limmu<\/em> lists.”<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists are tied precisely to the solar year, making the documents highly reliable. Further, in addition to many events in Assyrian history, notable natural phenomena were dated on the basis of the <em>limmu<\/em> in which they occurred. For example, a solar eclipse dated by the Assyrian scribes in the <em>limmu<\/em> year of Bur-Sagale has been computed astronomically as June 15, 763 <span>BC<\/span>. Beginning with the year 763, then, and working both backward and forward, a complete list of Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> officials has been obtained for the period between 891 and 648 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>With the accuracy of the Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists corroborated by a number of sources, they can be used with confidence in reconstructing the chronology of the corresponding period of biblical history. That is especially true where a biblical writer related an Israelite or a Judahite event to a particular year in the reign of an Assyrian king whose <em>limmu<\/em> list indicates the precise years of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>There are also records from Chaldean (Babylonian) king lists and from later Greek historians. Ptolemy, in the second century <span>AD<\/span>, for example, gave dates for Babylonian kings from 747 <span>BC<\/span> and continued with dates for Persian, Greek, and Roman rulers down to <span>AD<\/span> 161. Finally, useful information is found in inscriptions from monuments, stelae, and other artifacts from Assyria and elsewhere.<\/p>\n<h5>Monarchical Chronology<\/h5>\n<p>The <em>limmu<\/em> list of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III provides a basis for the first comparison of dates among Assyria, Israel, and Judah. In the <em>limmu<\/em> of Daian-Assur, Shalmaneser’s sixth year on the throne, Ahab of Israel was listed as one of the kings who fought against the Assyrians in the battle of Qarqar. Thus the date for that battle may be placed confidently in 853 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian records also indicate that Shalmaneser III came into contact with an Israelite king 12 years later, in 841 <span>BC<\/span>. That king was Jehu. Thus two fixed points are available for correlating the biblical information. Following the death of Ahab, which is not dated exactly by reference to the Assyrian records, two of his sons came to power. The first, Ahaziah, reigned two years (1 Kgs 22:51); the second, Joram (also called Jehoram), reigned a total of 12 years (2 Kgs 3:1). Recognizing a nonaccession-year reckoning by the Israelites in that era, the apparent total of 14 years may be reduced to an actual total of 12. Thus it seems evident that Ahab not only fought Shalmaneser III in 853 <span>BC<\/span> but also died in that year. Ahab was then followed by his two sons for a total of 12 years before the accession of Jehu in time to account for his contact with Shalmaneser II in 841 <span>BC<\/span>. Further, because Jehu murdered both the king of Israel (Jehoram) and the king of Judah (Ahaziah) at the same time (2 Kgs 9:24-27), a fixed synchronism is provided between the two kingdoms for the year 841 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The first nine kings of Israel ruled an apparent total of 98 years or an actual total (taking into account Israel’s nonaccession-year policy) of 90 years. Zimri, who ruled only seven days (1 Kgs 16:15-18), counts as one of the nine but does not insert an extra year in either the actual or apparent totals. The accession of Jeroboam I thus occurred in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (adding 90 years to 841 <span>BC<\/span>), and Rehoboam of Judah began to rule in that same year as well. Allowing Solomon the 40-year reign indicated in 1 Kings 11:42 points to the year 970 <span>BC<\/span> for his accession. The death of David would also be pinpointed in that period, although allowance must be made for the possibility of a short co-regency of David and Solomon before David’s death. The reign of Saul then falls approximately in the late 11th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In Judah the period between the death of Solomon in 930 <span>BC<\/span> and the murder of Ahaziah by Jehu in 841 <span>BC<\/span> was occupied by the kingships of six men whose time on the throne totals 95 biblical years. Computation of that era in Judah is not as simple as for the Israelite kings for several reasons. Problems include a change from accession- to nonaccession-year reckoning sometime around 850 <span>BC<\/span>, at least two co-regencies (Jehoshaphat with Asa and then Jehoram with Jehoshaphat), and the calendar differences between the two kingdoms. It is clear that the 95 apparent years must be reduced, on the basis of the differences in computation and calendar, to 90 actual years in order to bring the Judahite figures into line with the established Assyrian and Israelite synchronisms.<\/p>\n<p>After the year 841, the next biblical event to be certified by nonbiblical materials is the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. That date is furnished by the annals of Sargon II of Assyria (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>), successor to Shalmaneser V (727–722 <span>BC<\/span>). Although that date comes just 120 years after the fixed point of 841 <span>BC<\/span> in Israelite history, the chronological materials for that period are quite difficult to interpret accurately. In the past, scholars resorted to assumptions of extensive co-regencies, to presumed confusion on the part of certain scribes over methods to be followed in computations, or to other theories in attempting to understand the period. In spite of the many difficulties, however, all the biblical and Assyrian dates for the period of the divided monarchy have been harmonized—with the exception of four figures related to the closing years of the Israelite kingdom, all connected in some way with the problematic reign of Hoshea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JudahaftertheFallofIsrael\">Judah after the Fall of Israel<\/p>\n<p>Following the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, OT chronology is concerned only with the southern kingdom of Judah until its destruction some 135 years later. Two events in the biblical record important for establishing a chronology for that period are the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib of Assyria in the late eighth century and the eventual fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians in the early sixth century.<\/p>\n<h5>Sennacherib’s Invasion of Judah<\/h5>\n<p>The Assyrian invasion (704–681 <span>BC<\/span>) is recorded in 2 Kings 18:13-16, where verse 13 dates the event to the 14th year of King Hezekiah. Sennacherib’s own inscriptions include a lengthier version of the affair. From them the date of 701 <span>BC<\/span> is established, placing the accession of Hezekiah in 715 <span>BC<\/span>. That much is simple, but problems still arise. For example, 2 Kings 19:9 reports that Sennacherib was in contact with an Ethiopian king, Tirhakah (c. 690–664 <span>BC<\/span>), during the course of his campaign, which included a siege of Jerusalem. Obviously, contact with a ruler who came to power in 690 <span>BC<\/span> at the earliest could not refer to events in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. It is possible, however, that Sennacherib actually made two invasions of Judah, the first in 701 and the second sometime later. The date of that supposed second invasion is not assured, although 2 Kings 19:35-37 may imply that Sennacherib was murdered only shortly after his withdrawal from Jerusalem. Since Sennacherib was succeeded by his son Esarhaddon in the year 681, the presumed second invasion of Judah would have occurred somewhere in the last half of the same decade.<\/p>\n<p>A number of scholars oppose the assumption of a second invasion of Jerusalem by Sennacherib. They suggest the possibility that Tirhakah, though king only from 690 <span>BC<\/span>, may have led troops against Sennacherib as early as 701, before acceding to the throne. The reference to King Tirhakah in 2 Kings 19:9 would then be understood as use of his eventual title in an effort to identify him to a later generation of readers.<\/p>\n<p>However the question of the number of invasions is decided, it is certain that Sennacherib invaded Judah in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the 14th regnal year of Hezekiah. Such a synchronism establishes Hezekiah’s accession year as 715 <span>BC<\/span>, but that date raises another problem. The fall of Samaria, now established at 722, is dated by 2 Kings 18:10 in the sixth year of Hezekiah’s reign. The most likely solution is that Hezekiah began a co-regency with his father, Ahaz, six years before Samaria fell. The possibility for confusion arises from the fact that one verse (2 Kgs 18:13; repeated in Is 36:1) synchronizes Sennacherib’s 701 <span>BC<\/span> invasion with the 14th year of Hezekiah’s independent reign; another verse (2 Kgs 18:10) correlates the fall of Samaria with the beginning of Hezekiah’s co-regency. Thus from about 728 to 715 <span>BC<\/span> Hezekiah was co-regent with Ahaz. From 715 to 697 he reigned alone. From 696 to 686 his son Manasseh was co-ruler with him.<\/p>\n<p>According to the chronological information given by a number of verses in 2 Kings, a total of 128 years and six months elapsed between the time of Hezekiah’s accession in 715 and the capture of King Jehoiachin in 597, a date to be discussed below. Thus another problem is to explain the more than 10-year excess apparently demanded by the biblical totals. The best solution appears to lie in the assumption that Manasseh first came to power in 697 as co-regent with his father, Hezekiah. Manasseh died in 642, following what 2 Kings 21:1 states was a 55-year reign. Hezekiah, who came to the throne in 715, is said to have reigned 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2), which would mean that he was king until 686, roughly 11 years after the time when Manasseh must have come to the throne in order to have completed a 55-year reign by 642.<\/p>\n<h5>Fall of Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>Contemporary Babylonian records are available to shed valuable light on the last few years of Judah’s existence. For the years 626–623, 618–595, and 556 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonian Chronicle, a formal record of Babylonian affairs of state, has been recovered. From information contained in that chronicle and other cuneiform documents of the period, three dates in Judah’s history may be fixed firmly. The first is the death of Josiah in 609; the second is the battle of Carchemish in 605; the third is the end of the reign of Jehoiachin, which is dated by the Babylonian Chronicle to the second month of Adar in the ninth year of Nebuchadnezzar, or March 16, 597.<\/p>\n<p>After Jehoiachin’s capture, Zedekiah became puppet king of Judah for 11 years (2 Kgs 24:18). On the tenth day of the tenth month during Zedekiah’s ninth regnal year (2 Kgs 25:1), the final siege of Jerusalem was begun by the Babylonian army. That day was January 15, 588. On the ninth day of the fourth month during the 11th regnal year of Zedekiah, after a siege of almost 18 months, the wall of Jerusalem was broken through (2 Kgs 25:3-4). The temple was burned on day seven of the following (fifth) month.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Beyond587bc\">Beyond 586 <span>BC<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Following the tragedy of 586 <span>BC<\/span>, several further developments are given chronological notice in the OT. Jeremiah 52:30 records a third deportation of Jews to Babylonia in the 23d year of King Nebuchadnezzar (582 or 581 <span>BC<\/span>). Both 2 Kings 25:27 and Jeremiah 52:31 give evidence of the release of King Jehoiachin from prison; the Babylonian Chronicle dates that event at 27 Adar, or March 21, 561 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In 539 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians themselves were destined to learn the meaning of defeat. In that year a Persian ruler, Cyrus the Great, launched a successful campaign against Babylon and its king, Nabonidus. Inheriting control over the exiled Jews and many other groups of people conquered earlier by Babylonia, Cyrus moved quickly to initiate a policy of tolerance toward his new subjects. In the first year of his rule Cyrus issued an edict making it possible for Jews to return to their former land (Ezr 1:1). On the first day of the following year, 1 Tishri (Ezr 3:6), an altar was set up in Jerusalem. In Iyyar of the following year (April\/May 536) work was begun on the temple itself (Ezr 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>After a period of frustrating work stoppages of varying lengths, the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah spurred on the Jews to complete the temple. Work resumed in 520 (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1, 15) and was finally completed on 3 Adar, or March 12, 515 (Ezr 6:15). The final stages of OT chronology pertain to the careers of Ezra and Nehemiah. The traditional view of their era places Ezra in the seventh year of Artaxerxes I (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah in the 20th (445 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> “Date” under each OT book; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Diaspora of the Jews; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the; Postexilic Period; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (Old Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to assign dates and sequences to OT events. Chronology is a science. It deals with evidence, theories, assumptions, and the balance of probabilities. Often it boils down to a matter of choosing among theories that are equally unable to solve all the problems raised by other points of view. OT chronology is an accredited branch of biblical studies primarily because it is essential for understanding the proper historical background of the biblical texts. In general, the chronology of the OT is understood well enough to vindicate the basic accuracy and sequential order of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Both biblical and nonbiblical materials are utilized by students of OT chronology. Biblical data include (1) genealogies showing personal and tribal affiliations among various peoples; (2) specific numbers given by biblical authors to indicate a person’s longevity, a king’s reign, or the duration of a specific event; (3) synchronizing statements that date an event in a specific year of a king’s reign or relate it to a natural phenomenon assumed to be common knowledge at the time of writing (e.g., Am 1:1; Zec 14:5).<\/p>\n<p>From the abundance of such chronological passages in the OT, one might conclude that establishment of OT dates and sequences would be a simple procedure. Each of the three kinds of biblical materials, however, exhibits special problems that must be solved first.<\/p>\n<p>Nonbiblical materials that shed light on OT chronology are quite numerous, and more are discovered year by year. They include (1) official records of important affairs such as military campaigns from countries like Egypt or Babylonia; (2) official inscriptions that are dedicatory or commemorate a great victory; (3) annals listing major accomplishments of a ruler year by year; (4) ostraca (inscribed pieces of pottery) containing letters, tax transactions and economic records, military dispatches between field leaders and command headquarters, or other information. Ostraca may be dated archaeologically and are often used to supplement the biblical record.<\/p>\n<p>The chronologist tries to examine the pertinent biblical and nonbiblical information, notes areas of correlation among all the data, and finally establishes a working system into which the most facts can be fitted. New evidence uncovered at any time may necessitate shifts in the present working system. Although the basic structure of biblical chronology seems reasonably firm, many details will no doubt be subject to change as new evidence is discovered.<\/p>\n<p>As a general rule, the earlier the period, the less certain one can be of one’s dating. In the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, for example, many dates can be assigned within a range of about 100 years. By the time of David and Solomon (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>), the margin of error over which scholars debate is a decade or less. The range narrows as one comes toward the present, so that, with the exception of one or two problem eras, dates accurate to within one or two years are possible by roughly the middle of the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. Such limitations must be kept in mind in any examination of the major periods of OT history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prepatriarchal Period<\/p>\n<p>• From Abraham to Moses<\/p>\n<p>• Conquest and Consolidation<\/p>\n<p>• The Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>• Judah after the Fall of Israel<\/p>\n<p>• Beyond 587 <span>BC<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrepatriarchalPeriod\">Prepatriarchal Period<\/p>\n<h5>Biblical Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>In the first 11 chapters of Genesis are found accounts of the Creation (chs 1–2), the fall (ch 3), Cain and Abel (ch 4), the Flood (chs 6–9), and the Tower of Babel (ch 11). Those events are set within a certain chronological framework.<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 5, a period of 10 generations elapsed between the Creation and the Flood. Although the individuals listed enjoyed a total life span of a hefty 847 years plus, the total time elapsing between Adam and the Flood was only 1,656 years.<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 11, another 10 generations elapsed from the time of the Flood until the time of Abraham (at least in the Septuagint, the third-century <span>BC<\/span> Greek translation of the OT; the Hebrew Masoretic text has 9). In that period the average age attained by individuals in the list is 346 years (using a figure of 460 for Arphaxad’s son Cainan, who is included in v 13 of the LXX; cf. Lk 3:36); the total elapsed time from the Flood to Abraham is only 520 years. Taken literally, that would mean that all of Abraham’s ancestors as far back as Noah’s son Shem were still alive at Abraham’s birth, and that a total of only 2,176 years elapsed from the time of Creation to Abraham.<\/p>\n<h5>Interpretation of the Biblical Data<\/h5>\n<p>A literalistic or slavishly mathematical interpretation of the figures, as has appeared in the margin of many <span>kjv<\/span> Bibles, requires a number of assumptions: that no names are omitted from the genealogies, that all the numbers given are consecutive, and especially that numbers used in an ancient biblical source carry the same meaning as that associated with them in the modern Western mind. Each assumption needs serious examination in the light of other established facts.<\/p>\n<p>A cursory reading of other biblical genealogies, for example, reveals that not all the names of a given family were always included. Even Matthew recorded a total of 28 generations (two sets of 14 each) between David and Jesus, and comparison with OT genealogies reveals that Matthew omitted several names. Luke listed a total of 42 generations for the same interval. Omissions are also obvious when one compares the genealogical lists given in 1 Chronicles 1–8 with those recorded earlier in Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Joshua, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings.<\/p>\n<p>Further, ancient peoples thought of numbers in a schematic or stylized way. Use of numbers among the ancient Near Eastern nations differed sharply from current Western practice. Examples of that practice are known from both biblical and nonbiblical sources. For example, a list of eight Sumerian kings who ruled in the city of Shurruppak before the “great flood” of the Jemdet Nar era (c. 3000 <span>BC<\/span>) assigns each man an average reign of more than 30,000 years. Berossus, a Babylonian priest of Marduk living in the third century <span>BC<\/span>, added two names to the eight found in that earlier list of kings and assigned an average of 43,200 years to each king. Such extraordinarily high numbers provide a perspective for considering the numbers of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, although one can assume that the numbers assigned to the ages of the patriarchs preceding Abraham in Genesis had real meaning for those responsible for their preservation, they should not be employed in a purely literal sense to compute the length of the various generations mentioned in the text. Further, the numbers given in the Septuagint and in the Samaritan Pentateuch, another early version of the Pentateuch, diverge in many details from those of the Hebrew Masoretic Text. That means, among other things, that the Genesis numbers caused problems for even the earliest scholars of Scripture.<\/p>\n<h5>Nonbiblical Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>Archaeology provides no evidence that may be used to date either the Creation or any other account preserved in Genesis 1–11. The Flood is an example that illustrates some of the difficulties. Many claims have been made by persons from a wide variety of backgrounds (scientists, explorers, theologians, and others) to the effect that archaeology has proven the Genesis Flood narrative to be true. Yet no city so far excavated in Palestine and Syria (including some of the oldest towns in the world) shows archaeological evidence of the Flood.<\/p>\n<p>Although several cities in Mesopotamia do exhibit evidence of a flood, three factors make it difficult to link that evidence with Genesis 6–9. Each of the flood levels so far discovered dates from a different period. Further, since nearby sites show no evidence of flooding, all of the Mesopotamian flood evidence points to relatively small local floods. Finally, the evidence indicates no great cultural discontinuities of the sort that would result from destruction of an entire population. Thus, it seems that the ancient Mesopotamian floods discovered through archaeological research are of the same kind as the floods that still occur in the Euphrates River valley.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, certain questions one might ask of the Genesis narratives simply cannot be answered. Many who regard the Bible as the Word of God have concluded that the dating of events found in Genesis 1–11 must be less important than the theological truths of salvation, faith, and obedience that these accounts present.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FromAbrahamtoMoses\">From Abraham to Moses<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchal Age<\/h5>\n<p>The date of Abraham is still a lively topic among biblical scholars who agree that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were indeed historical persons. Opinions range from an early-date view that estimates that the patriarchal age extended from 2086 to 1871 <span>BC<\/span>, to a late-date view placing Abraham at around 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. Since each position claims to fit the biblical data, a closer look at the two points of view is in order.<\/p>\n<p>Many OT passages seem to support the view that puts Abraham at a comparatively early date. First Kings 6:1 computes 480 years back from the founding of the temple in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign (961 <span>BC<\/span>, according to the early-date view) to the exodus from Egypt, which would then be dated 1441 <span>BC<\/span>. Counting 430 years as the period of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt (see Gn 15:13; Ex 12:40) takes the date back to 1871 <span>BC<\/span>. To that date are added the 215 years demanded by the total of (1) Abraham’s age upon entering Canaan (75 years according to Gn 12:4); (2) 25 additional years before the birth of Isaac (Gn 21:5); (3) 60 more years to the birth of Jacob (Gn 25:26); and (4) the appearance of Jacob before the pharaoh at age 130 (Gn 47:9). Those 215 years added to the previous total give a date of 2086 <span>BC<\/span> for the entrance of Abraham into Canaan and a date of 2161 <span>BC<\/span> for his birth.<\/p>\n<p>Such a calculation does not use all of the chronological evidence presented in the OT; consequently, the date for Abraham is open to challenge. For example, the 480 years between the exodus and Solomon’s fourth regnal year represent a period of time into which the wilderness wanderings, the career of Joshua and his immediate successors, the period of the judges, Samuel, Saul, and David must all be placed. Although the OT does not specifically say how long were the careers of Joshua, Samuel, or Saul, even a modest reckoning pushes the total years required by all the biblical data together to approximately 600.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the length of time to be assigned to the Egyptian sojourn is problematic. The Samaritan Pentateuch and the Septuagint both view the number 430 (in Ex 12:40) as applicable not only to the years in Egypt but to the years of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in Canaan as well. Evidently Paul followed the Septuagint tradition when he dated the giving of the law 430 years later than the time of God’s promise to Abraham (see Gal 3:15-18). That means the Septuagint figure cannot be dismissed lightly.<\/p>\n<p>The late dating of Abraham (c. 1400 <span>BC<\/span>) is based on two propositions: (1) The picture of patriarchal society portrayed in Genesis most closely parallels that reflected in the cuneiform tablets recovered from Nuzi, a town in northeastern Mesopotamia about 175 miles (282 kilometers) north of Baghdad. (2) Because those tablets must be dated in the 15th and 14th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, the parallel patriarchal age must have fallen within the same general time period.<\/p>\n<p>Those who hold the late-date view are aware that their date for Abraham cannot be equated with the set of numbers on which the early-date view depends. They point to other data, also from the OT. Joseph, who was already a highly placed Egyptian official when Jacob moved to Egypt, lived to be 110 years old (Gn 50:26). Moses was a great-grandson of Levi, Joseph’s older brother. Since Joseph lived to see his own greatgrandchildren born (who would probably be younger than Moses since their great-grandfather was younger than his), the late-date view concludes that Joseph could have been alive when Moses was born. The four-generation genealogy of Moses (Levi-Kohath-Amram-Moses, in Ex 6:16-20; Nm 3:17-19; 26:58-59; 1 Chr 6:1-3) was evidently thought to be complete according to Genesis 15:16, which predicted that Abraham’s descendants would be freed from Egyptian bondage “in the fourth generation.”<\/p>\n<p>However, a date of around 1400 <span>BC<\/span> for Abraham cannot be aligned with certain other biblical data, including the long Egyptian sojourn demanded by Genesis 15:13 and Exodus 12:40 and a 40-year (or “one-generation”) wilderness existence. Some normally moderate scholars are forced to reduce the wilderness time to two years in order to maintain their late date for Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>In short, the late-date theory is consistent with part of the biblical evidence (the genealogies of Moses), but the early-date theory conforms to another part (the actual year figures listed in scattered verses from Genesis and Exodus). The late-date theory holds that the genealogies represent more reliable information in Semitic societies generally, whereas the early-date theory computes years given in the biblical account literally throughout its scheme.<\/p>\n<p>Because of problems attached to both positions, a large group of scholars take a middle ground in dating the patriarchal age. Archaeologically, they say, Abraham and his life and times fit perfectly within the early second millennium, but imperfectly within any later period. By placing Abraham roughly between 1800 and 1600 <span>BC<\/span>, they provide enough latitude for a merging of all the available evidence, biblical and nonbiblical, into a workable chronological scheme. Archaeology provides four major bits of evidence for an early second-millennium patriarchal era.<\/p>\n<p>1. Though the Nuzi tablets furnish a clear parallel to patriarchal social life, other tablets from other towns and an earlier era reflect many of the same customs common to Nuzi and Genesis. Since the Nuzians were Hurrians who came to northeastern Mesopotamia from elsewhere (perhaps Armenia), their social customs originated no doubt much earlier than the time of their tablets now in our possession. Accordingly, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> date of the Nuzi tablets does not preclude an earlier date for Abraham.<\/p>\n<li>2. The names of several of Abraham’s ancestors listed in Genesis 11 can now be identified with towns in the northern area of Mesopotamia around Haran, the city from which Abraham migrated to Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:3). Significantly, Haran flourished in the 19th and 18th centuries <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>3. Shortly after 2000 <span>BC<\/span> Semitic nomads from the desert invaded the civilized communities of the Fertile Crescent. Those invaders, called Amorites in the OT, established themselves in several cities in northern Syria and Mesopotamia. One of the Amorite cities was Babylon, ruled by Hammurabi sometime around the beginning of the 18th century <span>BC<\/span>. Although the King Amraphel of Genesis 14:1 is not linguistically identifiable with the Babylonian king Hammurabi, as earlier scholars believed, the picture of the times following the Amorite invasion still accords well with the Genesis narratives generally.<\/li>\n<li>4. Mari, another Amorite town, is now well known because of more than 20,000 tablets recovered from its royal palace and archives. Geographically, Mari is located in the general area of Haran. Chronologically, the tablets recovered come from the 18th century <span>BC<\/span>. One 18th-century king of Mari, Zimri Lim, carried on extensive correspondence with Hammurabi of Babylon. The tablets from Mari also furnish valuable information about tribal and ethnic groups and their movements in the general region. Of basic importance for dating the Genesis materials are certain documents from Mari that include personal names very similar to Abraham (Abi-ram), Jacob, Laban, and several other West Semitic names.<\/li>\n<p>Archaeological evidence neither proves nor disproves the actual existence of Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob. That is admitted on all sides. What archaeology has done is to provide a framework of probabilities within which the biblical patriarchal narratives appear more and more to be at home.<\/p>\n<h5>Date of the Exodus<\/h5>\n<p>The problem of dating the patriarchal age is closely related to the problem of assigning a date to the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. Since the evidence does not permit a precise date for Abraham, a precise date for the entry of Joseph or Jacob into Egypt is likewise unobtainable. Further, the biblical evidence does not yield an exact figure for the length of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>For many years biblical scholars viewed 1 Kings 6:1 as a foundation upon which to build an unshakable date for the exodus. Because Solomon’s fourth year could be unquestionably fixed to within at least a 10-year span (967–958 <span>BC<\/span>), the exodus too could be dated with the same precision simply by adding 480 years. But other biblical data raise serious questions about that simple procedure. When the Bible deals with all the events between the time of the exodus and the founding of Solomon’s temple, that is, from Numbers to 1 Kings 5:18, the precise numbers given total not 480 but closer to 600 years.<\/p>\n<p>Because the evidence is insufficient to allow a precise date for the exodus, scholarly opinion remains divided between two possibilities. A 15th-century exodus is supported by several pieces of evidence. The chronology in 1 Kings 6:1 appears to be independently corroborated by a passage in Judges 11:26. It claims that Israel had occupied the area around Heshbon for 300 years preceding Jephthah’s own day. If Jephthah is dated at roughly 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, one is obviously led back to an exodus in the middle of the 15th century. Also, three successive generations of pharaohs who ruled in the 16th and 15th centuries produced no male offspring, making it more likely that Moses would have become the foster son of a royal princess during that time; all of the 19th-dynasty kings (1306–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) had legitimate male heirs.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, a 15th-century date makes possible a connection between the Habiru invasion of Canaan (1400–1350 <span>BC<\/span>)—described in the Amarna letters found at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt—and the invasion of Canaan by the Hebrews described in the OT book of Joshua. Related to that is a reference to “Israel” in the Merneptah Stele, a stone pillar inscribed with the deeds of the Egyptian king, Merneptah, of about 1220 <span>BC<\/span>. It implies that the people referred to, met by Merneptah in the course of a Canaanite military campaign, had been in existence for some time. Finally, an excavator of Jericho, John Garstang, placed the destruction of that city at around 1400 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Other evidence, however, strongly implies not a 15th- but a 13th-century date for the exodus. Many scholars assign a date between 1290 and 1275 <span>BC<\/span> on the basis of that evidence. First, the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 discussed above may be interpreted as schematically representing 12 generations, as indicated by 1 Chronicles 6:3-8. Thus if 12 generations averaged 25 years instead of 40 years, the reduction of 480 schematized years to 300 actual years would point to an exodus date of around 1266 <span>BC<\/span>. Second, archaeological evidence exists that dates destruction at the assumed sites of several cities conquered by Joshua (Lachish, Debir, Bethel, and Hazor) to the late 13th century. Third, there is no biblical mention of Egyptian military campaigns (such as Merneptah’s 1220 <span>BC<\/span> incursion); Israelites living in Canaan before the time of the militarily active pharaohs Seti I (1319–1301 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ramses II (1301–1234 <span>BC<\/span>) would certainly have been affected by such activity. Fourth, Exodus 1:11 mentions the city of Rameses, the capital built by Ramses II, according to his own inscriptions. A fifth line of argument comes from archaeological conclusions that Transjordan and the Negev Desert were not occupied by sedentary people between 1900 and 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas the Bible states clearly that the Israelites encountered stiff opposition from groups in that same region. Thus, it is argued, the Israelites must have entered that region after 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. Sixth, connecting the Habiru with the Israelites of the Conquest lacks weight because many texts besides the Amarna tablets attest to the existence of Habiru groups virtually all over the ancient Near East. “Habiru” seems to be a much broader term, possibly meaning “trespasser,” and is probably unrelated etymologically or semantically to “Hebrew.” Seventh, and finally, Garstang’s work at Jericho has now been revised by archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon, who showed that the fallen walls that Garstang had dated about 1400 <span>BC<\/span> in reality were destroyed in 1800 <span>BC<\/span> or earlier.<\/p>\n<p>So far, it has been impossible to decide with precision between the two centuries proposed for the exodus. The majority opinion among OT scholars generally, including a growing number of moderate or conservative scholars, is in favor of the 13th-century option. On the other hand, many other conservative scholars continue to favor the 15th-century date. Dogmatism is unwarranted since problems remain unresolved with either option.<\/p>\n<p>In accordance with the majority opinion, however, a date of about 1290 <span>BC<\/span> for the exodus will be used in dealing with subsequent problems.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConquestandConsolidation\">Conquest and Consolidation<\/p>\n<p>The chronological task for the period of conquest and consolidation is to fit all the events narrated by the OT, chiefly in Joshua and Judges, between the exodus (c. 1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the times of David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>) and Solomon (d. 930 <span>BC<\/span>). In other words, one must fit roughly 550 years of biblical events between Moses and David into a 290-year span.<\/p>\n<p>Although assigning an early date for the exodus (c. 1447 <span>BC<\/span>) would make the task somewhat easier, the mere addition of about 157 years does not by itself solve all the problems. Neither date allows enough time for all the OT events from Joshua to David to take place singly and consecutively. Accordingly, advocates of both dates assume that some of the judges ruled simultaneously rather than consecutively. The difference is one of degree only.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua furnishes most of the OT evidence regarding the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. Unfortunately, the book of Joshua has no chronological notes that specify the amount of time elapsing during Joshua’s career. Further, there are no biblical references to major contemporary events in other parts of the ancient world, the dates of which could be used to fix the chronology. Rather, in what is obviously a telescoped account, the book of Joshua records the fall of Jericho and Ai, followed closely by a southern and then a northern campaign. After those victories, covering much of the total territory of Canaan, various parcels of land were distributed to the tribal groups of Israel; the tribes were expected to complete the task of destroying whatever Canaanite inhabitants remained in their particular region. One seeks in vain, however, for any statements indicating how long those events took.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Judges a slightly different circumstance prevails. There the OT furnishes a rather complete list of figures to indicate the duration of periods of foreign oppression, judgeships, and ensuing peace. The total number of years described for that period is 410, but that total does not include any time for the many “minor” judges. It seems obvious, therefore, that most if not all of the judges were simply local chieftains whose activity was simultaneous with that of other judges, at least for part of their reign. Unfortunately, the book of Judges provides no cross-reference system to indicate which judges were contemporaries of which others. Perhaps the best one can do is to assume general guidelines for the chronology of that period between Moses and David.<\/p>\n<p>Two significant facts should be kept in mind. First, archaeological information seems to demand a Conquest date beginning about 1250 <span>BC<\/span> rather than 200 years earlier. Assuming concurrent careers for the judges allows one to compress the literal OT figures into the general scheme demanded by other evidence.<\/p>\n<p>Second, the ancient scribes evidently related the chronology of the period to a 40-year or generation-based schema, a practice that lasted until the time of the divided kingdom, when a regular dynastic chronology was introduced. In the face of so many careers being assigned exactly 40 years, the fact remains that the literal totals of such numbers cannot be harmonized with either the biblical or the archaeological evidence for the period. Accordingly, most scholars doubt that the number 40 was ever intended to be an exact mathematical calculation. That view permits enough leeway for cautious fitting of biblical and other evidence into a general timetable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMonarchy\">The Monarchy<\/p>\n<h5>Types of Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>For the period of the Israelite monarchy, chronological evidence is abundant.<\/p>\n<p>The OT itself strives to provide all the information necessary for the chronology of the period, including (1) a complete list of all the kings in Israel and in Judah both before and after the division of the kingdom; (2) the age of each king (except Saul) at his accession; (3) synchronisms of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah showing in what year of his contemporary in the other kingdom each king came to the throne; and (4) precise calculations of the length of each king’s reign. In addition some important events are dated by reference to another event; others are coordinated with concurrent events in secular history.<\/p>\n<p>Outside the OT an abundance of material provides evidence for a chronology of the period. By far the most important single source is a collection of Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists. In Assyria a record of each king’s reign was kept on a particular kind of annal. Each year of reign was named after an individual of high rank in the court; the first year was named after the king himself, the second after the next highest-ranking official (though that name appears to have been selected by lot originally), and so on, down until the death of the king. The word <em>limmu<\/em> was used to introduce the name of the official after whom the current year was to be named, hence the designation <em>“limmu<\/em> lists.”<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists are tied precisely to the solar year, making the documents highly reliable. Further, in addition to many events in Assyrian history, notable natural phenomena were dated on the basis of the <em>limmu<\/em> in which they occurred. For example, a solar eclipse dated by the Assyrian scribes in the <em>limmu<\/em> year of Bur-Sagale has been computed astronomically as June 15, 763 <span>BC<\/span>. Beginning with the year 763, then, and working both backward and forward, a complete list of Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> officials has been obtained for the period between 891 and 648 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>With the accuracy of the Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists corroborated by a number of sources, they can be used with confidence in reconstructing the chronology of the corresponding period of biblical history. That is especially true where a biblical writer related an Israelite or a Judahite event to a particular year in the reign of an Assyrian king whose <em>limmu<\/em> list indicates the precise years of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>There are also records from Chaldean (Babylonian) king lists and from later Greek historians. Ptolemy, in the second century <span>AD<\/span>, for example, gave dates for Babylonian kings from 747 <span>BC<\/span> and continued with dates for Persian, Greek, and Roman rulers down to <span>AD<\/span> 161. Finally, useful information is found in inscriptions from monuments, stelae, and other artifacts from Assyria and elsewhere.<\/p>\n<h5>Monarchical Chronology<\/h5>\n<p>The <em>limmu<\/em> list of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III provides a basis for the first comparison of dates among Assyria, Israel, and Judah. In the <em>limmu<\/em> of Daian-Assur, Shalmaneser’s sixth year on the throne, Ahab of Israel was listed as one of the kings who fought against the Assyrians in the battle of Qarqar. Thus the date for that battle may be placed confidently in 853 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian records also indicate that Shalmaneser III came into contact with an Israelite king 12 years later, in 841 <span>BC<\/span>. That king was Jehu. Thus two fixed points are available for correlating the biblical information. Following the death of Ahab, which is not dated exactly by reference to the Assyrian records, two of his sons came to power. The first, Ahaziah, reigned two years (1 Kgs 22:51); the second, Joram (also called Jehoram), reigned a total of 12 years (2 Kgs 3:1). Recognizing a nonaccession-year reckoning by the Israelites in that era, the apparent total of 14 years may be reduced to an actual total of 12. Thus it seems evident that Ahab not only fought Shalmaneser III in 853 <span>BC<\/span> but also died in that year. Ahab was then followed by his two sons for a total of 12 years before the accession of Jehu in time to account for his contact with Shalmaneser II in 841 <span>BC<\/span>. Further, because Jehu murdered both the king of Israel (Jehoram) and the king of Judah (Ahaziah) at the same time (2 Kgs 9:24-27), a fixed synchronism is provided between the two kingdoms for the year 841 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The first nine kings of Israel ruled an apparent total of 98 years or an actual total (taking into account Israel’s nonaccession-year policy) of 90 years. Zimri, who ruled only seven days (1 Kgs 16:15-18), counts as one of the nine but does not insert an extra year in either the actual or apparent totals. The accession of Jeroboam I thus occurred in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (adding 90 years to 841 <span>BC<\/span>), and Rehoboam of Judah began to rule in that same year as well. Allowing Solomon the 40-year reign indicated in 1 Kings 11:42 points to the year 970 <span>BC<\/span> for his accession. The death of David would also be pinpointed in that period, although allowance must be made for the possibility of a short co-regency of David and Solomon before David’s death. The reign of Saul then falls approximately in the late 11th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In Judah the period between the death of Solomon in 930 <span>BC<\/span> and the murder of Ahaziah by Jehu in 841 <span>BC<\/span> was occupied by the kingships of six men whose time on the throne totals 95 biblical years. Computation of that era in Judah is not as simple as for the Israelite kings for several reasons. Problems include a change from accession- to nonaccession-year reckoning sometime around 850 <span>BC<\/span>, at least two co-regencies (Jehoshaphat with Asa and then Jehoram with Jehoshaphat), and the calendar differences between the two kingdoms. It is clear that the 95 apparent years must be reduced, on the basis of the differences in computation and calendar, to 90 actual years in order to bring the Judahite figures into line with the established Assyrian and Israelite synchronisms.<\/p>\n<p>After the year 841, the next biblical event to be certified by nonbiblical materials is the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. That date is furnished by the annals of Sargon II of Assyria (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>), successor to Shalmaneser V (727–722 <span>BC<\/span>). Although that date comes just 120 years after the fixed point of 841 <span>BC<\/span> in Israelite history, the chronological materials for that period are quite difficult to interpret accurately. In the past, scholars resorted to assumptions of extensive co-regencies, to presumed confusion on the part of certain scribes over methods to be followed in computations, or to other theories in attempting to understand the period. In spite of the many difficulties, however, all the biblical and Assyrian dates for the period of the divided monarchy have been harmonized—with the exception of four figures related to the closing years of the Israelite kingdom, all connected in some way with the problematic reign of Hoshea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JudahaftertheFallofIsrael\">Judah after the Fall of Israel<\/p>\n<p>Following the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, OT chronology is concerned only with the southern kingdom of Judah until its destruction some 135 years later. Two events in the biblical record important for establishing a chronology for that period are the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib of Assyria in the late eighth century and the eventual fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians in the early sixth century.<\/p>\n<h5>Sennacherib’s Invasion of Judah<\/h5>\n<p>The Assyrian invasion (704–681 <span>BC<\/span>) is recorded in 2 Kings 18:13-16, where verse 13 dates the event to the 14th year of King Hezekiah. Sennacherib’s own inscriptions include a lengthier version of the affair. From them the date of 701 <span>BC<\/span> is established, placing the accession of Hezekiah in 715 <span>BC<\/span>. That much is simple, but problems still arise. For example, 2 Kings 19:9 reports that Sennacherib was in contact with an Ethiopian king, Tirhakah (c. 690–664 <span>BC<\/span>), during the course of his campaign, which included a siege of Jerusalem. Obviously, contact with a ruler who came to power in 690 <span>BC<\/span> at the earliest could not refer to events in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. It is possible, however, that Sennacherib actually made two invasions of Judah, the first in 701 and the second sometime later. The date of that supposed second invasion is not assured, although 2 Kings 19:35-37 may imply that Sennacherib was murdered only shortly after his withdrawal from Jerusalem. Since Sennacherib was succeeded by his son Esarhaddon in the year 681, the presumed second invasion of Judah would have occurred somewhere in the last half of the same decade.<\/p>\n<p>A number of scholars oppose the assumption of a second invasion of Jerusalem by Sennacherib. They suggest the possibility that Tirhakah, though king only from 690 <span>BC<\/span>, may have led troops against Sennacherib as early as 701, before acceding to the throne. The reference to King Tirhakah in 2 Kings 19:9 would then be understood as use of his eventual title in an effort to identify him to a later generation of readers.<\/p>\n<p>However the question of the number of invasions is decided, it is certain that Sennacherib invaded Judah in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the 14th regnal year of Hezekiah. Such a synchronism establishes Hezekiah’s accession year as 715 <span>BC<\/span>, but that date raises another problem. The fall of Samaria, now established at 722, is dated by 2 Kings 18:10 in the sixth year of Hezekiah’s reign. The most likely solution is that Hezekiah began a co-regency with his father, Ahaz, six years before Samaria fell. The possibility for confusion arises from the fact that one verse (2 Kgs 18:13; repeated in Is 36:1) synchronizes Sennacherib’s 701 <span>BC<\/span> invasion with the 14th year of Hezekiah’s independent reign; another verse (2 Kgs 18:10) correlates the fall of Samaria with the beginning of Hezekiah’s co-regency. Thus from about 728 to 715 <span>BC<\/span> Hezekiah was co-regent with Ahaz. From 715 to 697 he reigned alone. From 696 to 686 his son Manasseh was co-ruler with him.<\/p>\n<p>According to the chronological information given by a number of verses in 2 Kings, a total of 128 years and six months elapsed between the time of Hezekiah’s accession in 715 and the capture of King Jehoiachin in 597, a date to be discussed below. Thus another problem is to explain the more than 10-year excess apparently demanded by the biblical totals. The best solution appears to lie in the assumption that Manasseh first came to power in 697 as co-regent with his father, Hezekiah. Manasseh died in 642, following what 2 Kings 21:1 states was a 55-year reign. Hezekiah, who came to the throne in 715, is said to have reigned 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2), which would mean that he was king until 686, roughly 11 years after the time when Manasseh must have come to the throne in order to have completed a 55-year reign by 642.<\/p>\n<h5>Fall of Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>Contemporary Babylonian records are available to shed valuable light on the last few years of Judah’s existence. For the years 626–623, 618–595, and 556 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonian Chronicle, a formal record of Babylonian affairs of state, has been recovered. From information contained in that chronicle and other cuneiform documents of the period, three dates in Judah’s history may be fixed firmly. The first is the death of Josiah in 609; the second is the battle of Carchemish in 605; the third is the end of the reign of Jehoiachin, which is dated by the Babylonian Chronicle to the second month of Adar in the ninth year of Nebuchadnezzar, or March 16, 597.<\/p>\n<p>After Jehoiachin’s capture, Zedekiah became puppet king of Judah for 11 years (2 Kgs 24:18). On the tenth day of the tenth month during Zedekiah’s ninth regnal year (2 Kgs 25:1), the final siege of Jerusalem was begun by the Babylonian army. That day was January 15, 588. On the ninth day of the fourth month during the 11th regnal year of Zedekiah, after a siege of almost 18 months, the wall of Jerusalem was broken through (2 Kgs 25:3-4). The temple was burned on day seven of the following (fifth) month.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Beyond587bc\">Beyond 586 <span>BC<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Following the tragedy of 586 <span>BC<\/span>, several further developments are given chronological notice in the OT. Jeremiah 52:30 records a third deportation of Jews to Babylonia in the 23d year of King Nebuchadnezzar (582 or 581 <span>BC<\/span>). Both 2 Kings 25:27 and Jeremiah 52:31 give evidence of the release of King Jehoiachin from prison; the Babylonian Chronicle dates that event at 27 Adar, or March 21, 561 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In 539 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians themselves were destined to learn the meaning of defeat. In that year a Persian ruler, Cyrus the Great, launched a successful campaign against Babylon and its king, Nabonidus. Inheriting control over the exiled Jews and many other groups of people conquered earlier by Babylonia, Cyrus moved quickly to initiate a policy of tolerance toward his new subjects. In the first year of his rule Cyrus issued an edict making it possible for Jews to return to their former land (Ezr 1:1). On the first day of the following year, 1 Tishri (Ezr 3:6), an altar was set up in Jerusalem. In Iyyar of the following year (April\/May 536) work was begun on the temple itself (Ezr 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>After a period of frustrating work stoppages of varying lengths, the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah spurred on the Jews to complete the temple. Work resumed in 520 (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1, 15) and was finally completed on 3 Adar, or March 12, 515 (Ezr 6:15). The final stages of OT chronology pertain to the careers of Ezra and Nehemiah. The traditional view of their era places Ezra in the seventh year of Artaxerxes I (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah in the 20th (445 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> “Date” under each OT book; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Diaspora of the Jews; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the; Postexilic Period; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (Old Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to assign dates and sequences to OT events. Chronology is a science. It deals with evidence, theories, assumptions, and the balance of probabilities. Often it boils down to a matter of choosing among theories that are equally unable to solve all the problems raised by other points of view. OT chronology is an accredited branch of biblical studies primarily because it is essential for understanding the proper his...","summary_en":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (Old Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to assign dates and sequences to OT events. Chronology is a science. It deals with evidence, theories, assumptions, and the balance of probabilities. Often it boils down to a matter of choosing among theories that are equally unable to solve all the problems raised by other points of view. OT chronology is an accredited branch of biblical studies primarily because it is essential for understanding the proper his...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26913,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Significance of Names","title_en":"Significance of Names","content_ro":"<h3>NAMES, Significance of<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names:<\/p>\n<p>1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births gave Jacob (Gn 25:26) and also Samuel (1 Sm 1:20) their names. In Samuel’s case it is interesting to note that his name, meaning “heard by God,” records not the offering of prayer but the hearing and answering of it. Something of the deeper and more far-reaching implications of naming is seen in the fact that while the names Jacob and Samuel arise from birth circumstances, they also reveal in advance the person the child will become: Jacob the sneaky opportunist (cf. Gn 27:36), Samuel the man of prayer (1 Sm 7:5-9; 8:6, 21; 12:19-23).<\/p>\n<li>2. To express parental reactions to the birth. Isaac means “laughter” (cf. Gn 17:17; 18:12; 21:3-6). Nabal (1 Sm 25:25), which means “fool,” must have been the essence of a mother’s prayer—“Let him not be a fool”—though sadly he was! Abimelech (Jgs 8:31) means “My father is king” and may express a secret ambition of Gideon’s, at variance with his public testimony (Jgs 8:22-23).<\/li>\n<li>3. To secure the solidarity of the family. This may explain the proposal to call the baby Zechariah in Luke 1:59.<\/li>\n<li>4. To reveal the nature of the person, his function, or some other significant thing about him. The preeminent example of this is Jesus (Mt 1:21), named for his saving vocation. Isaiah seems to have seen his own name as significant of his message “the Lord saves” (see Is 8:18 <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/li>\n<li>5. To communicate God’s message. Isaiah (see Is 7:3) called his first son Shear-jashub (“a remnant shall return”) in order to embody the double-sided thrust of his message: as a result of faithlessness, the people will be reduced to a mere remnant (“only a remnant shall return”); as a result of God’s faithfulness, his people will be preserved in life (“a remnant shall indeed return”). He called his second boy Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3), (“speed-prey-haste-spoil”), indicating the certainty of the imminent onset of a victorious foe.<\/li>\n<li>6. To establish religious affiliation. All the names in the Bible with the endings <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-iah<\/span> (alternatively <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-jah<\/span>) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span> (e.g., Jeremiah, Nathanael) are in fact statements with “the Lord” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-yah<\/span><em>)<\/em> or “God” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span><em>)<\/em> as subject. For example, Adonijah (2 Sm 3:4) means “the Lord is Sovereign”; Nathanael (Jn 1:47) means “God gave.” Such names were often chosen in times of religious decline in order to affirm the true faith of the parents.<\/li>\n<li>7. To affirm authority over another. In the ancient Near East, the naming of an object or person implied power and authority over what was named (Gn 2:19-20). Thus, a person not knowing another’s name could do neither harm nor good to that person (Ex 33:12, 17). In the ancient world a name described the person or his work in some way. When the individual or his situation changed, so did the name, as with Abram (Abraham) and Jacob (Israel). Pharaoh, as master of the patriarch Joseph, changed Joseph’s name when his status altered, calling him Zaphenath-paneah (Gn 41:45). When Eliakim was made king of Judah, the pharaoh changed the Jewish king’s name to Jehoiakim (2 Kgs 23:34). In captivity, Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were forced to change their names to Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego by order of the eunuch (Dn 1:6-7).<\/li>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist was named by an angel who represented God, and similarly Jesus was given his name by an angel. The naming of those children symbolized God’s authority over John the Baptist and his special relationship as Father to Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewNames\">New Names<\/p>\n<p>The ability of the name to reveal the nature or status of the person who bears it is well illustrated in the biblical practice of giving new names, as when Sarai became Sarah (Gn 17:15). Three motivations are possible:<\/p>\n<p>1. The new name replaces the old in order to signify the bestowal of powers not hitherto possessed. In this case the new name is equivalent to the experience of regeneration. The childless Abram becomes the “father of a multitude of nations,” Abraham (Gn 17:5).<\/p>\n<li>2. The new name may indicate a new character and status with God, as when Jacob the trickster became Israel the man of power with God (Gn 32:27; Hos 12:3-4); thus also, Simon became Peter (Jn 1:42).<\/li>\n<li>3. The new name may cement a new loyalty in the place of an old. Daniel the captive was given the name Belteshazzar, incorporating the name Bel, one of the gods of Babylon—presumably to turn him from the God of his fathers to that of his captors (Dn 1:7).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAMES, Significance of<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names:<\/p>\n<p>1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births gave Jacob (Gn 25:26) and also Samuel (1 Sm 1:20) their names. In Samuel’s case it is interesting to note that his name, meaning “heard by God,” records not the offering of prayer but the hearing and answering of it. Something of the deeper and more far-reaching implications of naming is seen in the fact that while the names Jacob and Samuel arise from birth circumstances, they also reveal in advance the person the child will become: Jacob the sneaky opportunist (cf. Gn 27:36), Samuel the man of prayer (1 Sm 7:5-9; 8:6, 21; 12:19-23).<\/p>\n<li>2. To express parental reactions to the birth. Isaac means “laughter” (cf. Gn 17:17; 18:12; 21:3-6). Nabal (1 Sm 25:25), which means “fool,” must have been the essence of a mother’s prayer—“Let him not be a fool”—though sadly he was! Abimelech (Jgs 8:31) means “My father is king” and may express a secret ambition of Gideon’s, at variance with his public testimony (Jgs 8:22-23).<\/li>\n<li>3. To secure the solidarity of the family. This may explain the proposal to call the baby Zechariah in Luke 1:59.<\/li>\n<li>4. To reveal the nature of the person, his function, or some other significant thing about him. The preeminent example of this is Jesus (Mt 1:21), named for his saving vocation. Isaiah seems to have seen his own name as significant of his message “the Lord saves” (see Is 8:18 <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/li>\n<li>5. To communicate God’s message. Isaiah (see Is 7:3) called his first son Shear-jashub (“a remnant shall return”) in order to embody the double-sided thrust of his message: as a result of faithlessness, the people will be reduced to a mere remnant (“only a remnant shall return”); as a result of God’s faithfulness, his people will be preserved in life (“a remnant shall indeed return”). He called his second boy Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3), (“speed-prey-haste-spoil”), indicating the certainty of the imminent onset of a victorious foe.<\/li>\n<li>6. To establish religious affiliation. All the names in the Bible with the endings <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-iah<\/span> (alternatively <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-jah<\/span>) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span> (e.g., Jeremiah, Nathanael) are in fact statements with “the Lord” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-yah<\/span><em>)<\/em> or “God” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">-el<\/span><em>)<\/em> as subject. For example, Adonijah (2 Sm 3:4) means “the Lord is Sovereign”; Nathanael (Jn 1:47) means “God gave.” Such names were often chosen in times of religious decline in order to affirm the true faith of the parents.<\/li>\n<li>7. To affirm authority over another. In the ancient Near East, the naming of an object or person implied power and authority over what was named (Gn 2:19-20). Thus, a person not knowing another’s name could do neither harm nor good to that person (Ex 33:12, 17). In the ancient world a name described the person or his work in some way. When the individual or his situation changed, so did the name, as with Abram (Abraham) and Jacob (Israel). Pharaoh, as master of the patriarch Joseph, changed Joseph’s name when his status altered, calling him Zaphenath-paneah (Gn 41:45). When Eliakim was made king of Judah, the pharaoh changed the Jewish king’s name to Jehoiakim (2 Kgs 23:34). In captivity, Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were forced to change their names to Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego by order of the eunuch (Dn 1:6-7).<\/li>\n<p>In the NT, John the Baptist was named by an angel who represented God, and similarly Jesus was given his name by an angel. The naming of those children symbolized God’s authority over John the Baptist and his special relationship as Father to Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewNames\">New Names<\/p>\n<p>The ability of the name to reveal the nature or status of the person who bears it is well illustrated in the biblical practice of giving new names, as when Sarai became Sarah (Gn 17:15). Three motivations are possible:<\/p>\n<p>1. The new name replaces the old in order to signify the bestowal of powers not hitherto possessed. In this case the new name is equivalent to the experience of regeneration. The childless Abram becomes the “father of a multitude of nations,” Abraham (Gn 17:5).<\/p>\n<li>2. The new name may indicate a new character and status with God, as when Jacob the trickster became Israel the man of power with God (Gn 32:27; Hos 12:3-4); thus also, Simon became Peter (Jn 1:42).<\/li>\n<li>3. The new name may cement a new loyalty in the place of an old. Daniel the captive was given the name Belteshazzar, incorporating the name Bel, one of the gods of Babylon—presumably to turn him from the God of his fathers to that of his captors (Dn 1:7).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAMES, Significance of In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names: 1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births...","summary_en":"NAMES, Significance of In biblical times names were given in order to express something about a person, or to express something through him, and not simply to hang a convenient label around his neck. At least seven motivations appear in the choice of names: 1. To record some aspect of a person’s birth. Moses was so called by his adoptive mother because he was drawn from the water, the sound of the name recalling a Hebrew verb “to draw out” (Ex 2:10). The circumstances surrounding their births...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39751,"type":"chart","type_label":"Diagramă","type_icon":"📊","type_color":"#3b82f6","title_ro":"Significant Old Testament Events and Dates","title_en":"Old Testament Events and Dates, Significant","content_ro":"<h3>Significant Old Testament Events and Dates<\/h3>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><em>Event<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Reference Point<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Biblical Basis<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Date<\/em><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Nehemiah’s wall<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>20th yr. of Artaxerses I of Persia<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Neh 2:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>444 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Return decreed<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1st yr. of Cyrus II of Persia over Babylon<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Ezr 1:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>538<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Fall of Jerusalem<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>19th yr. of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Kgs 25:8<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>586<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Fall of Samaria<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Last yr. of Shalmaneser V of Assyria<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Kgs 17:3<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>722<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Division of Kingdom<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>77 yrs. before 6th yr. of Shalmaneser III<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kgs 11:29-43<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>930<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Temple founded<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>4th yr. of Solomon<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kgs 6:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>966<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Exodus from Egypt<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>480 yrs. before temple’s founding<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kgs 6:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1446<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Descent into Egypt<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Inaugurating a 430 yr. sojourn there (but 397 there, plus 33 in Canaan, for “the sons of Israel,” according to Greek).<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Ex 12:40<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1876<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Gk\/Heb Text<\/em><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Jacob born<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>130 yrs. before<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Gn 47:9<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1973 (2006)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Isaac born<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>60 yrs. before<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Gn 25:26<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2033 (2066)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Abraham born<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>100 yrs. before<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Gn 26:5<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2133 (2166)<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","content_en":"<h3>Significant Old Testament Events and Dates<\/h3>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><em>Event<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Reference Point<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Biblical Basis<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Date<\/em><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Nehemiah’s wall<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>20th yr. of Artaxerses I of Persia<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Neh 2:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>444 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Return decreed<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1st yr. of Cyrus II of Persia over Babylon<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Ezr 1:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>538<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Fall of Jerusalem<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>19th yr. of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Kgs 25:8<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>586<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Fall of Samaria<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Last yr. of Shalmaneser V of Assyria<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Kgs 17:3<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>722<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Division of Kingdom<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>77 yrs. before 6th yr. of Shalmaneser III<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kgs 11:29-43<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>930<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Temple founded<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>4th yr. of Solomon<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kgs 6:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>966<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Exodus from Egypt<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>480 yrs. before temple’s founding<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kgs 6:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1446<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Descent into Egypt<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Inaugurating a 430 yr. sojourn there (but 397 there, plus 33 in Canaan, for “the sons of Israel,” according to Greek).<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Ex 12:40<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1876<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Gk\/Heb Text<\/em><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Jacob born<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>130 yrs. before<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Gn 47:9<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1973 (2006)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Isaac born<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>60 yrs. before<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Gn 25:26<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2033 (2066)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Abraham born<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>100 yrs. before<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Gn 26:5<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2133 (2166)<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","summary_ro":"Significant Old Testament Events and Dates Event Reference Point Biblical Basis Date Nehemiah’s wall 20th yr. of Artaxerses I of Persia Neh 2:1 444 BC Return decreed 1st yr. of Cyrus II of Persia over Babylon Ezr 1:1 538 Fall of Jerusalem 19th yr. of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon 2 Kgs 25:8 586 Fall of Samaria Last yr. of Shalmaneser V of Assyria 2 Kgs 17:3 722 Division of Kingdom 77 yrs. before 6th yr. of Shalmaneser III 1 Kgs 11:29-43 930 Temple founded 4th yr. of Solomon 1 Kgs 6:1 966 Exodu...","summary_en":"Significant Old Testament Events and Dates Event Reference Point Biblical Basis Date Nehemiah’s wall 20th yr. of Artaxerses I of Persia Neh 2:1 444 BC Return decreed 1st yr. of Cyrus II of Persia over Babylon Ezr 1:1 538 Fall of Jerusalem 19th yr. of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon 2 Kgs 25:8 586 Fall of Samaria Last yr. of Shalmaneser V of Assyria 2 Kgs 17:3 722 Division of Kingdom 77 yrs. before 6th yr. of Shalmaneser III 1 Kgs 11:29-43 930 Temple founded 4th yr. of Solomon 1 Kgs 6:1 966 Exodu...","source":"Charts\/Charts.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43220,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:26","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:26<\/strong> The name <em>Jacob<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ya‘aqob,<\/span> from Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘aqeb,<\/span> “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:26<\/strong> The name <em>Jacob<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ya‘aqob,<\/span> from Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘aqeb,<\/span> “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:26 The name Jacob (Hebrew ya‘aqob, from Hebrew ‘aqeb, “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).","summary_en":"25:26 The name Jacob (Hebrew ya‘aqob, from Hebrew ‘aqeb, “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70846,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:26","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:26<\/strong> The name <em>Jacob<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ya‘aqob,<\/span> from Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘aqeb,<\/span> “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:26<\/strong> The name <em>Jacob<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ya‘aqob,<\/span> from Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘aqeb,<\/span> “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:26 The name Jacob (Hebrew ya‘aqob, from Hebrew ‘aqeb, “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).","summary_en":"25:26 The name Jacob (Hebrew ya‘aqob, from Hebrew ‘aqeb, “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98472,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:26","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:26<\/strong> The name <em>Jacob<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ya‘aqob,<\/span> from Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘aqeb,<\/span> “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:26<\/strong> The name <em>Jacob<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ya‘aqob,<\/span> from Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘aqeb,<\/span> “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:26 The name Jacob (Hebrew ya‘aqob, from Hebrew ‘aqeb, “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).","summary_en":"25:26 The name Jacob (Hebrew ya‘aqob, from Hebrew ‘aqeb, “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126098,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:26","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:26<\/strong> The name <em>Jacob<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ya‘aqob,<\/span> from Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘aqeb,<\/span> “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:26<\/strong> The name <em>Jacob<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ya‘aqob,<\/span> from Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘aqeb,<\/span> “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:26 The name Jacob (Hebrew ya‘aqob, from Hebrew ‘aqeb, “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).","summary_en":"25:26 The name Jacob (Hebrew ya‘aqob, from Hebrew ‘aqeb, “heel, footprint”) was originally positive, meaning “protect” (like a rear guard), but it took on the negative meaning of “heel grabber” or “deceiver” in the context of Jacob’s deceptive, grasping, usurping character (see 27:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":40837,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68463,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96089,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123715,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13573,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Genesis","title_en":"Book of Genesis","content_ro":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","summary_en":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16974,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hunting","title_en":"Hunting","content_ro":"<h3>HUNTING<\/h3>\n<p>Practice of tracking and pursuing animals for food, animal products, or sport—a practice as old as man. In Bible times hunting was practiced all over the biblical world. Genesis 10:9 refers to a certain Nimrod who was “a mighty hunter in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (<span>nlt<\/span>); this was long before the patriarchs. In earliest human history hunting was an essential means of obtaining food, clothing, and tools, and even when civilization developed, hunting provided supplemental food for an agricultural diet.<\/p>\n<p>In lands surrounding Israel, hunting is well represented in paintings and bas-reliefs. In ancient Egypt, hunting became a sport, and Egyptians hunted for game and birds often with the help of dogs and cats. Wild game was driven by dogs or humans into enclosures or toward pits and traps. Similarly, in Mesopotamia, hunting was widely practiced, as is evident from many bas-reliefs depicting stags and deer caught in nets. In Assyria wild animals, like lions, were commonly hunted. The bas-reliefs of Nineveh provide many fine pictures of the hunter’s skill.<\/p>\n<p>Palestine was a land where hunting was practiced very early. This is clear from the bones of hunted animals found in the excavation of early sites. Certainly by the middle Bronze Age (c. 1800–1500 <span>BC<\/span>), which approximates the patriarchal age, hunting was widely practiced. The reference to Esau as a skillful hunter (Gn 25:27) would be typical of a time when both agricultural and hunting pursuits were followed. The Egyptian “Tale of Sinuhe”, from the 20th century <span>BC<\/span>, mentions hunting with hounds.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible text gives a number of glimpses into the kinds of birds and animals that were hunted. Lists of animals that were “clean” are provided in Deuteronomy 14:4-6. An interesting variety of animals was available to the people of Israel; many were domestic, but there was a variety of wild animals to test the ingenuity of the hunter: the goat, the hare, the gazelle, the roebuck (cf. 1 Kgs 4:23), the wild goat, the ibex, the antelope, and the mountain sheep. In every case the blood of the animal had to be poured out. There was a proverb current in Israel about a slothful man who caught no prey—or if he catches it, doesn’t cook it (Prv 12:27).<\/p>\n<p>Some passages in the OT record the killing of animals in self-protection (Jgs 14:6; 1 Sm 17:34-37; 2 Sm 23:20). Shepherds normally carried a club and a sling to protect their flocks from marauding beasts (1 Sm 17:40; Ps 23:4).<\/p>\n<p>A variety of birds was hunted, as for example, the partridge referred to in 1 Samuel 26:20 (cf. Dt 14:11-18). There are references also to some of the devices used in hunting: bows and arrows (Gn 27:3), clubs (Jb 41:29), sling stones (1 Sm 17:40), nets (Jb 19:6), fowlers’ snares (Ps 91:3), camouflaged pits (Pss 7:15; 35:7; Prv 22:14; 26:27; Is 24:17-18). Of the traps mentioned in the Bible one seems to have been an automatic device (Am 3:5) that would spring up from the ground when an animal touched it (cf. Ps 69:22; Hos 9:8) or when the fowler pulled a cord (Ps 140:5; Jer 5:26). The method of driving animals into a trap seems to be referred to in Jeremiah 16:16 and Ezekiel 19:8.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HUNTING<\/h3>\n<p>Practice of tracking and pursuing animals for food, animal products, or sport—a practice as old as man. In Bible times hunting was practiced all over the biblical world. Genesis 10:9 refers to a certain Nimrod who was “a mighty hunter in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (<span>nlt<\/span>); this was long before the patriarchs. In earliest human history hunting was an essential means of obtaining food, clothing, and tools, and even when civilization developed, hunting provided supplemental food for an agricultural diet.<\/p>\n<p>In lands surrounding Israel, hunting is well represented in paintings and bas-reliefs. In ancient Egypt, hunting became a sport, and Egyptians hunted for game and birds often with the help of dogs and cats. Wild game was driven by dogs or humans into enclosures or toward pits and traps. Similarly, in Mesopotamia, hunting was widely practiced, as is evident from many bas-reliefs depicting stags and deer caught in nets. In Assyria wild animals, like lions, were commonly hunted. The bas-reliefs of Nineveh provide many fine pictures of the hunter’s skill.<\/p>\n<p>Palestine was a land where hunting was practiced very early. This is clear from the bones of hunted animals found in the excavation of early sites. Certainly by the middle Bronze Age (c. 1800–1500 <span>BC<\/span>), which approximates the patriarchal age, hunting was widely practiced. The reference to Esau as a skillful hunter (Gn 25:27) would be typical of a time when both agricultural and hunting pursuits were followed. The Egyptian “Tale of Sinuhe”, from the 20th century <span>BC<\/span>, mentions hunting with hounds.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible text gives a number of glimpses into the kinds of birds and animals that were hunted. Lists of animals that were “clean” are provided in Deuteronomy 14:4-6. An interesting variety of animals was available to the people of Israel; many were domestic, but there was a variety of wild animals to test the ingenuity of the hunter: the goat, the hare, the gazelle, the roebuck (cf. 1 Kgs 4:23), the wild goat, the ibex, the antelope, and the mountain sheep. In every case the blood of the animal had to be poured out. There was a proverb current in Israel about a slothful man who caught no prey—or if he catches it, doesn’t cook it (Prv 12:27).<\/p>\n<p>Some passages in the OT record the killing of animals in self-protection (Jgs 14:6; 1 Sm 17:34-37; 2 Sm 23:20). Shepherds normally carried a club and a sling to protect their flocks from marauding beasts (1 Sm 17:40; Ps 23:4).<\/p>\n<p>A variety of birds was hunted, as for example, the partridge referred to in 1 Samuel 26:20 (cf. Dt 14:11-18). There are references also to some of the devices used in hunting: bows and arrows (Gn 27:3), clubs (Jb 41:29), sling stones (1 Sm 17:40), nets (Jb 19:6), fowlers’ snares (Ps 91:3), camouflaged pits (Pss 7:15; 35:7; Prv 22:14; 26:27; Is 24:17-18). Of the traps mentioned in the Bible one seems to have been an automatic device (Am 3:5) that would spring up from the ground when an animal touched it (cf. Ps 69:22; Hos 9:8) or when the fowler pulled a cord (Ps 140:5; Jer 5:26). The method of driving animals into a trap seems to be referred to in Jeremiah 16:16 and Ezekiel 19:8.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HUNTING Practice of tracking and pursuing animals for food, animal products, or sport—a practice as old as man. In Bible times hunting was practiced all over the biblical world. Genesis 10:9 refers to a certain Nimrod who was “a mighty hunter in the Lord’s sight” (nlt); this was long before the patriarchs. In earliest human history hunting was an essential means of obtaining food, clothing, and tools, and even when civilization developed, hunting provided supplemental food for an agricultural...","summary_en":"HUNTING Practice of tracking and pursuing animals for food, animal products, or sport—a practice as old as man. In Bible times hunting was practiced all over the biblical world. Genesis 10:9 refers to a certain Nimrod who was “a mighty hunter in the Lord’s sight” (nlt); this was long before the patriarchs. In earliest human history hunting was an essential means of obtaining food, clothing, and tools, and even when civilization developed, hunting provided supplemental food for an agricultural...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27992,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tablets* Nuzi*, Nuzi","title_en":"Tablets* Nuzi*, Nuzi","content_ro":"<h3>NUZI*, NUZI TABLETS*<\/h3>\n<p>Town in northeastern Mesopotamia, about nine miles (14.5 kilometers) southwest of present-day Kirkuk. In ancient times the site was called Gasur, but the modern name is Yorgan Tepe. Excavations at Yorgan Tepe were carried out from 1925 to 1931 by an expedition of a number of cooperating archaeologists who made many interesting finds. But Yorgan Tepe is best known for its clay tablets, which primarily deal with business transactions.<\/p>\n<p>In the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> the population of Gasur was largely Semitic, but by the middle of the second millennium, the inhabitants were Hurrians, and the name of the city had been changed from Gasur to Nuzi. The Hurrians are identified as the Horites of the Bible (cf. Gn 14:6; 36:20-21; Dt 2:12, 22).<\/p>\n<p>Many clay tablets of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> were unearthed, including one tablet inscribed with a map regarded as the oldest map in the world. The records also show that installment buying was practiced even then.<\/p>\n<p>In the 15th to 14th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Hurrian scribes wrote on thousands of clay tablets, mostly in the Babylonian language. These records provide much information about Near Eastern customs and legal practices, and shed light on the patriarchal period of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The following examples may serve as illustrations of possible relationships between Nuzi and the Bible. In Nuzi a childless wife could give her handmaid to her husband so that the maid could bear children in the name of the wife. This practice was followed by Sarai, who gave her maid, Hagar, to her husband, Abram (Gn 16:1-4); by Rachel, who gave Bilhah to Jacob (30:1-8); and by Leah, who gave Zilpah to Jacob (vv 9-13). In such a case, the father had a responsibility to rear the child as the offspring of his legal wife, and the wife could not drive away the child. According to this rule, Sarai had no right to drive out Hagar’s son, Ishmael (cf. 16:4-6).<\/p>\n<p>In Nuzi there was a law against the sale of property outside one’s own family. Several schemes were employed to circumvent this prohibition, including adoption and the exchange of property. In return for a guarantee of lifelong care and burial costs, a wealthy landowner would have himself “adopted” by landholding peasants so that he received their property. The records indicate that the very same man could be adopted by 300 or 400 peasants. A couple without children could legally adopt someone to provide for them in their old age and for their burial. The adopted person would be the heir to the property of his adopting parents; this may have been the relationship between Abram and his servant Eliezer (Gn 15:2). One could also exchange property of little value for valuable property. In some instances, the difference in value could be made up in money. At Nuzi a man named Tehip-tilla sold his inheritance rights in a grove to his brother, Kurpazah, in exchange for three sheep, paralleling Esau’s sale of his birthright to Jacob for a serving of stew (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>In Nuzi an oral will or blessing given on one’s deathbed was legally binding and irrevocable. A man named Huya was lying on his sickbed at the point of death. He took the hand of his son, Tarmiya, and gave to him a woman, Sululi-Ishtar, to be his wife. Tarmiya’s two brothers challenged his claim in court, but the court recognized the validity of Tarmiya’s case. Although Jacob obtained the blessing of his blind and aged father by deception, Isaac had to stand by what he had done (Gn 27:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Nuzi tablets also indicate that the person who had possession of the teraphim, or household gods, was the heir to the property of the owner of the idols. For this reason, Rachel took the teraphim of her father Laban (Gn 31:19), who was very disturbed over their disappearance (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Another case of adoption parallels the relationship between Jacob and Laban. Nashwi adopted Wullu and gave his daughter, Nuhuya, to him in marriage. If Wullu married another wife, he would have to forfeit the property he had received from Nashwi. Laban also made a covenant with Jacob that he would not take a wife other than Laban’s two daughters, Leah and Rachel (Gn 31:50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Inscriptions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUZI*, NUZI TABLETS*<\/h3>\n<p>Town in northeastern Mesopotamia, about nine miles (14.5 kilometers) southwest of present-day Kirkuk. In ancient times the site was called Gasur, but the modern name is Yorgan Tepe. Excavations at Yorgan Tepe were carried out from 1925 to 1931 by an expedition of a number of cooperating archaeologists who made many interesting finds. But Yorgan Tepe is best known for its clay tablets, which primarily deal with business transactions.<\/p>\n<p>In the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> the population of Gasur was largely Semitic, but by the middle of the second millennium, the inhabitants were Hurrians, and the name of the city had been changed from Gasur to Nuzi. The Hurrians are identified as the Horites of the Bible (cf. Gn 14:6; 36:20-21; Dt 2:12, 22).<\/p>\n<p>Many clay tablets of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> were unearthed, including one tablet inscribed with a map regarded as the oldest map in the world. The records also show that installment buying was practiced even then.<\/p>\n<p>In the 15th to 14th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Hurrian scribes wrote on thousands of clay tablets, mostly in the Babylonian language. These records provide much information about Near Eastern customs and legal practices, and shed light on the patriarchal period of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The following examples may serve as illustrations of possible relationships between Nuzi and the Bible. In Nuzi a childless wife could give her handmaid to her husband so that the maid could bear children in the name of the wife. This practice was followed by Sarai, who gave her maid, Hagar, to her husband, Abram (Gn 16:1-4); by Rachel, who gave Bilhah to Jacob (30:1-8); and by Leah, who gave Zilpah to Jacob (vv 9-13). In such a case, the father had a responsibility to rear the child as the offspring of his legal wife, and the wife could not drive away the child. According to this rule, Sarai had no right to drive out Hagar’s son, Ishmael (cf. 16:4-6).<\/p>\n<p>In Nuzi there was a law against the sale of property outside one’s own family. Several schemes were employed to circumvent this prohibition, including adoption and the exchange of property. In return for a guarantee of lifelong care and burial costs, a wealthy landowner would have himself “adopted” by landholding peasants so that he received their property. The records indicate that the very same man could be adopted by 300 or 400 peasants. A couple without children could legally adopt someone to provide for them in their old age and for their burial. The adopted person would be the heir to the property of his adopting parents; this may have been the relationship between Abram and his servant Eliezer (Gn 15:2). One could also exchange property of little value for valuable property. In some instances, the difference in value could be made up in money. At Nuzi a man named Tehip-tilla sold his inheritance rights in a grove to his brother, Kurpazah, in exchange for three sheep, paralleling Esau’s sale of his birthright to Jacob for a serving of stew (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>In Nuzi an oral will or blessing given on one’s deathbed was legally binding and irrevocable. A man named Huya was lying on his sickbed at the point of death. He took the hand of his son, Tarmiya, and gave to him a woman, Sululi-Ishtar, to be his wife. Tarmiya’s two brothers challenged his claim in court, but the court recognized the validity of Tarmiya’s case. Although Jacob obtained the blessing of his blind and aged father by deception, Isaac had to stand by what he had done (Gn 27:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Nuzi tablets also indicate that the person who had possession of the teraphim, or household gods, was the heir to the property of the owner of the idols. For this reason, Rachel took the teraphim of her father Laban (Gn 31:19), who was very disturbed over their disappearance (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Another case of adoption parallels the relationship between Jacob and Laban. Nashwi adopted Wullu and gave his daughter, Nuhuya, to him in marriage. If Wullu married another wife, he would have to forfeit the property he had received from Nashwi. Laban also made a covenant with Jacob that he would not take a wife other than Laban’s two daughters, Leah and Rachel (Gn 31:50).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Inscriptions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUZI*, NUZI TABLETS* Town in northeastern Mesopotamia, about nine miles (14.5 kilometers) southwest of present-day Kirkuk. In ancient times the site was called Gasur, but the modern name is Yorgan Tepe. Excavations at Yorgan Tepe were carried out from 1925 to 1931 by an expedition of a number of cooperating archaeologists who made many interesting finds. But Yorgan Tepe is best known for its clay tablets, which primarily deal with business transactions. In the third millennium BC the populati...","summary_en":"NUZI*, NUZI TABLETS* Town in northeastern Mesopotamia, about nine miles (14.5 kilometers) southwest of present-day Kirkuk. In ancient times the site was called Gasur, but the modern name is Yorgan Tepe. Excavations at Yorgan Tepe were carried out from 1925 to 1931 by an expedition of a number of cooperating archaeologists who made many interesting finds. But Yorgan Tepe is best known for its clay tablets, which primarily deal with business transactions. In the third millennium BC the populati...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43221,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:27-34<\/strong> Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:27-34<\/strong> Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:27-34 Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.","summary_en":"25:27-34 Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43222,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:27<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was a <em>skillful hunter<\/em> and <em>an outdoorsman<\/em>—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a <em>quiet<\/em> (or <em>even<\/em>) <em>temperament<\/em> and preferred <em>to stay at home<\/em> (literally <em>dwelling in tents<\/em>)—i.e., he was civilized.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:27<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was a <em>skillful hunter<\/em> and <em>an outdoorsman<\/em>—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a <em>quiet<\/em> (or <em>even<\/em>) <em>temperament<\/em> and preferred <em>to stay at home<\/em> (literally <em>dwelling in tents<\/em>)—i.e., he was civilized.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:27 Esau was a skillful hunter and an outdoorsman—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a quiet (or even) temperament and preferred to stay at home (literally dwelling in tents)—i.e., he was civilized.","summary_en":"25:27 Esau was a skillful hunter and an outdoorsman—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a quiet (or even) temperament and preferred to stay at home (literally dwelling in tents)—i.e., he was civilized.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70847,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:27-34<\/strong> Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:27-34<\/strong> Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:27-34 Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.","summary_en":"25:27-34 Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70848,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:27<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was a <em>skillful hunter<\/em> and <em>an outdoorsman<\/em>—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a <em>quiet<\/em> (or <em>even<\/em>) <em>temperament<\/em> and preferred <em>to stay at home<\/em> (literally <em>dwelling in tents<\/em>)—i.e., he was civilized.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:27<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was a <em>skillful hunter<\/em> and <em>an outdoorsman<\/em>—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a <em>quiet<\/em> (or <em>even<\/em>) <em>temperament<\/em> and preferred <em>to stay at home<\/em> (literally <em>dwelling in tents<\/em>)—i.e., he was civilized.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:27 Esau was a skillful hunter and an outdoorsman—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a quiet (or even) temperament and preferred to stay at home (literally dwelling in tents)—i.e., he was civilized.","summary_en":"25:27 Esau was a skillful hunter and an outdoorsman—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a quiet (or even) temperament and preferred to stay at home (literally dwelling in tents)—i.e., he was civilized.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98473,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:27-34<\/strong> Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:27-34<\/strong> Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:27-34 Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.","summary_en":"25:27-34 Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98474,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:27<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was a <em>skillful hunter<\/em> and <em>an outdoorsman<\/em>—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a <em>quiet<\/em> (or <em>even<\/em>) <em>temperament<\/em> and preferred <em>to stay at home<\/em> (literally <em>dwelling in tents<\/em>)—i.e., he was civilized.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:27<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was a <em>skillful hunter<\/em> and <em>an outdoorsman<\/em>—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a <em>quiet<\/em> (or <em>even<\/em>) <em>temperament<\/em> and preferred <em>to stay at home<\/em> (literally <em>dwelling in tents<\/em>)—i.e., he was civilized.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:27 Esau was a skillful hunter and an outdoorsman—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a quiet (or even) temperament and preferred to stay at home (literally dwelling in tents)—i.e., he was civilized.","summary_en":"25:27 Esau was a skillful hunter and an outdoorsman—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a quiet (or even) temperament and preferred to stay at home (literally dwelling in tents)—i.e., he was civilized.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126099,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:27-34<\/strong> Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:27-34<\/strong> Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:27-34 Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.","summary_en":"25:27-34 Jacob and Esau each developed in accord with his initial characteristics (25:24-26). Esau, the reddish, hairy man, cared about physical things rather than spiritual things (see Heb 12:16); he was finally overcome by physical appetites and sold his birthright. Jacob, the heel grabber, knew the birthright’s value and drove a ruthless bargain to gain it presumptuously from his brother.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126100,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:27","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:27<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was a <em>skillful hunter<\/em> and <em>an outdoorsman<\/em>—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a <em>quiet<\/em> (or <em>even<\/em>) <em>temperament<\/em> and preferred <em>to stay at home<\/em> (literally <em>dwelling in tents<\/em>)—i.e., he was civilized.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:27<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was a <em>skillful hunter<\/em> and <em>an outdoorsman<\/em>—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a <em>quiet<\/em> (or <em>even<\/em>) <em>temperament<\/em> and preferred <em>to stay at home<\/em> (literally <em>dwelling in tents<\/em>)—i.e., he was civilized.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:27 Esau was a skillful hunter and an outdoorsman—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a quiet (or even) temperament and preferred to stay at home (literally dwelling in tents)—i.e., he was civilized.","summary_en":"25:27 Esau was a skillful hunter and an outdoorsman—a wild man who loved wild country. Jacob had a quiet (or even) temperament and preferred to stay at home (literally dwelling in tents)—i.e., he was civilized.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":40840,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68466,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96092,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123718,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18227,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","summary_en":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43223,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:28","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:28<\/strong> The parents each practiced favoritism. • <em>because:<\/em> Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:28<\/strong> The parents each practiced favoritism. • <em>because:<\/em> Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:28 The parents each practiced favoritism. • because: Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.","summary_en":"25:28 The parents each practiced favoritism. • because: Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70849,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:28","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:28<\/strong> The parents each practiced favoritism. • <em>because:<\/em> Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:28<\/strong> The parents each practiced favoritism. • <em>because:<\/em> Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:28 The parents each practiced favoritism. • because: Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.","summary_en":"25:28 The parents each practiced favoritism. • because: Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98475,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:28","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:28<\/strong> The parents each practiced favoritism. • <em>because:<\/em> Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:28<\/strong> The parents each practiced favoritism. • <em>because:<\/em> Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:28 The parents each practiced favoritism. • because: Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.","summary_en":"25:28 The parents each practiced favoritism. • because: Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126101,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:28","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:28<\/strong> The parents each practiced favoritism. • <em>because:<\/em> Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:28<\/strong> The parents each practiced favoritism. • <em>because:<\/em> Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:28 The parents each practiced favoritism. • because: Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.","summary_en":"25:28 The parents each practiced favoritism. • because: Isaac’s love for Esau was conditioned upon his son’s performance. Rebekah’s love for Jacob was constant and unconditional.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":40680,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68306,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95932,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123558,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11048,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>ESAU<\/h3>\n<p>Isaac’s son, and the older twin brother of Jacob (Gn 25:24-26), who was given this name because of the hair on his body at birth. The reddish color of the baby, together with the color appearing in the episode of the lentil soup (v 30), led to the use of the term Edom, or “red.” The Edomites claimed to be descended from Esau, and naming their land Seir may have been an attempt to retain an association with the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sair<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “hairy.”<\/p>\n<p>A proficient hunter, Esau brought tasty wild meat to his father, who enjoyed its stronger flavor much more than that of the mild meat provided from the family flocks by Jacob. On a certain day Esau returned home from an unsuccessful hunting expedition; he was very hungry. Esau was persuaded by Jacob to surrender his birthright in return for food (Gn 25:29-34).<\/p>\n<p>Archaeological information from Nuzi shows that giving up the birthright to another member of the family was not unknown. Esau’s marriage to two local women who were not descendants of Abraham made life extremely difficult for his parents (Gn 26:34-35). This may have been the reason why his mother, Rebekah, decided to coach Jacob to obtain the patriarchal blessing that normally belonged to his elder brother Esau (ch 27). Esau’s anger on discovering the deception of his brother prompted Jacob to leave for Haran, though 20 years later, through the generous forgiveness of Esau, the brothers were reunited (33:4-16).<\/p>\n<p>At birth Jacob had come into the world grasping the heel of Esau, an omen that was interpreted to show that the Edomite descendants of Esau would be subject to the offspring of Jacob. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites in the time of David (2 Sm 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:13) continued until the time of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites gained their independence for a while but were reconquered by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). Regaining their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span>, they subsequently remained independent of Judah. <em>See<\/em> Edom, Edomites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESAU<\/h3>\n<p>Isaac’s son, and the older twin brother of Jacob (Gn 25:24-26), who was given this name because of the hair on his body at birth. The reddish color of the baby, together with the color appearing in the episode of the lentil soup (v 30), led to the use of the term Edom, or “red.” The Edomites claimed to be descended from Esau, and naming their land Seir may have been an attempt to retain an association with the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sair<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “hairy.”<\/p>\n<p>A proficient hunter, Esau brought tasty wild meat to his father, who enjoyed its stronger flavor much more than that of the mild meat provided from the family flocks by Jacob. On a certain day Esau returned home from an unsuccessful hunting expedition; he was very hungry. Esau was persuaded by Jacob to surrender his birthright in return for food (Gn 25:29-34).<\/p>\n<p>Archaeological information from Nuzi shows that giving up the birthright to another member of the family was not unknown. Esau’s marriage to two local women who were not descendants of Abraham made life extremely difficult for his parents (Gn 26:34-35). This may have been the reason why his mother, Rebekah, decided to coach Jacob to obtain the patriarchal blessing that normally belonged to his elder brother Esau (ch 27). Esau’s anger on discovering the deception of his brother prompted Jacob to leave for Haran, though 20 years later, through the generous forgiveness of Esau, the brothers were reunited (33:4-16).<\/p>\n<p>At birth Jacob had come into the world grasping the heel of Esau, an omen that was interpreted to show that the Edomite descendants of Esau would be subject to the offspring of Jacob. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites in the time of David (2 Sm 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:13) continued until the time of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites gained their independence for a while but were reconquered by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). Regaining their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span>, they subsequently remained independent of Judah. <em>See<\/em> Edom, Edomites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESAU Isaac’s son, and the older twin brother of Jacob (Gn 25:24-26), who was given this name because of the hair on his body at birth. The reddish color of the baby, together with the color appearing in the episode of the lentil soup (v 30), led to the use of the term Edom, or “red.” The Edomites claimed to be descended from Esau, and naming their land Seir may have been an attempt to retain an association with the word sair, meaning “hairy.” A proficient hunter, Esau brought tasty wild meat ...","summary_en":"ESAU Isaac’s son, and the older twin brother of Jacob (Gn 25:24-26), who was given this name because of the hair on his body at birth. The reddish color of the baby, together with the color appearing in the episode of the lentil soup (v 30), led to the use of the term Edom, or “red.” The Edomites claimed to be descended from Esau, and naming their land Seir may have been an attempt to retain an association with the word sair, meaning “hairy.” A proficient hunter, Esau brought tasty wild meat ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11970,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30648,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plants","title_en":"Plants","content_ro":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","summary_en":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30971,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pottage*","title_en":"Pottage*","content_ro":"<h3>POTTAGE*<\/h3>\n<p>Red-colored vegetable stew commonly served in the OT (Hg 2:12). Pottage was made of lentils, herbs, onions, and sometimes meat. Its aroma proved strong enough to shift a birthright from Esau to Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). Elisha’s disciples relished its nourishment (2 Kgs 4:38-41).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POTTAGE*<\/h3>\n<p>Red-colored vegetable stew commonly served in the OT (Hg 2:12). Pottage was made of lentils, herbs, onions, and sometimes meat. Its aroma proved strong enough to shift a birthright from Esau to Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). Elisha’s disciples relished its nourishment (2 Kgs 4:38-41).<\/p>","summary_ro":"POTTAGE* Red-colored vegetable stew commonly served in the OT (Hg 2:12). Pottage was made of lentils, herbs, onions, and sometimes meat. Its aroma proved strong enough to shift a birthright from Esau to Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). Elisha’s disciples relished its nourishment (2 Kgs 4:38-41).","summary_en":"POTTAGE* Red-colored vegetable stew commonly served in the OT (Hg 2:12). Pottage was made of lentils, herbs, onions, and sometimes meat. Its aroma proved strong enough to shift a birthright from Esau to Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). Elisha’s disciples relished its nourishment (2 Kgs 4:38-41).","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43224,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:29","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:29<\/strong> Ironically, <em>Jacob<\/em> proved the more cunning hunter. The word <em>cooking<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">wayyazed<\/span>, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsayid<\/span>). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was his and was secure in giving the land away (see study note on 13:8-13). • <em>Esau<\/em> was <em>exhausted and hungry<\/em>, but his life was not in danger (25:32; see study note on 25:33-34).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:29<\/strong> Ironically, <em>Jacob<\/em> proved the more cunning hunter. The word <em>cooking<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">wayyazed<\/span>, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsayid<\/span>). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was his and was secure in giving the land away (see study note on 13:8-13). • <em>Esau<\/em> was <em>exhausted and hungry<\/em>, but his life was not in danger (25:32; see study note on 25:33-34).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:29 Ironically, Jacob proved the more cunning hunter. The word cooking (Hebrew wayyazed, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew tsayid). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was h...","summary_en":"25:29 Ironically, Jacob proved the more cunning hunter. The word cooking (Hebrew wayyazed, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew tsayid). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was h...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70850,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:29","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:29<\/strong> Ironically, <em>Jacob<\/em> proved the more cunning hunter. The word <em>cooking<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">wayyazed<\/span>, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsayid<\/span>). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was his and was secure in giving the land away (see study note on 13:8-13). • <em>Esau<\/em> was <em>exhausted and hungry<\/em>, but his life was not in danger (25:32; see study note on 25:33-34).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:29<\/strong> Ironically, <em>Jacob<\/em> proved the more cunning hunter. The word <em>cooking<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">wayyazed<\/span>, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsayid<\/span>). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was his and was secure in giving the land away (see study note on 13:8-13). • <em>Esau<\/em> was <em>exhausted and hungry<\/em>, but his life was not in danger (25:32; see study note on 25:33-34).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:29 Ironically, Jacob proved the more cunning hunter. The word cooking (Hebrew wayyazed, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew tsayid). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was h...","summary_en":"25:29 Ironically, Jacob proved the more cunning hunter. The word cooking (Hebrew wayyazed, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew tsayid). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was h...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98476,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:29","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:29<\/strong> Ironically, <em>Jacob<\/em> proved the more cunning hunter. The word <em>cooking<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">wayyazed<\/span>, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsayid<\/span>). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was his and was secure in giving the land away (see study note on 13:8-13). • <em>Esau<\/em> was <em>exhausted and hungry<\/em>, but his life was not in danger (25:32; see study note on 25:33-34).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:29<\/strong> Ironically, <em>Jacob<\/em> proved the more cunning hunter. The word <em>cooking<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">wayyazed<\/span>, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsayid<\/span>). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was his and was secure in giving the land away (see study note on 13:8-13). • <em>Esau<\/em> was <em>exhausted and hungry<\/em>, but his life was not in danger (25:32; see study note on 25:33-34).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:29 Ironically, Jacob proved the more cunning hunter. The word cooking (Hebrew wayyazed, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew tsayid). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was h...","summary_en":"25:29 Ironically, Jacob proved the more cunning hunter. The word cooking (Hebrew wayyazed, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew tsayid). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was h...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126102,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:29","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:29<\/strong> Ironically, <em>Jacob<\/em> proved the more cunning hunter. The word <em>cooking<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">wayyazed<\/span>, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsayid<\/span>). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was his and was secure in giving the land away (see study note on 13:8-13). • <em>Esau<\/em> was <em>exhausted and hungry<\/em>, but his life was not in danger (25:32; see study note on 25:33-34).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:29<\/strong> Ironically, <em>Jacob<\/em> proved the more cunning hunter. The word <em>cooking<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">wayyazed<\/span>, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsayid<\/span>). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was his and was secure in giving the land away (see study note on 13:8-13). • <em>Esau<\/em> was <em>exhausted and hungry<\/em>, but his life was not in danger (25:32; see study note on 25:33-34).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:29 Ironically, Jacob proved the more cunning hunter. The word cooking (Hebrew wayyazed, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew tsayid). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was h...","summary_en":"25:29 Ironically, Jacob proved the more cunning hunter. The word cooking (Hebrew wayyazed, “boiling”) sounds like the word for “hunter” (Hebrew tsayid). While boiling stew, Jacob was laying a trap for the hairy red animal. He may have waited a long time for this opportunity. This word for “boil” was also used for presumptuous action (like water boiling over the rim of the pot). Jacob overstepped his boundaries when he seized the promise for himself. By contrast, Abraham knew the promise was h...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":40679,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68305,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95931,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123557,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esau<\/h3>\n<p>Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than the mild meat Jacob provided from the family flocks. One day Esau returned home very hungry from an unsuccessful hunt, and Jacob persuaded Esau to surrender his birthright in exchange for food (25:29-34). Esau had little regard for his birthright and was controlled by his carnal desires (see Heb 12:16). He also married two local women who were not Abraham’s descendants (Gen 26:34-35), which may have fed into Rebekah’s favoritism toward Jacob and her idea about stealing the blessing of Isaac that was intended for Esau (27:1-40). Esau’s anger on discovering his brother’s deception prompted Jacob to flee for Haran. The brothers were reunited twenty years later when Esau demonstrated gracious forgiveness (33:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was born with Jacob grasping his heel; this omen was interpreted to mean that Esau’s descendants would be subject to Jacob’s offspring. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites began in David’s time (2 Sam 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:11-13) and continued until the reign of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites briefly gained their independence but were conquered again by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). They regained their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span> and then remained independent of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, Esau represents the line of Abraham’s descendants who lacked the gift of faith and were rejected by God as recipients of his promised blessings (see Rom 9:6-24). Herod the Great was an Edomite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:21-34; 26:34-35; 27:1-42; 28:6-9; 32:3-20; 33:1-16; 35:28-29; 36:1-43; Deut 2:1-8, 12, 22, 29; Josh 24:4; Mal 1:2-5; Rom 9:6-13; Heb 11:20; 12:16-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","summary_en":"Esau Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was Jacob’s older twin brother (Gen 25:24-26), so named because his body was hairy at birth. His descendants were called Edomites (“Edom” meaning “red”) on account of his reddish color at birth (25:25), the red lentil stew he received from Jacob (25:30), and the reddish color of the land in which he settled (see study note on Gen 25:25). Esau was a proficient hunter who brought tasty wild meat to his father. Isaac enjoyed its strong flavor more than th...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7109,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Color","title_en":"Color","content_ro":"<h3>COLOR<\/h3>\n<p>The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages.<\/p>\n<p>The word most frequently translated “colour” in the <span>kjv<\/span> literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span>. Other words translated as “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span> refer to facial appearance (Dn 5:6-10; 7:28), fabrics of variegated colors (Prv 7:16; Ez 17:3; 27:24), stones (1 Chr 29:2), and breastplates (Rv 9:17). Joseph’s “coat of many colours” (Gn 37:3, <span>kjv<\/span>) and Tamar’s “garment of divers colours” (2 Sm 13:18-19, <span>kjv<\/span>) were either long-sleeved robes or richly ornamented tunics that served as a mark of preferred status.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, a word that means “pretense” is used archaically in Acts 27:30 and was interpreted as “colour” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. They also added the word “colour” to Revelation 17:4, evidently to clarify the meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Though many colors are mentioned in the Bible, colors are not particularly singled out for emphasis. Natural colors are seldom mentioned in descriptions. Colors that appear frequently and that are most carefully differentiated are manufactured colors, especially dyes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ColorsMentionedintheBible\">Colors Mentioned in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>Because the Hebrews perceived color differently than we do in Western culture, it is sometimes difficult to translate precisely the various Hebrew words denoting colors. Thus there is often a wide variation in translations of such words in English Bibles. To provide a base for comparison, this article will follow the <span>rsv<\/span> except as noted.<\/p>\n<p>Colors mentioned most often in the OT and NT are the following:<\/p>\n<p>“Black” is the translation of five words in the OT and one in the NT, expressing varying degrees of darkness. The words describe the color of lambs (Gn 30:32-33, 35, 40), hair (Lv 13:31, 37; Sg 5:11; Mt 5:36), skin (Jb 30:30), horses (Zec 6:2, 6; Rv 6:5), the sky (1 Kgs 18:45; Is 50:3; Jer 4:28), the day (Jb 3:5; Mi 3:6), the darkened sun (Rv 6:12), and an invading army (Jl 2:2). Job’s “blackness” (Jb 30:28) has been understood as disease or sadness.<\/p>\n<p>“Blue” probably refers to a blue-purple dye obtained from Mediterranean mollusks. A popular color, it was considered less desirable in antiquity than “royal” purple. Both dyes were produced in Tyre, which at one time had a monopoly on the manufacture of blue and purple dye (2 Chr 2:7, 14; Ez 27:24). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7). Blue was used in the tabernacle fabrics (Ex 26:1; Nm 4:6-9), the priests’ garments (Ex 28:5-6), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14), and in the Persian court (Est 1:6; 8:15). Blue is not mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>“Crimson” is the English translation of three different Hebrew words. This red color of varying shades was derived from certain insects. The word describes certain fabrics in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14) and was used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). The word translated “crimsoned” to describe garments from Bozrah (63:1) probably means “vivid colors” rather than a specific hue.<\/p>\n<p>“Gray,” a color found only in the OT, is used exclusively to describe old age—as in gray hair or gray-headed (Gn 42:38; 44:29-31; Dt 32:25; 1 Sm 12:2; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Jb 15:10; Ps 71:18; Prv 20:29; Is 46:4; Hos 7:9). A different word used to describe dappled gray horses (Zec 6:3) probably means “spotted” or “speckled.”<\/p>\n<p>“Green” translates seven words in the OT and two in the NT. Most of the words refer to vegetation and are descriptive of the fresh or moist condition of plants rather than their color. The following are described as “green”: plants (Gn 1:30), trees (1 Kgs 14:23), branches (Jb 15:32), pastures (Ps 23:2; Jl 2:22), herbs (Ps 37:2), olive trees (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16), thorns (Ps 58:9), leaves (Jer 17:8), grass (Mk 6:39; Rv 8:7), and wood (Lk 23:31). In addition to various plants, a dove’s wing (Ps 68:13), a couch (Sg 1:16), and a righteous person (Ps 92:14) are also described as “green.” Idolatrous worship practices took place under “every green tree” (Dt 12:2; 2 Kgs 16:4; Is 57:5; Jer 2:20; Ez 6:13), although the word actually describes the luxurious growth of the leaves rather than their color.<\/p>\n<p>Another word, “greenish,” is derived from one of the OT words for “green” and refers to disease (Lv 13:49) and fungus that forms on the walls of houses (14:37).<\/p>\n<p>“Purple” was the most highly valued dye in the ancient world. Encompassing shades varying from actual purple to red, it was obtained from mollusks of the Gastropoda class. The first people to use the dye were perhaps the ancient Phoenicians, whose name may come from a Greek word meaning “bloodred.” At any rate, the Phoenicians monopolized the purple industry for many years. Some fabrics were described as being purple: those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1), in the garments of the priests (28:5-8, 15, 33), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7), in the upholstery of Solomon’s chariot (Sg 3:10), and in decorations of the Persian court (Est 1:6). Purple was customarily worn by wealthy people and royalty (Jgs 8:26; Prv 31:22; Dn 5:7). Mordecai was rewarded with a garment of purple (Est 8:15). Daniel was given a similar garment (Dn 5:29). It was worn by Assyrian soldiers (Ez 23:6). Jeremiah described idols that were robed in blue and purple garments (Jer 10:9). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7), and purple dye was an item of trade between Tyre and the people of Aram (v 16). It is used once to describe the color of hair (Sg 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>References to purple in the NT are fewer than in the OT but affirm the continued economic importance of the dye. Purple clothing denoted wealth (Lk 16:19). Jesus was robed in purple by Roman soldiers (Mk 15:17, 20; Jn 19:2, 5; cf. Mt 27:28, “scarlet”). The purple and scarlet garment of the harlot Babylon symbolized royal rank (Rv 17:4). Lydia of Thyatira was a seller of purple fabrics (Acts 16:14).<\/p>\n<p>“Red” frequently refers to the natural color of certain objects mentioned in the Bible: skin (Gn 25:25), pottage (v 30), the eye (49:12, though the word used here may mean “sparkling” or “dark”), a sacrificial heifer (Nm 19:2), water (2 Kgs 3:22), the face of a weeping person (Jb 16:16), wine (Prv 23:31), the eyes of one drinking wine (v 29), clothing (Is 63:2), a shield (Na 2:3), and horses (Zec 1:8; 6:2). It is used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). A leprous disease (Lv 13:49), a spot on the skin (vv 19, 24, 42-43), and fungus on the wall of a house (14:37) were discolored with a reddish hue. The Red Sea is mentioned frequently in the OT (Ex 10:19; 15:4), but the Hebrew words thus translated actually mean “Sea of Reeds.” However, in the NT the Greek word is actually the word “red” (Acts 7:36; Heb 11:29). In the NT, red is used to describe the color of the sky (Mt 16:2-3), a horse (Rv 6:4), and a dragon (12:3).<\/p>\n<p>“Scarlet,” a brilliant red hue derived from certain insects, was used for fabrics and yarns and was highly valued in the ancient world (Rv 18:12). It is difficult to distinguish between “scarlet” and “crimson” in the Bible. A scarlet thread was bound to the hand of Zerah at birth (Gn 38:28, 30). The word describes certain fabrics in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 27:16), the priests’ garments (28:5-8, 15, 33), rope (Jos 2:18, 21), clothing (2 Sm 1:24; Prv 31:21; Jer 4:30), lips (Sg 4:3), and soldiers’ uniforms (Na 2:3). Some kind of scarlet material was used during the ratification of the covenant at Sinai (Heb 9:19), for the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:4-6) and of a house (vv 49-52), for covering the articles on the table of the bread of the Presence (Nm 4:8), and for the ritual of the red heifer (19:6). Matthew described Jesus’ robe at his trial as scarlet (Mt 27:28). The woman of Revelation 17:3-4 was dressed in purple and scarlet and seated upon a scarlet beast. The luxury associated with Rome is suggested by the description of clothing of purple and scarlet (Rv 18:16). Scarlet, like crimson and red, is also used figuratively of sins (Is 1:18).<\/p>\n<p> “White” translates a number of words found in the Bible. It is generally the color of natural objects such as goats (Gn 30:35), hair (Lv 13:10; Mt 5:36; Rv 1:14), diseased skin (Ex 4:6; Lv 13:4, 17), manna (Ex 16:31), snow (2 Kgs 5:27), milk and teeth (Gn 49:12), horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3; Rv 6:2; 19:11), a donkey (Jgs 5:10, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>rsv<\/span> “tawny”), wool (Ez 27:18), special stones (Rv 2:17), light (Mt 17:2), clouds (Rv 14:14), and fields ready for harvest (Jn 4:35). It is used to describe the color of curtains (Est 1:6), clothing (Est 8:15; Eccl 9:8; Dn 7:9; Mk 16:5; Rv 3:5, 18; 4:4), the garments of angels (Jn 20:12; Acts 1:10), and a throne (Rv 20:11). It is used figuratively to describe cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Is 1:18; Dn 12:10) and the appearance of princes (Lam 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing; Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COLOR<\/h3>\n<p>The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages.<\/p>\n<p>The word most frequently translated “colour” in the <span>kjv<\/span> literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span>. Other words translated as “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span> refer to facial appearance (Dn 5:6-10; 7:28), fabrics of variegated colors (Prv 7:16; Ez 17:3; 27:24), stones (1 Chr 29:2), and breastplates (Rv 9:17). Joseph’s “coat of many colours” (Gn 37:3, <span>kjv<\/span>) and Tamar’s “garment of divers colours” (2 Sm 13:18-19, <span>kjv<\/span>) were either long-sleeved robes or richly ornamented tunics that served as a mark of preferred status.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, a word that means “pretense” is used archaically in Acts 27:30 and was interpreted as “colour” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. They also added the word “colour” to Revelation 17:4, evidently to clarify the meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Though many colors are mentioned in the Bible, colors are not particularly singled out for emphasis. Natural colors are seldom mentioned in descriptions. Colors that appear frequently and that are most carefully differentiated are manufactured colors, especially dyes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ColorsMentionedintheBible\">Colors Mentioned in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>Because the Hebrews perceived color differently than we do in Western culture, it is sometimes difficult to translate precisely the various Hebrew words denoting colors. Thus there is often a wide variation in translations of such words in English Bibles. To provide a base for comparison, this article will follow the <span>rsv<\/span> except as noted.<\/p>\n<p>Colors mentioned most often in the OT and NT are the following:<\/p>\n<p>“Black” is the translation of five words in the OT and one in the NT, expressing varying degrees of darkness. The words describe the color of lambs (Gn 30:32-33, 35, 40), hair (Lv 13:31, 37; Sg 5:11; Mt 5:36), skin (Jb 30:30), horses (Zec 6:2, 6; Rv 6:5), the sky (1 Kgs 18:45; Is 50:3; Jer 4:28), the day (Jb 3:5; Mi 3:6), the darkened sun (Rv 6:12), and an invading army (Jl 2:2). Job’s “blackness” (Jb 30:28) has been understood as disease or sadness.<\/p>\n<p>“Blue” probably refers to a blue-purple dye obtained from Mediterranean mollusks. A popular color, it was considered less desirable in antiquity than “royal” purple. Both dyes were produced in Tyre, which at one time had a monopoly on the manufacture of blue and purple dye (2 Chr 2:7, 14; Ez 27:24). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7). Blue was used in the tabernacle fabrics (Ex 26:1; Nm 4:6-9), the priests’ garments (Ex 28:5-6), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14), and in the Persian court (Est 1:6; 8:15). Blue is not mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>“Crimson” is the English translation of three different Hebrew words. This red color of varying shades was derived from certain insects. The word describes certain fabrics in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14) and was used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). The word translated “crimsoned” to describe garments from Bozrah (63:1) probably means “vivid colors” rather than a specific hue.<\/p>\n<p>“Gray,” a color found only in the OT, is used exclusively to describe old age—as in gray hair or gray-headed (Gn 42:38; 44:29-31; Dt 32:25; 1 Sm 12:2; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Jb 15:10; Ps 71:18; Prv 20:29; Is 46:4; Hos 7:9). A different word used to describe dappled gray horses (Zec 6:3) probably means “spotted” or “speckled.”<\/p>\n<p>“Green” translates seven words in the OT and two in the NT. Most of the words refer to vegetation and are descriptive of the fresh or moist condition of plants rather than their color. The following are described as “green”: plants (Gn 1:30), trees (1 Kgs 14:23), branches (Jb 15:32), pastures (Ps 23:2; Jl 2:22), herbs (Ps 37:2), olive trees (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16), thorns (Ps 58:9), leaves (Jer 17:8), grass (Mk 6:39; Rv 8:7), and wood (Lk 23:31). In addition to various plants, a dove’s wing (Ps 68:13), a couch (Sg 1:16), and a righteous person (Ps 92:14) are also described as “green.” Idolatrous worship practices took place under “every green tree” (Dt 12:2; 2 Kgs 16:4; Is 57:5; Jer 2:20; Ez 6:13), although the word actually describes the luxurious growth of the leaves rather than their color.<\/p>\n<p>Another word, “greenish,” is derived from one of the OT words for “green” and refers to disease (Lv 13:49) and fungus that forms on the walls of houses (14:37).<\/p>\n<p>“Purple” was the most highly valued dye in the ancient world. Encompassing shades varying from actual purple to red, it was obtained from mollusks of the Gastropoda class. The first people to use the dye were perhaps the ancient Phoenicians, whose name may come from a Greek word meaning “bloodred.” At any rate, the Phoenicians monopolized the purple industry for many years. Some fabrics were described as being purple: those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1), in the garments of the priests (28:5-8, 15, 33), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7), in the upholstery of Solomon’s chariot (Sg 3:10), and in decorations of the Persian court (Est 1:6). Purple was customarily worn by wealthy people and royalty (Jgs 8:26; Prv 31:22; Dn 5:7). Mordecai was rewarded with a garment of purple (Est 8:15). Daniel was given a similar garment (Dn 5:29). It was worn by Assyrian soldiers (Ez 23:6). Jeremiah described idols that were robed in blue and purple garments (Jer 10:9). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7), and purple dye was an item of trade between Tyre and the people of Aram (v 16). It is used once to describe the color of hair (Sg 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>References to purple in the NT are fewer than in the OT but affirm the continued economic importance of the dye. Purple clothing denoted wealth (Lk 16:19). Jesus was robed in purple by Roman soldiers (Mk 15:17, 20; Jn 19:2, 5; cf. Mt 27:28, “scarlet”). The purple and scarlet garment of the harlot Babylon symbolized royal rank (Rv 17:4). Lydia of Thyatira was a seller of purple fabrics (Acts 16:14).<\/p>\n<p>“Red” frequently refers to the natural color of certain objects mentioned in the Bible: skin (Gn 25:25), pottage (v 30), the eye (49:12, though the word used here may mean “sparkling” or “dark”), a sacrificial heifer (Nm 19:2), water (2 Kgs 3:22), the face of a weeping person (Jb 16:16), wine (Prv 23:31), the eyes of one drinking wine (v 29), clothing (Is 63:2), a shield (Na 2:3), and horses (Zec 1:8; 6:2). It is used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). A leprous disease (Lv 13:49), a spot on the skin (vv 19, 24, 42-43), and fungus on the wall of a house (14:37) were discolored with a reddish hue. The Red Sea is mentioned frequently in the OT (Ex 10:19; 15:4), but the Hebrew words thus translated actually mean “Sea of Reeds.” However, in the NT the Greek word is actually the word “red” (Acts 7:36; Heb 11:29). In the NT, red is used to describe the color of the sky (Mt 16:2-3), a horse (Rv 6:4), and a dragon (12:3).<\/p>\n<p>“Scarlet,” a brilliant red hue derived from certain insects, was used for fabrics and yarns and was highly valued in the ancient world (Rv 18:12). It is difficult to distinguish between “scarlet” and “crimson” in the Bible. A scarlet thread was bound to the hand of Zerah at birth (Gn 38:28, 30). The word describes certain fabrics in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 27:16), the priests’ garments (28:5-8, 15, 33), rope (Jos 2:18, 21), clothing (2 Sm 1:24; Prv 31:21; Jer 4:30), lips (Sg 4:3), and soldiers’ uniforms (Na 2:3). Some kind of scarlet material was used during the ratification of the covenant at Sinai (Heb 9:19), for the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:4-6) and of a house (vv 49-52), for covering the articles on the table of the bread of the Presence (Nm 4:8), and for the ritual of the red heifer (19:6). Matthew described Jesus’ robe at his trial as scarlet (Mt 27:28). The woman of Revelation 17:3-4 was dressed in purple and scarlet and seated upon a scarlet beast. The luxury associated with Rome is suggested by the description of clothing of purple and scarlet (Rv 18:16). Scarlet, like crimson and red, is also used figuratively of sins (Is 1:18).<\/p>\n<p> “White” translates a number of words found in the Bible. It is generally the color of natural objects such as goats (Gn 30:35), hair (Lv 13:10; Mt 5:36; Rv 1:14), diseased skin (Ex 4:6; Lv 13:4, 17), manna (Ex 16:31), snow (2 Kgs 5:27), milk and teeth (Gn 49:12), horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3; Rv 6:2; 19:11), a donkey (Jgs 5:10, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>rsv<\/span> “tawny”), wool (Ez 27:18), special stones (Rv 2:17), light (Mt 17:2), clouds (Rv 14:14), and fields ready for harvest (Jn 4:35). It is used to describe the color of curtains (Est 1:6), clothing (Est 8:15; Eccl 9:8; Dn 7:9; Mk 16:5; Rv 3:5, 18; 4:4), the garments of angels (Jn 20:12; Acts 1:10), and a throne (Rv 20:11). It is used figuratively to describe cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Is 1:18; Dn 12:10) and the appearance of princes (Lam 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing; Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COLOR The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages. The word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv refer t...","summary_en":"COLOR The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages. The word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv refer t...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10084,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Edomites Edom","title_en":"Edomites Edom","content_ro":"<h3>EDOM, EDOMITES<\/h3>\n<p>Land and its inhabitants found on the high plateau to the south and southeast of the Dead Sea. The biblical term Edom, meaning “red,” denotes either the name of the land or the name of Esau, in remembrance of the red pottage or stew for which he exchanged his birthright (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19). The country of Edom was also known as Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:30; Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>The northern boundary of Edom was the Wadi Zered, the “Brook of the Willows” (Is 15:7). In ancient geological times the area was thrust up to a considerable height, and dark-red sandstone cliffs were exposed along the western side where the land falls steeply into the Arabah, the southern extension of the deep depression in which the Dead Sea and the Jordan Valley lie. The Edom Plateau rises to over 5,000 feet (1,523.9 meters), reaching over 5,600 feet (1,706.8 meters) in places. The area divides into two unequal parts. The region of Punon forms something of a valley between the smaller northern part and the longer southern part. The northern section is not quite so high, though in a limited area near Radhadiyeh it reaches 5,300 feet (1,615.4 meters). The southern section is longer and generally higher, being over 5,000 feet (1,523.9 meters) throughout the central ridge and touching 5,687 feet (1,733.3 meters) at one point. To the east, the escarpment does not fall below 4,000 feet (1,219.1 meters), except in the north. The desert lies beyond and limits expansion eastward. To the west, the land falls away rather steeply into the Arabah. The extent of Edom to the west varied from time to time. It was comparatively easy to gain access to the Negev of southern Judah in this area, and Edomite encroachments were made from time to time. The southern frontier was marked by an extensive limestone scarp at the southern edge of the plateau. This ran eastward from Ain Gharandal in the Arabah. Beyond this barrier to the south lay rocky, uninhabitable desert, through which merchants must have journeyed to the port at Ezion-geber for trade.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Edom was, on the whole, inhospitable, though there were areas where farming could be undertaken, particularly to the northeast. Here herds of animals could be grazed. Edom’s wealth, however, came largely from the caravan trade that came up from the south and brought goods from India and South Arabia to the Mediterranean coast and Egypt. The important King’s Highway (Nm 21:22) passed through Edom on its way north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>Biblically, the name Edom does not appear in the genealogy in Genesis 10. It first appears in the story of Esau in Genesis 25:30. Esau was called Edom from the red color of the pottage for which he sold his birthright to his brother, Jacob. In Genesis 36 there is reference to an Edomite kingdom at a time well before the appearance of an Israelite kingdom, though it is possible that the “chiefs” of Edom were tribal chieftains or non-dynastic leaders like the Israelite judges.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest nonbiblical references come from Egypt and seem to confirm this. Amarna Letter 288 (early 14th century <span>BC<\/span>) refers to the “lands of Seir,” and the crossing of the Shashu tribes of Edom into Egypt is mentioned by Seti II (1214–1208 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ramses III (1198–1166 <span>BC<\/span>). There are no Egyptian references to towns or rulers, only to tribal Bedouin from Seir-Edom. There is some evidence that Ramses II was in Transjordan about 1280–1270 <span>BC<\/span>, but there is no clear evidence that there was a centralized government before the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Rather, the land was occupied mainly by seminomadic people. From then on, permanent settlements began to appear, a fact that has relevance for the date of the exodus. The Song of Moses in Exodus 15 refers to the “chiefs of Edom.” By the time of the exodus, there appears to have been a kingdom of Edom (Nm 20:14, 18, 20-23; 33:37; 34:3). The Israelites skirted Edom on their journey to the Promised Land (Jgs 5:4; 11:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the rise of the Israelite monarchy, Saul fought successfully against Edom (1 Sm 14:47). Doeg the Edomite was the chief of Saul’s herdsmen (21:7; 22:9, 18-22). At the beginning of the 10th century <span>BC<\/span>, David defeated Edom in the Valley of Salt and killed many Edomites (2 Sm 8:13; 1 Chr 18:12). Thereafter, David placed garrisons in Edom, and the Edomites became his subjects (2 Sm 8:14). It is not clear whether David saw in these people a military threat or whether he was interested in the supply of copper from their land and the potential wealth that would flow from the caravan traffic passing through Edom. David’s successes resulted in the flight of a certain Hadad, who was “of the royal house of Edom” to Egypt (1 Kgs 11:14-17), where he married a member of the Egyptian royal family (vv 18-20). On David’s death, Hadad returned to Edom, where he became king. It would seem that a monarchical form of government had developed by David’s time. Solomon continued to exert influence in Edom. He had access to the port of Ezion-geber (9:26).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical records provide no information about Edom from the end of Solomon’s reign until the days of Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Jehoshaphat was able to occupy the port of Ezion-geber, although his ships were wrecked there, possibly by the Edomites (1 Kgs 22:48; 2 Chr 20:36-37). Israel combined with Judah and Edom in an unsuccessful campaign against King Mesha of Moab (2 Kgs 3:4-27). Edom was able to throw off Judah’s authority under King Jehoram (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) and set up a king of its own (8:20-22). It remained independent until the days of King Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), who conquered Edom as far south as Sela, defeating a large army of the Edomites in the Valley of Salt (2 Kgs 14:7; 2 Chr 25:11-13). This gave Judah control of the copper mines in the Punon area. King Uzziah of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to push his control south to Elath (near Ezion-geber; 2 Kgs 14:22; 2 Chr 26:1-2). Before the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, in the days of Ahaz (735–715 <span>BC<\/span>), Edom defeated Judah and recovered Elath (2 Kgs 16:6). Thereafter, Judah lost control over Edom.<\/p>\n<p>During the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrians began to move into Transjordan. About 800 <span>BC<\/span> Adad-nirari III (810–782 <span>BC<\/span>) claimed to have conquered several of these western states and to have imposed the payment of tribute. Then Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) received tribute from Qaus-malaku of Edom. Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>) spoke of an unnamed ruler of Edom who was involved in the rebellion of Ashdod in 713 <span>BC<\/span>. Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) spoke of a certain Aiarammu, who brought gifts from Edom. Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to Qaus-gabri, king of Edom, who came to Nineveh with 22 vassals to swear allegiance. Under Ashurbanipal (669–627 <span>BC<\/span>), Edom appears on Assyrian records. Thereafter, Assyria itself was defeated by the Babylonians. Under the Babylonians, Edom seems to have remained a subservient vassal, although in 594 it joined other small nations in discussing rebellion (Jer 27). When Nebuchadnezzar attacked these, however, Moab and Edom were not involved. In the overthrow of Jerusalem in 586, Edom remained neutral and even allowed some refugees from Judah to shelter there for a time (40:11). The prophet Obadiah castigated Edom for not assisting Judah at the time of the Babylonian invasion (Ob 1:11). Instead, they raided Judah, handed over captives to Babylon, and possessed lands in the Negev area to the south (Ez 35).<\/p>\n<p>A long history of enmity existed between Judah and Edom, and several prophets spoke unfavorably about Edom (Is 11:14; 34:5-17; Ez 32:29; Jl 3:19; Am 1:11-12; Mal 1:2-4). In the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, Edom entered a period of decline. Several cities were abandoned. At the same time Edomite colonies west of the Arabah in the southern hill country of Judah emerged, and by Roman times there was a province of Idumea, which was the descendant of the Persian province of Edom, with its administrative center at Lachish. In the old Edomite homeland, Arab groups began to move in. Finally, ancient Edom became the home of the Nabateans.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EDOM, EDOMITES<\/h3>\n<p>Land and its inhabitants found on the high plateau to the south and southeast of the Dead Sea. The biblical term Edom, meaning “red,” denotes either the name of the land or the name of Esau, in remembrance of the red pottage or stew for which he exchanged his birthright (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19). The country of Edom was also known as Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:30; Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>The northern boundary of Edom was the Wadi Zered, the “Brook of the Willows” (Is 15:7). In ancient geological times the area was thrust up to a considerable height, and dark-red sandstone cliffs were exposed along the western side where the land falls steeply into the Arabah, the southern extension of the deep depression in which the Dead Sea and the Jordan Valley lie. The Edom Plateau rises to over 5,000 feet (1,523.9 meters), reaching over 5,600 feet (1,706.8 meters) in places. The area divides into two unequal parts. The region of Punon forms something of a valley between the smaller northern part and the longer southern part. The northern section is not quite so high, though in a limited area near Radhadiyeh it reaches 5,300 feet (1,615.4 meters). The southern section is longer and generally higher, being over 5,000 feet (1,523.9 meters) throughout the central ridge and touching 5,687 feet (1,733.3 meters) at one point. To the east, the escarpment does not fall below 4,000 feet (1,219.1 meters), except in the north. The desert lies beyond and limits expansion eastward. To the west, the land falls away rather steeply into the Arabah. The extent of Edom to the west varied from time to time. It was comparatively easy to gain access to the Negev of southern Judah in this area, and Edomite encroachments were made from time to time. The southern frontier was marked by an extensive limestone scarp at the southern edge of the plateau. This ran eastward from Ain Gharandal in the Arabah. Beyond this barrier to the south lay rocky, uninhabitable desert, through which merchants must have journeyed to the port at Ezion-geber for trade.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Edom was, on the whole, inhospitable, though there were areas where farming could be undertaken, particularly to the northeast. Here herds of animals could be grazed. Edom’s wealth, however, came largely from the caravan trade that came up from the south and brought goods from India and South Arabia to the Mediterranean coast and Egypt. The important King’s Highway (Nm 21:22) passed through Edom on its way north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>Biblically, the name Edom does not appear in the genealogy in Genesis 10. It first appears in the story of Esau in Genesis 25:30. Esau was called Edom from the red color of the pottage for which he sold his birthright to his brother, Jacob. In Genesis 36 there is reference to an Edomite kingdom at a time well before the appearance of an Israelite kingdom, though it is possible that the “chiefs” of Edom were tribal chieftains or non-dynastic leaders like the Israelite judges.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest nonbiblical references come from Egypt and seem to confirm this. Amarna Letter 288 (early 14th century <span>BC<\/span>) refers to the “lands of Seir,” and the crossing of the Shashu tribes of Edom into Egypt is mentioned by Seti II (1214–1208 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ramses III (1198–1166 <span>BC<\/span>). There are no Egyptian references to towns or rulers, only to tribal Bedouin from Seir-Edom. There is some evidence that Ramses II was in Transjordan about 1280–1270 <span>BC<\/span>, but there is no clear evidence that there was a centralized government before the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Rather, the land was occupied mainly by seminomadic people. From then on, permanent settlements began to appear, a fact that has relevance for the date of the exodus. The Song of Moses in Exodus 15 refers to the “chiefs of Edom.” By the time of the exodus, there appears to have been a kingdom of Edom (Nm 20:14, 18, 20-23; 33:37; 34:3). The Israelites skirted Edom on their journey to the Promised Land (Jgs 5:4; 11:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the rise of the Israelite monarchy, Saul fought successfully against Edom (1 Sm 14:47). Doeg the Edomite was the chief of Saul’s herdsmen (21:7; 22:9, 18-22). At the beginning of the 10th century <span>BC<\/span>, David defeated Edom in the Valley of Salt and killed many Edomites (2 Sm 8:13; 1 Chr 18:12). Thereafter, David placed garrisons in Edom, and the Edomites became his subjects (2 Sm 8:14). It is not clear whether David saw in these people a military threat or whether he was interested in the supply of copper from their land and the potential wealth that would flow from the caravan traffic passing through Edom. David’s successes resulted in the flight of a certain Hadad, who was “of the royal house of Edom” to Egypt (1 Kgs 11:14-17), where he married a member of the Egyptian royal family (vv 18-20). On David’s death, Hadad returned to Edom, where he became king. It would seem that a monarchical form of government had developed by David’s time. Solomon continued to exert influence in Edom. He had access to the port of Ezion-geber (9:26).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical records provide no information about Edom from the end of Solomon’s reign until the days of Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Jehoshaphat was able to occupy the port of Ezion-geber, although his ships were wrecked there, possibly by the Edomites (1 Kgs 22:48; 2 Chr 20:36-37). Israel combined with Judah and Edom in an unsuccessful campaign against King Mesha of Moab (2 Kgs 3:4-27). Edom was able to throw off Judah’s authority under King Jehoram (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) and set up a king of its own (8:20-22). It remained independent until the days of King Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), who conquered Edom as far south as Sela, defeating a large army of the Edomites in the Valley of Salt (2 Kgs 14:7; 2 Chr 25:11-13). This gave Judah control of the copper mines in the Punon area. King Uzziah of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to push his control south to Elath (near Ezion-geber; 2 Kgs 14:22; 2 Chr 26:1-2). Before the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, in the days of Ahaz (735–715 <span>BC<\/span>), Edom defeated Judah and recovered Elath (2 Kgs 16:6). Thereafter, Judah lost control over Edom.<\/p>\n<p>During the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrians began to move into Transjordan. About 800 <span>BC<\/span> Adad-nirari III (810–782 <span>BC<\/span>) claimed to have conquered several of these western states and to have imposed the payment of tribute. Then Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) received tribute from Qaus-malaku of Edom. Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>) spoke of an unnamed ruler of Edom who was involved in the rebellion of Ashdod in 713 <span>BC<\/span>. Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) spoke of a certain Aiarammu, who brought gifts from Edom. Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to Qaus-gabri, king of Edom, who came to Nineveh with 22 vassals to swear allegiance. Under Ashurbanipal (669–627 <span>BC<\/span>), Edom appears on Assyrian records. Thereafter, Assyria itself was defeated by the Babylonians. Under the Babylonians, Edom seems to have remained a subservient vassal, although in 594 it joined other small nations in discussing rebellion (Jer 27). When Nebuchadnezzar attacked these, however, Moab and Edom were not involved. In the overthrow of Jerusalem in 586, Edom remained neutral and even allowed some refugees from Judah to shelter there for a time (40:11). The prophet Obadiah castigated Edom for not assisting Judah at the time of the Babylonian invasion (Ob 1:11). Instead, they raided Judah, handed over captives to Babylon, and possessed lands in the Negev area to the south (Ez 35).<\/p>\n<p>A long history of enmity existed between Judah and Edom, and several prophets spoke unfavorably about Edom (Is 11:14; 34:5-17; Ez 32:29; Jl 3:19; Am 1:11-12; Mal 1:2-4). In the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, Edom entered a period of decline. Several cities were abandoned. At the same time Edomite colonies west of the Arabah in the southern hill country of Judah emerged, and by Roman times there was a province of Idumea, which was the descendant of the Persian province of Edom, with its administrative center at Lachish. In the old Edomite homeland, Arab groups began to move in. Finally, ancient Edom became the home of the Nabateans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EDOM, EDOMITES Land and its inhabitants found on the high plateau to the south and southeast of the Dead Sea. The biblical term Edom, meaning “red,” denotes either the name of the land or the name of Esau, in remembrance of the red pottage or stew for which he exchanged his birthright (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19). The country of Edom was also known as Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:30; Nm 24:18). Geography The northern boundary of Edom was the Wadi Zered, the “Brook of the Willows” (Is 15:7). In ancient geolog...","summary_en":"EDOM, EDOMITES Land and its inhabitants found on the high plateau to the south and southeast of the Dead Sea. The biblical term Edom, meaning “red,” denotes either the name of the land or the name of Esau, in remembrance of the red pottage or stew for which he exchanged his birthright (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19). The country of Edom was also known as Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:30; Nm 24:18). Geography The northern boundary of Edom was the Wadi Zered, the “Brook of the Willows” (Is 15:7). In ancient geolog...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11047,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Esau","title_en":"Esau","content_ro":"<h3>ESAU<\/h3>\n<p>Isaac’s son, and the older twin brother of Jacob (Gn 25:24-26), who was given this name because of the hair on his body at birth. The reddish color of the baby, together with the color appearing in the episode of the lentil soup (v 30), led to the use of the term Edom, or “red.” The Edomites claimed to be descended from Esau, and naming their land Seir may have been an attempt to retain an association with the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sair<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “hairy.”<\/p>\n<p>A proficient hunter, Esau brought tasty wild meat to his father, who enjoyed its stronger flavor much more than that of the mild meat provided from the family flocks by Jacob. On a certain day Esau returned home from an unsuccessful hunting expedition; he was very hungry. Esau was persuaded by Jacob to surrender his birthright in return for food (Gn 25:29-34).<\/p>\n<p>Archaeological information from Nuzi shows that giving up the birthright to another member of the family was not unknown. Esau’s marriage to two local women who were not descendants of Abraham made life extremely difficult for his parents (Gn 26:34-35). This may have been the reason why his mother, Rebekah, decided to coach Jacob to obtain the patriarchal blessing that normally belonged to his elder brother Esau (ch 27). Esau’s anger on discovering the deception of his brother prompted Jacob to leave for Haran, though 20 years later, through the generous forgiveness of Esau, the brothers were reunited (33:4-16).<\/p>\n<p>At birth Jacob had come into the world grasping the heel of Esau, an omen that was interpreted to show that the Edomite descendants of Esau would be subject to the offspring of Jacob. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites in the time of David (2 Sm 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:13) continued until the time of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites gained their independence for a while but were reconquered by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). Regaining their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span>, they subsequently remained independent of Judah. <em>See<\/em> Edom, Edomites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESAU<\/h3>\n<p>Isaac’s son, and the older twin brother of Jacob (Gn 25:24-26), who was given this name because of the hair on his body at birth. The reddish color of the baby, together with the color appearing in the episode of the lentil soup (v 30), led to the use of the term Edom, or “red.” The Edomites claimed to be descended from Esau, and naming their land Seir may have been an attempt to retain an association with the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sair<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “hairy.”<\/p>\n<p>A proficient hunter, Esau brought tasty wild meat to his father, who enjoyed its stronger flavor much more than that of the mild meat provided from the family flocks by Jacob. On a certain day Esau returned home from an unsuccessful hunting expedition; he was very hungry. Esau was persuaded by Jacob to surrender his birthright in return for food (Gn 25:29-34).<\/p>\n<p>Archaeological information from Nuzi shows that giving up the birthright to another member of the family was not unknown. Esau’s marriage to two local women who were not descendants of Abraham made life extremely difficult for his parents (Gn 26:34-35). This may have been the reason why his mother, Rebekah, decided to coach Jacob to obtain the patriarchal blessing that normally belonged to his elder brother Esau (ch 27). Esau’s anger on discovering the deception of his brother prompted Jacob to leave for Haran, though 20 years later, through the generous forgiveness of Esau, the brothers were reunited (33:4-16).<\/p>\n<p>At birth Jacob had come into the world grasping the heel of Esau, an omen that was interpreted to show that the Edomite descendants of Esau would be subject to the offspring of Jacob. The subservient relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites in the time of David (2 Sm 8:11-15; 1 Chr 18:13) continued until the time of Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22; 2 Chr 21:8-10). Following a rebellion in 845 <span>BC<\/span>, the Edomites gained their independence for a while but were reconquered by Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>). Regaining their freedom in 735 <span>BC<\/span>, they subsequently remained independent of Judah. <em>See<\/em> Edom, Edomites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESAU Isaac’s son, and the older twin brother of Jacob (Gn 25:24-26), who was given this name because of the hair on his body at birth. The reddish color of the baby, together with the color appearing in the episode of the lentil soup (v 30), led to the use of the term Edom, or “red.” The Edomites claimed to be descended from Esau, and naming their land Seir may have been an attempt to retain an association with the word sair, meaning “hairy.” A proficient hunter, Esau brought tasty wild meat ...","summary_en":"ESAU Isaac’s son, and the older twin brother of Jacob (Gn 25:24-26), who was given this name because of the hair on his body at birth. The reddish color of the baby, together with the color appearing in the episode of the lentil soup (v 30), led to the use of the term Edom, or “red.” The Edomites claimed to be descended from Esau, and naming their land Seir may have been an attempt to retain an association with the word sair, meaning “hairy.” A proficient hunter, Esau brought tasty wild meat ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13584,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Genesis","title_en":"Book of Genesis","content_ro":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","summary_en":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18222,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JACOB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf. Hos 12:3), with the derived meaning “to supplant, deceive, attack from the rear.”<\/li>\n<p>Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Esau and Jacob were very different from each other. Esau was an outdoorsman, the favorite of his father, while Jacob stayed around the tents and was loved by his mother.<\/p>\n<p>One day when Jacob was preparing red pottage, Esau came in famished and asked Jacob for some food. Jacob offered to sell Esau some stew in exchange for his birthright as firstborn, and Esau agreed, thus repudiating his birthright (cf. Heb 12:16). The significance of this episode of the red pottage is demonstrated by its association with Esau’s second name, Edom (“red”) (Gn 25:30).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac became old and blind. One day he asked Esau to take his weapons and get some wild game, of which Isaac was very fond (Gn 27:6-7; cf 25:28), so that he could eat and then confer his blessing upon Esau. Rebekah overheard this, so she called Jacob and told him to go to the flock and select two good kids. She would prepare a dish that would pass for the game while Esau was out hunting. Jacob feared that Isaac would detect the deception, for Esau was very hairy, but Rebekah had everything planned. She placed the skins of the kids on Jacob’s hands and neck to give the impression of hairiness (27:16) and clothed him in Esau’s best garments, which had the smell of the outdoors on them. Although Isaac recognized the voice of Jacob, his other senses failed him, and he was deceived by the feel of the skins and the smell of the garments. He proceeded to give the blessing to Jacob (vv 27-29).<\/p>\n<p>No sooner had Jacob left than Esau arrived with the game he had cooked. Jacob’s ruse was discovered, but the deed could not be undone (Gn 27:33), for, as the Nuzi tablets show, an oral blessing had legal validity and could not be revoked. Esau was heartbroken (cf. Heb 12:17). Isaac gave him a blessing inferior to the one given to Jacob (Gn 27:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The animosity between the brothers deepened, and Esau plotted to kill Jacob after the death of their father. Rebekah learned of this, so she instructed Jacob to flee to her brother Laban in Haran (Gn 27:42-45). Esau’s Hittite wives, meanwhile, had been making life miserable for Rebekah; she complained to Isaac, who called Jacob and sent him to Laban to marry one of his uncle’s daughters (27:46–28:4).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob set out for Haran. Using a stone for a pillow, he dreamed one night of a ladder reaching up to heaven, with the angels of God ascending and descending on it. God spoke to Jacob and gave to him the promise he had given to Abraham and Isaac concerning the land and descendants. The next morning Jacob took his stone pillow and set it up as a pillar, anointing it with oil. He named the place Bethel (“house of God”) and made a vow that if the Lord would be with him and provide for him, he would give a tithe to the Lord (Gn 28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached the area of Haran, he met shepherds who knew Laban. Rachel, Laban’s younger daughter, arrived with her father’s flock, and Jacob rolled the large stone from the mouth of the well and watered the sheep for her (Gn 29:1-10). When Rachel learned that Jacob was from their own family, she ran to tell her father, who greeted Jacob warmly. After staying with them for a month, Jacob was hired to tend Laban’s flocks. When wages were discussed, Jacob proposed to work seven years to earn Rachel as his wife (vv 15-20).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of seven years Jacob was set to claim his wages, but on the night of the wedding feast, Laban gave his older daughter, Leah, to Jacob; Jacob did not discover the substitution until morning. He felt cheated and protested to Laban, but Laban insisted that according to custom the older daughter must marry first and proposed that Jacob work another seven years for Rachel. Jacob agreed to this and put in his time (Gn 29:21-30).<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 29 and 30 relate the births of most of Jacob’s children. Leah bore Jacob four sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35). She named her first son Reuben (“see, a son”) since she felt that her husband would love her because she bore a son. Simeon is derived from the root “hear,” since Leah thought that God had given her this son because he had heard that she was hated. Levi is related to the verb “join,” for Leah thought that her husband would be joined to her because of this third son. Judah means “praise,” for she praised the Lord at the birth of her fourth son.<\/p>\n<p>Rachel had not conceived any children, so she gave her maid Bilhah to Jacob. She bore him Dan and Naphtali (Gn 30:1-8). Rachel named the first son Dan (“he judged”) because God had judged, that is, vindicated her. Naphtali means “my struggle, my wrestling,” for Rachel said she had wrestled with and overcome her sister.<\/p>\n<p>Thereupon Leah gave her maid Zilpah to Jacob as a wife; she brought forth Gad and Asher (Gn 30:11). Gad means “fortune”; Leah said, “Good fortune,” when he was born. Asher (“happy”) was so named because Leah said, “Now the women will call me happy.”<\/p>\n<p>Reuben found some mandrakes in the field, and Leah traded them to Rachel for Jacob’s services. Leah then bore sons five and six, Issachar and Zebulun, followed by a daughter, whom she named Dinah (Gn 30:14-21). Issachar perhaps means “reward,” for Leah said that God had rewarded her for giving her maidservant to her husband. Zebulun probably means “honor”; Leah thought that now her husband would honor her.<\/p>\n<p>At last Rachel herself conceived and bore her first child, a son whom she named Joseph. “Joseph” means “he will add” or “may he add,” for Rachel wanted God to add another son to her.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob wanted to leave and go back to Canaan, but Laban wanted him to stay, for through divination he had learned that the Lord had blessed him because of Jacob (Gn 30:27). They discussed the matter of wages, and Jacob proposed that every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb become his (vv 32-33). Laban agreed to this, but he quickly removed all the animals marked in that fashion and put them under the care of his sons, some three days’ distance from the rest of the flocks (vv 35-36).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob also contrived to gain an advantage; he tried to influence the genetics of the animals by putting speckled and streaked wooden rods by the water troughs when the best animals were breeding. The Lord blessed Jacob and he became rich in flocks and herds (Gn 30:37-43).<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Laban became very bitter toward Jacob, and Laban’s attitude toward him changed also. Jacob noticed this, and now the Lord spoke to Jacob and told him to return to Canaan (Gn 31:3-16). Jacob held a family council with his two wives and told them how God had blessed him, even though their father had cheated him and had changed his wages ten times. Jacob organized his caravan while Laban was away shearing sheep. Rachel stole her father’s household gods, for their possession would make the holder heir to Laban’s estate (see Nuzi Tablets). The party took off, crossed the Euphrates, and headed for Gilead. Laban and his relatives pursued them, but God spoke to Laban in a dream, warning him not to say anything to Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>When Laban caught up with Jacob, he upbraided him for sneaking away and inquired about his household gods. Jacob did not know what Rachel had done, so he said that the one found with the gods should be put to death (Gn 31:32). Rachel had hidden them in a camel saddle and was sitting on the saddle when her father searched the tent. Laban did not find the idols. After this, Jacob became angry and complained that he had served Laban for 20 years and that Laban had reduced his wages ten times.<\/p>\n<p>Laban suggested a covenant of peace, so the two men gathered stones to make a monument and called it “heap of witness.” Early the next morning Laban said his farewells and returned home.<\/p>\n<p>As Jacob and his household journeyed on, he was met by the angels of God (“God’s camp,” Gn 32:2), so he named that place Mahanaim, “the two camps.” Jacob sent messengers ahead to inform Esau of his return. They came back with the news that Esau was approaching with 400 men. Jacob was afraid and sought the Lord’s protection. To win Esau’s favor, Jacob sent ahead gifts of animals, and that night he sent his family and possessions across the ford of the Jabbok River. Jacob was left alone, and “a man” wrestled with him throughout the night. Toward dawn the man touched Jacob’s thigh, and his hip was dislocated, but Jacob would not give up until the “man” blessed him. Here the Lord changed Jacob’s name to Israel (“he strives with God”), and Jacob named the place Peniel (“face of God”) because he had seen God face to face and lived (Gn 32:30).<\/p>\n<p>Esau was getting near, so Jacob arranged his family and went forward, bowing low before his brother. But Esau was gracious and forgiving and the meeting was a happy one (Gn 33:4). Esau was surprised at Jacob’s large family and property and made every gesture of friendship. Esau returned to Seir, and Jacob moved on to Shechem, where he bought a piece of land from Hamor, the father of Shechem. Jacob built an altar there and named it El-Elohe-Israel, “God, the God of Israel” (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Acting on the Lord’s instructions, Jacob moved to Bethel and expelled the foreign gods from his household. At Luz (Bethel) the Lord again met him and reaffirmed his new name, renewing his promise of land and descendants (Gn 35:9-15). As they journeyed south, Rachel died while giving birth to her second son (vv 16-20). She named him Ben-oni (“son of my sorrow”), but Jacob changed his name to Benjamin (“son of the right hand”). Jacob went on to Hebron and found that Isaac was still living. Isaac died at age 180 and was buried by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Although the story of Jacob continues in the book of Genesis, the central figure of chapters 37–50 is Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, the firstborn of Rachel. Jacob showed this favoritism so openly that the other sons became jealous of Joseph. They plotted to kill Joseph but instead sold him to a caravan of traders on their way to Egypt (Gn 37:9-28). They took Joseph’s coat, dipped it into the blood of a goat, and took it to their father, telling him that they had found the robe. Jacob recognized the coat he had given his son and concluded that he was dead. Jacob was heartbroken and would not be comforted.<\/p>\n<p>When a famine hit Canaan, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy grain (Gn 42:1-5), keeping Benjamin at home. When the brothers returned to Canaan, they reported to Jacob that the governor (who was really Joseph) had kept Simeon as a hostage and demanded that they bring Benjamin with them when they came again for grain. The famine continued, and Jacob again sent his sons to Egypt for grain. Very reluctantly, he permitted Benjamin to go with them, also sending a gift for the Egyptian governor (43:11-14).<\/p>\n<p>The next news Jacob received was that Joseph was alive in Egypt and wanted his father and all his family to join him (Gn 45:21-28). Jacob went first to Beersheba and made offerings to the Lord. The Lord spoke to Jacob, telling him to go down to Egypt and confirming once more the promises he had previously made. Jacob and his descendants who were in Egypt numbered 70, including the two sons of Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob reached Goshen, Joseph came to meet him, and there was a joyous reunion (Gn 46:28-30). Joseph reported the arrival of his father and brothers to the pharaoh (47:1) and took five of the brothers and his father to meet the ruler. Israel settled in the area of Goshen and prospered there. Jacob spent 17 years in Egypt and reached the age of 147.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob sensed his death was near, he called Joseph and made him swear that he would bury him with his forebears in Canaan. Joseph took his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for the patriarchal blessing. He presented the boys so that Manasseh, the firstborn, would be on Jacob’s right and Ephraim on his left. Jacob, however crossed his hands and gave the younger son the greater blessing (48:13-20). Jacob prophesied that his people would return to Canaan, and he gave Joseph a double portion of the land. Then Jacob called for all his sons and gave to each of them a blessing (49:1-28). Judah received the place of preeminence, and it is he who appears in the genealogies of Jesus (vv 8-12). The blessing of Joseph shows the mark of special favor (vv 22-26). Jacob also charged his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, then he drew his feet up on the bed and died.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph summoned the physicians to embalm his father according to Egyptian practice; there were 40 days for embalming and 70 days for the period of mourning (Gn 50:1-3). Arrangements were made to go to Canaan to bury Jacob as Joseph had promised, and a large funeral procession, including many Egyptian officials as well as the family of Jacob, went up from Egypt. The company mourned for seven days at the threshing floor of Atad; then the sons of Jacob buried him in the cave of Machpelah as he had requested. The entire group returned to Egypt, and Joseph assured his brothers that he had no intention of avenging the wrong they had done him. God had meant the whole episode for good (vv 15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob as the Nation Israel<\/p>\n<p>God made the same promises concerning the land and the nation to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but it is by Jacob’s God-given name, Israel, that the nation is known.<\/p>\n<p>The name Jacob is used for the nation about 100 times (e.g., Nm 24:5, 19; Dt 32:9; Ps 59:13). It is often found as a parallel to Israel (e.g., Nm 23:7; Dt 33:10; Is 14:1). “Jacob” is also used specifically of the northern kingdom of Israel (Am 7:2, 5). In Isaiah 41:21 “the King of Jacob” refers to God himself.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genesis, Book of; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of Joseph, the husband of Mary and earthly father of Jesus according to Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:16). Luke, however, names Heli as Joseph’s father (Lk 3:24). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ (The Relationship between the Two Records).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","summary_en":"JACOB 1. Younger of twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah (Gn 25:24-26). Isaac had prayed for his barren wife, Rebekah, and she conceived the twins, who jostled each other in the womb. When she asked the Lord about this, he told her that she was carrying two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (v 23). Esau was hairy and red (later he was called Edom, “red,” 25:30; 36:1), but Jacob was born holding the heel of his brother, so that he was named Jacob, “he takes by the heel” (cf...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43225,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:30","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:30<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated <em>give<\/em>) that was normally used for feeding animals. • <em>Edom, which means “red”:<\/em> See study note on 25:25.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:30<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated <em>give<\/em>) that was normally used for feeding animals. • <em>Edom, which means “red”:<\/em> See study note on 25:25.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:30 Esau was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated give) that was normally used for feeding animals. • Edom, which means “red”: See study note on 25:25.","summary_en":"25:30 Esau was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated give) that was normally used for feeding animals. • Edom, which means “red”: See study note on 25:25.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70851,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:30","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:30<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated <em>give<\/em>) that was normally used for feeding animals. • <em>Edom, which means “red”:<\/em> See study note on 25:25.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:30<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated <em>give<\/em>) that was normally used for feeding animals. • <em>Edom, which means “red”:<\/em> See study note on 25:25.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:30 Esau was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated give) that was normally used for feeding animals. • Edom, which means “red”: See study note on 25:25.","summary_en":"25:30 Esau was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated give) that was normally used for feeding animals. • Edom, which means “red”: See study note on 25:25.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98477,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:30","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:30<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated <em>give<\/em>) that was normally used for feeding animals. • <em>Edom, which means “red”:<\/em> See study note on 25:25.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:30<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated <em>give<\/em>) that was normally used for feeding animals. • <em>Edom, which means “red”:<\/em> See study note on 25:25.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:30 Esau was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated give) that was normally used for feeding animals. • Edom, which means “red”: See study note on 25:25.","summary_en":"25:30 Esau was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated give) that was normally used for feeding animals. • Edom, which means “red”: See study note on 25:25.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126103,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:30","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:30<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated <em>give<\/em>) that was normally used for feeding animals. • <em>Edom, which means “red”:<\/em> See study note on 25:25.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:30<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated <em>give<\/em>) that was normally used for feeding animals. • <em>Edom, which means “red”:<\/em> See study note on 25:25.<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:30 Esau was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated give) that was normally used for feeding animals. • Edom, which means “red”: See study note on 25:25.","summary_en":"25:30 Esau was preoccupied with his appetite. Being driven by one’s appetites leaves no place for spiritual values. The text emphasizes this by using a Hebrew word (translated give) that was normally used for feeding animals. • Edom, which means “red”: See study note on 25:25.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"31":[{"id":2557,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and the Bible*, Archaeology","title_en":"and the Bible*, Archaeology","content_ro":"<h3>ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE BIBLE*<\/h3>\n<p>Simply defined, archaeology is the science that recovers and studies the relics of human antiquity. Biblical archaeology is concerned with the remains scattered across the Near East. Some lie buried at different levels in mounds; others survive as ruins or weathered monuments to past grandeur. Many of the artifacts bear inscriptions of sorts in a variety of ancient languages, some of which still need much study to be understood properly. Other artifacts comprise the material remains of everyday life; broken pottery bowls, charred timbers, trinkets, toys, ornaments, occasional fragments of cloth, rusted weapons, perhaps only the imprint of a woven mat. All must be interpreted carefully in the light of what is known about the period of history from which the objects have been recovered.<\/p>\n<p>Many outstanding archaeological discoveries have been entirely accidental. At Ras Shamra in Syria, a peasant’s plow struck a tomb that led to the discovery of the ancient site of Ugarit. A Bedouin in search of a lost goat discovered the cave at Qumran that contained the Dead Sea Scrolls. In 1887 an Egyptian woman found the Amarna tablets while seeking decomposed bricks for use as fertilizer. In 1945 Egyptians hunting bird manure in caves near Nag Hammadi discovered important Coptic Gnostic manuscripts. Such chance finds, however, are no substitute for systematic surveys.<\/p>\n<p>In modern archaeology potential sites are surveyed carefully, generally photographed from the air, and tested for metals and other underground anomalies by the use of complex electronic equipment. Recovered artifacts are dated according to the level where they occurred in the site and by other methods, including radiocarbon dating. The purpose is to present a chronologically accurate picture of the artifacts and also of the site itself.<\/p>\n<p>The archaeologist and the Near Eastern scholar look at this testimony to ancient life in the realization that they are dealing with factual, objective data. Although there is obviously room for some speculation or difference of opinion, the objects being handled are silent but nevertheless real witnesses to people and events of the past. The relics, therefore, need to be understood in their own right as evidence and must not be manipulated to suit the fancies of some speculative interpretation of history, culture, or religion. Near Eastern archaeology is able to help us understand Scripture by providing objective background data. If, for example, an artifact containing pictographic or other forms of writing can be dated to around 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, that alone tells us that written communications in the locality date back to at least that period. The antiquity of writing is now known to be such that all the early authors of OT material could easily have composed and written down all the narratives credited to them. Thus it is no longer necessary to suppose that Moses could not have written the Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) on the ground that writing had not been invented in his day. In fact, archaeological discoveries have shown that Moses could, and probably did, write in Egyptian hieroglyphics, Babylonian cuneiform, and several Canaanite dialects (of which biblical Hebrew is one). Any theory of Pentateuchal composition that ignores such factual information is obviously wrong in a fundamentally important area.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Archaeology and Daily Life<\/p>\n<p>• Archaeology and Religion<\/p>\n<p>• Archaeology and Warfare<\/p>\n<p>• Archaeology and Literature<\/p>\n<p>• Archaeology and Language<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ArchaeologyandDailyLife\">Archaeology and Daily Life<\/p>\n<p>The kind of housing in which the ancients lived has been revealed from excavations at many Near Eastern sites. Neolithic (late Stone Age) dwellings were often simple “wattle-huts” of interwoven sticks, though some showed evidence of artistic interior decoration. The elegant middle-class home at Ur in the time of Abram was attractive even by modern standards. The magnificence of ancient palaces at such sites as Knossos, Persepolis, Mari, and Qantir is abundantly evident even from the ruins. Weaving is now known to be one of the oldest human crafts; the two types of knots used today in making oriental rugs originated in Mesopotamia in the remote past. Of similar antiquity was the manufacture of pottery, glazed and unglazed, some plain and some decorated.<\/p>\n<p>Obscure social customs in Scripture have been illustrated by archaeological discoveries. Abram’s procreation of a child by Hagar, his wife’s servant, was in conformity with local customs at Nuzi and was not regarded as immoral. The adoption of Eliezer by Abram (Gn 15:2-4) is clarified by texts from Nuzi that permitted childless couples to adopt sons who, in return for certain duties to the parents, would inherit the family estate. Such children had the inheritance rights of the firstborn, but their rights could be modified if the adopting parents subsequently had their own children. Texts from Nuzi, Ugarit, and Alalakh show that heads of families could disregard the natural order and choose any one of the sons to inherit firstborn rights (cf. Gn 48:13-22; 49:3-4). Nuzi tablets indicate that such rights could be traded between various members of the family, which accounts for the transaction between Esau and Jacob (Gn 25:31-34).<\/p>\n<p>Work of all kinds in the biblical period has been illustrated from many sources. The Beni Hasan tableau (1900 <span>BC<\/span>) shows traveling Semites bringing goods to Egypt. On one of the animals is a set of portable bellows, suggesting that the travelers may have been metalworkers. Other trades and occupations illustrated from monuments and paintings include hunting, fishing, brick making, various types of agricultural work, pottery making, and other domestic crafts. Such sources also provide valuable information about the way the ancients dressed. Men pictured on the Beni Hasan tableau were bearded and wore short skirts and sandals. Women had long, multicolored dresses fastened at the shoulder with a clasp. They wore shoes and kept their flowing hair in place by means of bands. Another Egyptian painting, dated 500 years later and showing Semites bringing gifts to the pharaoh, indicates that clothing styles had barely changed at all. These illustrations come from lands other than Palestine; the Israelites were forbidden to make representations of human beings or God.<\/p>\n<p>The most common traces of everyday life are potsherds, broken pottery pieces that were discarded in great quantities in settled areas and that can still be found today. Such fragments were often used as materials on which short messages were written, as illustrated by an important group of letters dating from the time of the prophet Jeremiah. The “Lachish letters” were actually military dispatches written in 587 <span>BC<\/span> from an outpost north of Lachish to one of the officers defending Lachish itself. Centuries later in NT times potsherds were still popular as writing materials because they were more durable than Egyptian papyrus and more convenient than waxed writing boards. Rectangular wooden palettes with a slot for the rush pens and rounded hollows for the little tablets of red and black ink have been found in Egypt. Remains of some of the ink actually used in writing the Dead Sea Scrolls have been recovered from the settlement at Qumran.<\/p>\n<p>In antiquity, various games were played by children and adults alike. From a tomb at Beni Hasan (c. 2000 <span>BC<\/span>) came a painting of pigtailed Egyptian girls keeping several balls up in the air at once. A relief in a temple at Thebes showed Ramses III playing draughts (checkers) with a concubine. Egyptian children of a later period played a game using pebbles that was perhaps the ancestor of backgammon. From Megiddo came an ivory gaming board with holes, presumably for pegs (c. 1200 <span>BC<\/span>). Children’s toys recovered from Near Eastern sites include whistles, leather-covered balls, model chariots, and animals on wheels, showing that tastes have changed very little over the ages. Adult sports such as wrestling, archery, and running were depicted in Egyptian tomb paintings.<\/p>\n<p>The embalming of Jacob and Joseph (Gn 50:2-3, 26) represented a social custom of long standing in Egypt and is thoroughly consistent with the background of the narrative. Jacob was buried in the cave of Machpelah with Sarah, Abraham, and others; although the site is well known, it cannot be excavated because it is venerated by the Arabs as the sacred resting place of their ancestor Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>An inscription associated with an ancient Hebrew burial site was found in the Russian Museum on the Mt of Olives in 1931. At some point it had been removed from the grave site. It reads, “Hither were brought the bones of Uzziah king of Judah—do not open.” The inscription came from Christ’s time, suggesting that the original tomb of the great ruler had been found during excavations in Jerusalem and that the remains had been transferred to another site. Archaeologists have shown that the kind of stone door covering the entrance to Christ’s tomb was in fashion chiefly from about 100 <span>BC<\/span> to about <span>AD<\/span> 100, which is consistent with the Gospel records.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ArchaeologyandReligion\">Archaeology and Religion<\/p>\n<p>Archaeological excavations have done much to indicate the nature of biblical religion and worship. Long before Abram left Ur at the command of the one true God, pagan Mesopotamian peoples worshiped individual gods and recognized them as celestial deities or “sky gods.” There is thus nothing inherently impossible or improbable about the relationship of the Hebrew patriarchs to the God whom they served and venerated. The worship of heathen deities in portable shrines has been illustrated from a relief of Ramses II, which showed the divine tent in the middle of the Egyptian encampment. In addition, seventhcentury BC Phoenician writings referred to a portable shrine pulled by oxen. The Israelite wilderness tabernacle thus fits properly into that kind of background and is not of comparatively late origin, as was once supposed.<\/p>\n<p>The tradition of singers participating in preexilic worship has been verified by archaeological discoveries indicating that for centuries the Palestinians had been noted for their musical abilities. Tablets from Ras Shamra (Ugarit) are full of religious poetry, some of which contains phrases similar to expressions in the Hebrew psalms. Solomon’s temple was built by Phoenician (Canaanite) workmen according to a ground plan (cf. 1 Kgs 6) similar to that of the eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> chapel found at Tel Tainat in Syria. The Wailing Wall in Jerusalem is thought to contain stones going back to Nehemiah’s time, but no traces of Solomon’s foundations have yet been uncovered in the city. Pieces of masonry from Herod’s temple, demolished in <span>AD<\/span> 70, have come to light and furnish interesting factual information about the appearance of contemporary pillars and supporting structures. Though there were supposedly many synagogues in Palestine in Christ’s time, few remains of any significance have survived.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ArchaeologyandWarfare\">Archaeology and Warfare<\/p>\n<p>Understanding of ancient warfare, a prominent biblical theme, has been assisted greatly by the work of archaeologists. Ancient Near Eastern peoples regarded war as conflict between the gods of the opposing nations. Military service was therefore regarded as a sacred calling, and soldiers were members of an honored profession. In his capacity as Lord of hosts, God was the commander in chief of the Hebrew army; he could order a city to be given up to the “ban,” that is, to complete destruction (cf. Jos 6:17, 24). War was waged according to well-understood rules. An enemy threatening the safety of a city would normally send its inhabitants a demand for surrender. If it was accepted, all lives were spared, though property would be plundered. If the demand was rejected, the besieged city dwellers knew that if their defenses were breached, they might all be killed. Frontal assaults, spies, ambushes, and armed patrols were all used in warfare. Sometimes battles were decided by the outcome of combat between champions (1 Sm 17:38-54).<\/p>\n<p>Ancient armor was pictured widely on reliefs and monuments, supplementing the artifacts that have been recovered. A magnificent golden helmet from Ur is an outstanding example of Sumerian military equipment, contrasting with the much smaller Hittite helmets depicted on a tomb wall at Karnak. Metal helmets (cf. 1 Sm 17:38) were worn initially only by leaders in the Israelite armies, but by Seleucid times all Hebrew soldiers were issued bronze helmets (1 Macc 6:35). Roman legionnaires commonly wore either leather or bronze helmets. The Hebrews used two kinds of shields: a large one protected the whole body and was designed for use by infantry; the other, smaller one was carried by archers (cf. 2 Chr 14:8). Such shields were generally of wood-and-leather construction, though occasionally made of bronze. Coats of scale armor (cf. Jer 46:4) were used in the Near East from at least the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, as indicated by the recovery of such scales from Alalakh and Ugarit. Swords and spears, a normal part of Hebrew weaponry, came in a variety of shapes and sizes, as illustrated on monuments and bas-reliefs. Furnaces used for manufacturing swords were found at Gerar; Bronze Age daggers have been recovered from Lachish and Megiddo. The compound Asiatic bow, made of wood, horn, and tendons attached to iron limbs, was the successor of the Semitic weapon depicted on the Beni Hasan tableau. Discovery of names inscribed on arrowheads dating between 1300 and 900 <span>BC<\/span> seems to indicate the existence of companies of archers (cf. Is 21:17). Very little is said in the NT about contemporary military equipment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ArchaeologyandLiterature\">Archaeology and Literature<\/p>\n<p>Many types of biblical literature have been paralleled in counterparts discovered in the Near East. Excavators at Ras Shamra found poetic and prose tablets that contain grammatical and literary forms occurring in the Hebrew psalms. It is now incorrect to suppose that detailed law codes such as those in the Pentateuch were not compiled until after the time of Moses, because fragmentary Sumerian codes dating from about the 19th century <span>BC<\/span> exhibit the same legislative tendencies. The code of the Babylonian ruler Hammurabi (18th century <span>BC<\/span>), based on earlier Sumerian legislation, expanded the principles of justice into nearly 300 sections. Hammurabi’s code was an attempt to stabilize contemporary society on the basis of law and order. Its style is interesting; it commenced with a poetic prologue, followed by the prose legal section, and concluded with a prose epilogue. This three-part literary pattern also appears in the book of Job (prose-poetry-prose), as well as in more modern writings.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant structure of Exodus 20:1-17 and its fuller form in Deuteronomy have been examined in light of the literary structure of second-millennium <span>BC<\/span> Hittite vassal treaties from Boghazkôy. The treaties were drawn up according to a standard pattern, the elements of which occur wholly or in part in the various OT covenantal passages (Ex 20:1-17; Lv 18:1-30; Dt 1:1–31:30; Jer 31:31-37).<\/p>\n<p>What appear to be 11 Mesopotamian tablet forms in Genesis can be isolated by the recurrence of the phrase “these are the generations of” in the <span>kjv<\/span> and some modern versions. The phrase and its accompanying material correspond to the colophon (notation about a publication, often found on the very last page of modern books) of undamaged Mesopotamian tablets. Genealogical material such as occurs in Genesis was also found on clay tablets from Nuzi. The terse style of the earlier Genesis historical accounts is reminiscent of Sumerian history writing.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew wisdom literature such as Proverbs has been paralleled from Egypt by the “Instruction of Amenemope,” where Proverbs 22:17–24:22 in particular is close in content to the Egyptian material. Scholars have yet to decide if one depended on the other, or if both went back to an even earlier source that has not survived.<\/p>\n<p>The epistolary (letter) form was a common feature of the ancient world (2 Sm 11; 1 Kgs 21; 2 Kgs 5:10, 20; Ezr 4:6-7; Neh 2:7). Many collections of Egyptian papyri, such as the Zenon documents, consisted of letters. Among the Greeks the letter form dated back to Plato. His <em>Seventh Letter<\/em> (c. 354 <span>BC<\/span>) is interesting because it attempted to rebut contemporary misunderstandings of his teaching and personal behavior. Certain of the apostle Paul’s letters (Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, Thessalonians) also stand in that general tradition. Paul’s Letter to Philemon corresponds closely to papyrus letters from Egypt of a purely personal nature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ArchaeologyandLanguage\">Archaeology and Language<\/p>\n<p>Recovery of many ancient Near Eastern languages has done much to clarify our understanding of the OT. Expressions now known to be Sumerian and Akkadian occur not only in Genesis but elsewhere in the Scriptures. Thus in Genesis 1:1 the phrase “the heavens and the earth” is a Sumerian expression <em>(an-ki)<\/em> meaning “universe”; the pair of antonyms (words opposite in meaning) expresses totality. Revelation 22:13 uses this literary device to express the same concept in three different ways.<\/p>\n<p>Ugaritic and Eblaic, both west Semitic dialects, are closely related to Hebrew and contain striking literary similarities. Reference to archaic Ugaritic expressions has made it possible to translate properly some obscure Hebrew poetic language that is now seen to have preserved genuine ancient Canaanite phraseology.<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic, another northwest Semitic language, was spoken in the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>, and is represented in the OT principally by chapters in Ezra and Daniel. These were written in imperial Aramaic, as are the Elephantine papyri of the fifth and fourth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. It is now known, on the basis of the Aramaic used, to be linguistically incorrect to assign a late date to either Ezra or Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>The NT was written in <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koine<\/span><em>,<\/em> or “common” Greek, the language of the Near East and the Roman Empire. NT common Greek differs from other Greek dialects in containing underlying Semitic expressions, which are frequently unrecognized and therefore mistranslated by the unwary.<\/p>\n<p>From the foregoing it is evident that archaeological discoveries have done much to enlarge our knowledge of the ancient world. Even with the limited data at our disposal it is possible to see the men and women of Scripture as real persons, living mostly in times of stress and uncertainty but often enjoying a high degree of culture unmatched until modern times. We see such persons as they should be seen—not as mythical or legendary figures, but as true children of their age, grappling with life’s problems and catching periodically a vision of God as all powerful and all holy, guiding the destinies of individuals and nations and bringing his purposes to pass in history. Archaeology has shown that the Hebrews must never be studied separately from other ancient Near Eastern peoples but instead must be seen as one element of a vast cultural complex that included such diverse peoples as the Sumerians and the Aegeans.<\/p>\n<p>Such study must be pursued in a consistently objective fashion, arguing from relevant evidence to a proper understanding of biblical events and life. It is sometimes difficult to reconcile certain accepted interpretations of archaeological data and the evidence of Scripture. Such conflicts are few in number, however, and tend to diminish noticeably as new information is forthcoming. In principle the archaeologist has no particular interest in “proving the truth” of the Scriptures, and it is obviously impossible for a spade or a trowel to prove or disprove the spiritual revelations and assertions of Scripture. But it is fair to say that archaeology validates Hebrew history and explains many formerly obscure terms and traditions in both the OT and NT. It thus provides an authentic background for the prophecies culminating in Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE BIBLE*<\/h3>\n<p>Simply defined, archaeology is the science that recovers and studies the relics of human antiquity. Biblical archaeology is concerned with the remains scattered across the Near East. Some lie buried at different levels in mounds; others survive as ruins or weathered monuments to past grandeur. Many of the artifacts bear inscriptions of sorts in a variety of ancient languages, some of which still need much study to be understood properly. Other artifacts comprise the material remains of everyday life; broken pottery bowls, charred timbers, trinkets, toys, ornaments, occasional fragments of cloth, rusted weapons, perhaps only the imprint of a woven mat. All must be interpreted carefully in the light of what is known about the period of history from which the objects have been recovered.<\/p>\n<p>Many outstanding archaeological discoveries have been entirely accidental. At Ras Shamra in Syria, a peasant’s plow struck a tomb that led to the discovery of the ancient site of Ugarit. A Bedouin in search of a lost goat discovered the cave at Qumran that contained the Dead Sea Scrolls. In 1887 an Egyptian woman found the Amarna tablets while seeking decomposed bricks for use as fertilizer. In 1945 Egyptians hunting bird manure in caves near Nag Hammadi discovered important Coptic Gnostic manuscripts. Such chance finds, however, are no substitute for systematic surveys.<\/p>\n<p>In modern archaeology potential sites are surveyed carefully, generally photographed from the air, and tested for metals and other underground anomalies by the use of complex electronic equipment. Recovered artifacts are dated according to the level where they occurred in the site and by other methods, including radiocarbon dating. The purpose is to present a chronologically accurate picture of the artifacts and also of the site itself.<\/p>\n<p>The archaeologist and the Near Eastern scholar look at this testimony to ancient life in the realization that they are dealing with factual, objective data. Although there is obviously room for some speculation or difference of opinion, the objects being handled are silent but nevertheless real witnesses to people and events of the past. The relics, therefore, need to be understood in their own right as evidence and must not be manipulated to suit the fancies of some speculative interpretation of history, culture, or religion. Near Eastern archaeology is able to help us understand Scripture by providing objective background data. If, for example, an artifact containing pictographic or other forms of writing can be dated to around 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, that alone tells us that written communications in the locality date back to at least that period. The antiquity of writing is now known to be such that all the early authors of OT material could easily have composed and written down all the narratives credited to them. Thus it is no longer necessary to suppose that Moses could not have written the Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) on the ground that writing had not been invented in his day. In fact, archaeological discoveries have shown that Moses could, and probably did, write in Egyptian hieroglyphics, Babylonian cuneiform, and several Canaanite dialects (of which biblical Hebrew is one). Any theory of Pentateuchal composition that ignores such factual information is obviously wrong in a fundamentally important area.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Archaeology and Daily Life<\/p>\n<p>• Archaeology and Religion<\/p>\n<p>• Archaeology and Warfare<\/p>\n<p>• Archaeology and Literature<\/p>\n<p>• Archaeology and Language<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ArchaeologyandDailyLife\">Archaeology and Daily Life<\/p>\n<p>The kind of housing in which the ancients lived has been revealed from excavations at many Near Eastern sites. Neolithic (late Stone Age) dwellings were often simple “wattle-huts” of interwoven sticks, though some showed evidence of artistic interior decoration. The elegant middle-class home at Ur in the time of Abram was attractive even by modern standards. The magnificence of ancient palaces at such sites as Knossos, Persepolis, Mari, and Qantir is abundantly evident even from the ruins. Weaving is now known to be one of the oldest human crafts; the two types of knots used today in making oriental rugs originated in Mesopotamia in the remote past. Of similar antiquity was the manufacture of pottery, glazed and unglazed, some plain and some decorated.<\/p>\n<p>Obscure social customs in Scripture have been illustrated by archaeological discoveries. Abram’s procreation of a child by Hagar, his wife’s servant, was in conformity with local customs at Nuzi and was not regarded as immoral. The adoption of Eliezer by Abram (Gn 15:2-4) is clarified by texts from Nuzi that permitted childless couples to adopt sons who, in return for certain duties to the parents, would inherit the family estate. Such children had the inheritance rights of the firstborn, but their rights could be modified if the adopting parents subsequently had their own children. Texts from Nuzi, Ugarit, and Alalakh show that heads of families could disregard the natural order and choose any one of the sons to inherit firstborn rights (cf. Gn 48:13-22; 49:3-4). Nuzi tablets indicate that such rights could be traded between various members of the family, which accounts for the transaction between Esau and Jacob (Gn 25:31-34).<\/p>\n<p>Work of all kinds in the biblical period has been illustrated from many sources. The Beni Hasan tableau (1900 <span>BC<\/span>) shows traveling Semites bringing goods to Egypt. On one of the animals is a set of portable bellows, suggesting that the travelers may have been metalworkers. Other trades and occupations illustrated from monuments and paintings include hunting, fishing, brick making, various types of agricultural work, pottery making, and other domestic crafts. Such sources also provide valuable information about the way the ancients dressed. Men pictured on the Beni Hasan tableau were bearded and wore short skirts and sandals. Women had long, multicolored dresses fastened at the shoulder with a clasp. They wore shoes and kept their flowing hair in place by means of bands. Another Egyptian painting, dated 500 years later and showing Semites bringing gifts to the pharaoh, indicates that clothing styles had barely changed at all. These illustrations come from lands other than Palestine; the Israelites were forbidden to make representations of human beings or God.<\/p>\n<p>The most common traces of everyday life are potsherds, broken pottery pieces that were discarded in great quantities in settled areas and that can still be found today. Such fragments were often used as materials on which short messages were written, as illustrated by an important group of letters dating from the time of the prophet Jeremiah. The “Lachish letters” were actually military dispatches written in 587 <span>BC<\/span> from an outpost north of Lachish to one of the officers defending Lachish itself. Centuries later in NT times potsherds were still popular as writing materials because they were more durable than Egyptian papyrus and more convenient than waxed writing boards. Rectangular wooden palettes with a slot for the rush pens and rounded hollows for the little tablets of red and black ink have been found in Egypt. Remains of some of the ink actually used in writing the Dead Sea Scrolls have been recovered from the settlement at Qumran.<\/p>\n<p>In antiquity, various games were played by children and adults alike. From a tomb at Beni Hasan (c. 2000 <span>BC<\/span>) came a painting of pigtailed Egyptian girls keeping several balls up in the air at once. A relief in a temple at Thebes showed Ramses III playing draughts (checkers) with a concubine. Egyptian children of a later period played a game using pebbles that was perhaps the ancestor of backgammon. From Megiddo came an ivory gaming board with holes, presumably for pegs (c. 1200 <span>BC<\/span>). Children’s toys recovered from Near Eastern sites include whistles, leather-covered balls, model chariots, and animals on wheels, showing that tastes have changed very little over the ages. Adult sports such as wrestling, archery, and running were depicted in Egyptian tomb paintings.<\/p>\n<p>The embalming of Jacob and Joseph (Gn 50:2-3, 26) represented a social custom of long standing in Egypt and is thoroughly consistent with the background of the narrative. Jacob was buried in the cave of Machpelah with Sarah, Abraham, and others; although the site is well known, it cannot be excavated because it is venerated by the Arabs as the sacred resting place of their ancestor Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>An inscription associated with an ancient Hebrew burial site was found in the Russian Museum on the Mt of Olives in 1931. At some point it had been removed from the grave site. It reads, “Hither were brought the bones of Uzziah king of Judah—do not open.” The inscription came from Christ’s time, suggesting that the original tomb of the great ruler had been found during excavations in Jerusalem and that the remains had been transferred to another site. Archaeologists have shown that the kind of stone door covering the entrance to Christ’s tomb was in fashion chiefly from about 100 <span>BC<\/span> to about <span>AD<\/span> 100, which is consistent with the Gospel records.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ArchaeologyandReligion\">Archaeology and Religion<\/p>\n<p>Archaeological excavations have done much to indicate the nature of biblical religion and worship. Long before Abram left Ur at the command of the one true God, pagan Mesopotamian peoples worshiped individual gods and recognized them as celestial deities or “sky gods.” There is thus nothing inherently impossible or improbable about the relationship of the Hebrew patriarchs to the God whom they served and venerated. The worship of heathen deities in portable shrines has been illustrated from a relief of Ramses II, which showed the divine tent in the middle of the Egyptian encampment. In addition, seventhcentury BC Phoenician writings referred to a portable shrine pulled by oxen. The Israelite wilderness tabernacle thus fits properly into that kind of background and is not of comparatively late origin, as was once supposed.<\/p>\n<p>The tradition of singers participating in preexilic worship has been verified by archaeological discoveries indicating that for centuries the Palestinians had been noted for their musical abilities. Tablets from Ras Shamra (Ugarit) are full of religious poetry, some of which contains phrases similar to expressions in the Hebrew psalms. Solomon’s temple was built by Phoenician (Canaanite) workmen according to a ground plan (cf. 1 Kgs 6) similar to that of the eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> chapel found at Tel Tainat in Syria. The Wailing Wall in Jerusalem is thought to contain stones going back to Nehemiah’s time, but no traces of Solomon’s foundations have yet been uncovered in the city. Pieces of masonry from Herod’s temple, demolished in <span>AD<\/span> 70, have come to light and furnish interesting factual information about the appearance of contemporary pillars and supporting structures. Though there were supposedly many synagogues in Palestine in Christ’s time, few remains of any significance have survived.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ArchaeologyandWarfare\">Archaeology and Warfare<\/p>\n<p>Understanding of ancient warfare, a prominent biblical theme, has been assisted greatly by the work of archaeologists. Ancient Near Eastern peoples regarded war as conflict between the gods of the opposing nations. Military service was therefore regarded as a sacred calling, and soldiers were members of an honored profession. In his capacity as Lord of hosts, God was the commander in chief of the Hebrew army; he could order a city to be given up to the “ban,” that is, to complete destruction (cf. Jos 6:17, 24). War was waged according to well-understood rules. An enemy threatening the safety of a city would normally send its inhabitants a demand for surrender. If it was accepted, all lives were spared, though property would be plundered. If the demand was rejected, the besieged city dwellers knew that if their defenses were breached, they might all be killed. Frontal assaults, spies, ambushes, and armed patrols were all used in warfare. Sometimes battles were decided by the outcome of combat between champions (1 Sm 17:38-54).<\/p>\n<p>Ancient armor was pictured widely on reliefs and monuments, supplementing the artifacts that have been recovered. A magnificent golden helmet from Ur is an outstanding example of Sumerian military equipment, contrasting with the much smaller Hittite helmets depicted on a tomb wall at Karnak. Metal helmets (cf. 1 Sm 17:38) were worn initially only by leaders in the Israelite armies, but by Seleucid times all Hebrew soldiers were issued bronze helmets (1 Macc 6:35). Roman legionnaires commonly wore either leather or bronze helmets. The Hebrews used two kinds of shields: a large one protected the whole body and was designed for use by infantry; the other, smaller one was carried by archers (cf. 2 Chr 14:8). Such shields were generally of wood-and-leather construction, though occasionally made of bronze. Coats of scale armor (cf. Jer 46:4) were used in the Near East from at least the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, as indicated by the recovery of such scales from Alalakh and Ugarit. Swords and spears, a normal part of Hebrew weaponry, came in a variety of shapes and sizes, as illustrated on monuments and bas-reliefs. Furnaces used for manufacturing swords were found at Gerar; Bronze Age daggers have been recovered from Lachish and Megiddo. The compound Asiatic bow, made of wood, horn, and tendons attached to iron limbs, was the successor of the Semitic weapon depicted on the Beni Hasan tableau. Discovery of names inscribed on arrowheads dating between 1300 and 900 <span>BC<\/span> seems to indicate the existence of companies of archers (cf. Is 21:17). Very little is said in the NT about contemporary military equipment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ArchaeologyandLiterature\">Archaeology and Literature<\/p>\n<p>Many types of biblical literature have been paralleled in counterparts discovered in the Near East. Excavators at Ras Shamra found poetic and prose tablets that contain grammatical and literary forms occurring in the Hebrew psalms. It is now incorrect to suppose that detailed law codes such as those in the Pentateuch were not compiled until after the time of Moses, because fragmentary Sumerian codes dating from about the 19th century <span>BC<\/span> exhibit the same legislative tendencies. The code of the Babylonian ruler Hammurabi (18th century <span>BC<\/span>), based on earlier Sumerian legislation, expanded the principles of justice into nearly 300 sections. Hammurabi’s code was an attempt to stabilize contemporary society on the basis of law and order. Its style is interesting; it commenced with a poetic prologue, followed by the prose legal section, and concluded with a prose epilogue. This three-part literary pattern also appears in the book of Job (prose-poetry-prose), as well as in more modern writings.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant structure of Exodus 20:1-17 and its fuller form in Deuteronomy have been examined in light of the literary structure of second-millennium <span>BC<\/span> Hittite vassal treaties from Boghazkôy. The treaties were drawn up according to a standard pattern, the elements of which occur wholly or in part in the various OT covenantal passages (Ex 20:1-17; Lv 18:1-30; Dt 1:1–31:30; Jer 31:31-37).<\/p>\n<p>What appear to be 11 Mesopotamian tablet forms in Genesis can be isolated by the recurrence of the phrase “these are the generations of” in the <span>kjv<\/span> and some modern versions. The phrase and its accompanying material correspond to the colophon (notation about a publication, often found on the very last page of modern books) of undamaged Mesopotamian tablets. Genealogical material such as occurs in Genesis was also found on clay tablets from Nuzi. The terse style of the earlier Genesis historical accounts is reminiscent of Sumerian history writing.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew wisdom literature such as Proverbs has been paralleled from Egypt by the “Instruction of Amenemope,” where Proverbs 22:17–24:22 in particular is close in content to the Egyptian material. Scholars have yet to decide if one depended on the other, or if both went back to an even earlier source that has not survived.<\/p>\n<p>The epistolary (letter) form was a common feature of the ancient world (2 Sm 11; 1 Kgs 21; 2 Kgs 5:10, 20; Ezr 4:6-7; Neh 2:7). Many collections of Egyptian papyri, such as the Zenon documents, consisted of letters. Among the Greeks the letter form dated back to Plato. His <em>Seventh Letter<\/em> (c. 354 <span>BC<\/span>) is interesting because it attempted to rebut contemporary misunderstandings of his teaching and personal behavior. Certain of the apostle Paul’s letters (Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, Thessalonians) also stand in that general tradition. Paul’s Letter to Philemon corresponds closely to papyrus letters from Egypt of a purely personal nature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ArchaeologyandLanguage\">Archaeology and Language<\/p>\n<p>Recovery of many ancient Near Eastern languages has done much to clarify our understanding of the OT. Expressions now known to be Sumerian and Akkadian occur not only in Genesis but elsewhere in the Scriptures. Thus in Genesis 1:1 the phrase “the heavens and the earth” is a Sumerian expression <em>(an-ki)<\/em> meaning “universe”; the pair of antonyms (words opposite in meaning) expresses totality. Revelation 22:13 uses this literary device to express the same concept in three different ways.<\/p>\n<p>Ugaritic and Eblaic, both west Semitic dialects, are closely related to Hebrew and contain striking literary similarities. Reference to archaic Ugaritic expressions has made it possible to translate properly some obscure Hebrew poetic language that is now seen to have preserved genuine ancient Canaanite phraseology.<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic, another northwest Semitic language, was spoken in the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>, and is represented in the OT principally by chapters in Ezra and Daniel. These were written in imperial Aramaic, as are the Elephantine papyri of the fifth and fourth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. It is now known, on the basis of the Aramaic used, to be linguistically incorrect to assign a late date to either Ezra or Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>The NT was written in <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koine<\/span><em>,<\/em> or “common” Greek, the language of the Near East and the Roman Empire. NT common Greek differs from other Greek dialects in containing underlying Semitic expressions, which are frequently unrecognized and therefore mistranslated by the unwary.<\/p>\n<p>From the foregoing it is evident that archaeological discoveries have done much to enlarge our knowledge of the ancient world. Even with the limited data at our disposal it is possible to see the men and women of Scripture as real persons, living mostly in times of stress and uncertainty but often enjoying a high degree of culture unmatched until modern times. We see such persons as they should be seen—not as mythical or legendary figures, but as true children of their age, grappling with life’s problems and catching periodically a vision of God as all powerful and all holy, guiding the destinies of individuals and nations and bringing his purposes to pass in history. Archaeology has shown that the Hebrews must never be studied separately from other ancient Near Eastern peoples but instead must be seen as one element of a vast cultural complex that included such diverse peoples as the Sumerians and the Aegeans.<\/p>\n<p>Such study must be pursued in a consistently objective fashion, arguing from relevant evidence to a proper understanding of biblical events and life. It is sometimes difficult to reconcile certain accepted interpretations of archaeological data and the evidence of Scripture. Such conflicts are few in number, however, and tend to diminish noticeably as new information is forthcoming. In principle the archaeologist has no particular interest in “proving the truth” of the Scriptures, and it is obviously impossible for a spade or a trowel to prove or disprove the spiritual revelations and assertions of Scripture. But it is fair to say that archaeology validates Hebrew history and explains many formerly obscure terms and traditions in both the OT and NT. It thus provides an authentic background for the prophecies culminating in Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE BIBLE* Simply defined, archaeology is the science that recovers and studies the relics of human antiquity. Biblical archaeology is concerned with the remains scattered across the Near East. Some lie buried at different levels in mounds; others survive as ruins or weathered monuments to past grandeur. Many of the artifacts bear inscriptions of sorts in a variety of ancient languages, some of which still need much study to be understood properly. Other artifacts comprise the...","summary_en":"ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE BIBLE* Simply defined, archaeology is the science that recovers and studies the relics of human antiquity. Biblical archaeology is concerned with the remains scattered across the Near East. Some lie buried at different levels in mounds; others survive as ruins or weathered monuments to past grandeur. Many of the artifacts bear inscriptions of sorts in a variety of ancient languages, some of which still need much study to be understood properly. Other artifacts comprise the...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43226,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:31","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:31-33<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em> was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:31-33<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em> was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:31-33 Jacob was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).","summary_en":"25:31-33 Jacob was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70852,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:31","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:31-33<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em> was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:31-33<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em> was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:31-33 Jacob was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).","summary_en":"25:31-33 Jacob was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98478,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:31","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:31-33<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em> was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:31-33<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em> was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:31-33 Jacob was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).","summary_en":"25:31-33 Jacob was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126104,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:31","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:31-33<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em> was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:31-33<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em> was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:31-33 Jacob was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).","summary_en":"25:31-33 Jacob was the better hunter on this occasion, but great danger lay in exercising such strong ambition. God’s people should desire the things of God, but they must not seek them in the flesh (see Zech 4:6; Gal 5:16-17; Eph 6:10-12). The Lord dealt severely with Jacob to purge him of carnal methods. He later received the promise not as crafty Jacob the usurper, but as Israel (meaning, “God fights”), with God fighting on his behalf (Gen 32:28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"33":[{"id":43227,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:33","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:33-34<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau<em> showed contempt for<\/em> his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:33-34<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau<em> showed contempt for<\/em> his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:33-34 Esau eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau showed contempt for his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).","summary_en":"25:33-34 Esau eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau showed contempt for his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70853,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:33","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:33-34<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau<em> showed contempt for<\/em> his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:33-34<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau<em> showed contempt for<\/em> his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:33-34 Esau eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau showed contempt for his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).","summary_en":"25:33-34 Esau eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau showed contempt for his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98479,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:33","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:33-34<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau<em> showed contempt for<\/em> his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:33-34<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau<em> showed contempt for<\/em> his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:33-34 Esau eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau showed contempt for his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).","summary_en":"25:33-34 Esau eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau showed contempt for his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126105,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Geneza 25:33","title_en":"Study Note: Geneza 25:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>25:33-34<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau<em> showed contempt for<\/em> his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>25:33-34<\/strong> <em>Esau<\/em> eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau<em> showed contempt for<\/em> his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"25:33-34 Esau eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau showed contempt for his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).","summary_en":"25:33-34 Esau eagerly took Jacob’s bait and fell into the trap. He ate and left too quickly to have been near death (25:32). The final comment on the passage explains that Esau showed contempt for his birthright, considering it worthless (Heb 12:16). It is foolish to sacrifice spiritual blessings to satisfy physical appetites (cp. Gen 3:6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"34":[{"id":12528,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Food and Food Preparation","title_en":"Food and Food Preparation","content_ro":"<h3>FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION<\/h3>\n<p>Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare with neighboring nations (2 Kgs 6:25), and intermittent plagues of locusts ravaged large areas.<\/p>\n<p>Food was more plentiful in Palestine (described as a “land flowing with milk and honey”) than in many other parts of the Near East. Shallow cultivation of the soil, however, made crops highly reliant on regular rainfall. Egyptian crops were far less susceptible to weather variations, because the Nile provided a dependable source of water.<\/p>\n<p>Food shortages were considered warnings or punishment from God (Lam 4:9, 11; Am 4:6-9) to teach the Hebrews that life is more than food and that faith must continue despite scarcity, famine, or even death (Dt 8:3; Hb 3:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>The staples of nomadic Hebrews were milk, curds, and cheese. As the people became more stationary, they grew grains and vegetables and planted orchards and vineyards. Grain would sometimes be grown for a season, and then after the harvest, the tribes would move their flocks to other pastures and find other arable land. Religious sacrifices and festivals were times not only of solemnity but also of rejoicing and great feasting. Victories were also celebrated with banquets and feasting on the food obtained from the camp of the vanquished enemy.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>• Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>• Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>• Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>• Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DairyProducts\">Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>Milk and its by-products formed a vital part of the Hebrew diet (see Jgs 4:19). Goat’s milk was most frequently used, although milk from camels, cows, and sheep was also available (Gn 32:15; Dt 32:14; Prv 27:27).<\/p>\n<p>Since fresh milk could not be preserved in Palestine’s hot climate, it was processed into buttermilk, curds, and cheese. Milk was poured into goatskins, where it soured and thickened because of the nonsterile condition of the previously used skins and the movement as it was transported. That movement of the pouch (often made from a cow’s stomach, containing the enzyme rennin used in cheese making) produced curds. Curds are first mentioned in the Bible as part of the meal that Abraham provided for his extraordinary guests (Gn 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for curds <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">chena<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also translated “butter” (Jb 10:10). This butter would be similar in consistency to yogurt from which the water has been squeezed out. When pressed and rolled into small balls, it kept indefinitely, despite the climate. Thus, compressed curds were particularly valuable for journeys in arid regions where food was scarce.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GrainCrops\">Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned food in the Bible is bread. The term refers in a general sense to all foods but more particularly to food prepared from grain. In biblical times bread was prepared from several grains. Wheat, barley, and spelt were grown in Egypt (Ex 9:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>An Egyptian physician named Sinuhe, living in the mid-20th century <span>BC<\/span>, recorded that bread was baked daily in Palestine and Syria, and it is probable that it was served with every meal. This bread was probably a wafer or flat cake made from barley or emmer (an inferior form of wheat), since these were the two grain crops that Sinuhe mentioned seeing. Wheat was the most expensive grain. Fine wheat flour was a luxury only the rich could afford (Gn 18:6; Ez 16:13, 19). In later periods wheat became a valuable export crop that was shipped from Tyre to other ports in the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>Because barley could grow in less productive soil and was more tolerant of drought conditions, it became a popular grain crop in the ancient Near East. Barley could also be harvested several weeks earlier than wheat. Barley bread (Jgs 7:13; 2 Kgs 4:42) and barley cakes (Ez 4:12) were eaten by the average laborer. Jesus miraculously multiplied a young boy’s five barley loaves and two fishes and fed five thousand (Jn 6:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Millet, a cereal with a small grain head growing on a stalk less than two feet (.6 meter) high, and spelt, a type of wheat, were also used in times of need as a border around the edges of fields.<\/p>\n<p>The most primitive way of processing grain was to rub the ears between the hands to separate the kernels, as Jesus and his disciples did (Lk 6:1). To perform this act on the Sabbath (the day of rest) was considered the equivalent of reaping and was therefore forbidden.<\/p>\n<p>Parching (roasting the grain lightly in a pan) was another simple method of preparation (Jos 5:11; 1 Sm 17:17). It formed a quick and easy meal for laborers or kings (Ru 2:14; 1 Sm 25:18; 2 Sm 17:28). Parched corn was ideal for taking on journeys.<\/p>\n<p>Bread making was a strenuous task. Mortars, pestles, and simple mills with upper and lower stones were used for grinding flour in ancient Egypt around 2900 <span>BC<\/span>. These primitive mills were normally placed on the ground, and one was compelled to kneel in order to do the backbreaking work. The resulting meal was coarse and filled with small pieces of husk.<\/p>\n<p>When the flour had been prepared, water was added and the mixture was kneaded in a special trough. The dough could then be made immediately into cakes, pancakes, or unleavened bread (Gn 19:3). These flat cakes or wafers were often baked on previously heated stones, on the inner walls of small conical ovens, or in larger communal ovens. Leaven was added to make a lighter dough. The leaven was normally a piece of dough left over from an earlier mixing and allowed to ferment before being used. The flour meal was also mixed with a porridge made of lentil beans in order to stretch the food supply.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AnimalProducts\">Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>The introduction of meat as part of the diet seems to have coincided with the time when Noah and his family left the ark (Gn 9:3). After this time, however, the animals normally eaten for food were so valuable that only the wealthy could afford to slaughter them. So in biblical times the peasant had a simple, somewhat monotonous diet, while the rich feasted on meat, delicacies, and imported commodities. As a result, meat was a luxury item that the poor would rarely enjoy except on such occasions as the Passover celebration or sacrifices in which the worshiper ate part of the offering (Ex 12:8). Although it was clearly uneconomic to slaughter an animal that produced such staples as milk, curds, and cheese, the rules of hospitality in the Near East dictated that an animal should be killed to entertain an honored guest (2 Sm 12:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Domestic sheep, goats, and oxen provided the main source of meat, although venison was popular with the upper classes. When the blind Isaac was deceived by his son Jacob, the father was offered the luxury of both kid’s meat and wild game (Gn 27:3, 9, 19). The ox kept in a stall or the fatted calf were reserved for occasions of great festivity (Mt 22:4).<\/p>\n<p>The use of meat for sacrifice was given definitive form in the provisions of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. The Law forbade anyone to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day (Lv 22:28). Another prohibition, perhaps directed at pagan Canaanite sacrificial rituals, would not allow a kid to be stewed or poached in its mother’s milk (Dt 14:21). Mosaic law was emphatic in prohibiting the consumption of blood in any form. Animal blood was considered the source of the animal’s life and was offered by priests as a sacrifice to God to atone for human sin (Lv 17:11). In the Mosaic law, pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits were considered unclean and were therefore forbidden for food, principally on hygienic grounds (11:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient world, meat was usually boiled or stewed. Roasting an ox or a kid would usually occur only as part of a special feast or sacrificial ritual. Animals might also be roasted for members of the royal palace or for a king’s special guests.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that hunting was enjoyed by all who were able to participate, wild game provided only a minor part of the diet. Among the game found in Palestine and mentioned in the Bible are gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, and deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23). It is probable that pheasants were available, and there were certainly turtledoves, pigeons, quails, and partridges, although the precise quantities of food that these birds provided is not certain (Gn 15:9; Ex 16:13). Goose was the most popular dish in Egypt, and marsh ducks were also highly esteemed as game. After the Persian period, chickens were eaten (2 Esd 1:30), and eggs and omelettes were popular in Rome in early Christian times. The eggs mentioned in Deuteronomy are probably wild birds’ eggs (Dt 22:6-7; cf. Is 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>Thirty varieties of fish were available in the Jordan, and an extensive fishing industry existed on the shores of the Sea of Galilee at the time of Christ. Supplies of fish were readily available from the Mediterranean coast during the Roman period, but at an earlier time the fish supply depended to a large extent upon whichever nation had control of the coastline. In the postexilic period the people of Tyre supplied the city of Jerusalem with fish, which were sold near the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3). In the regulations concerning the types of fish suitable for food, only those that had fins and scales were acceptable (Lv 11:9-12).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times many of the distinctions concerning food were eliminated. In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus, challenging the Pharisees’ hypocrisy, upset the Jewish food laws by saying that evil thoughts, not certain foods, make a person unclean (Mk 7:19). As Christianity spread into gentile areas, there was, however, a continuing concern about eating meat that had been offered to idols. The question came to a head in Corinth. The apostle Paul maintained that though the meat was acceptable, one should take care not to cause spiritual damage to another Christian with a more sensitive conscience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InsectsandTheirFoodProducts\">Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>Wild honey was found in Palestine, but there is no evidence of bee-keeping. Egyptians, however, did practice beekeeping at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The honeycomb is mentioned specifically in 1 Samuel 14:27 and Song of Songs 5:1; liquid honey is referred to in 1 Kings 14:3. Honey was to be found in crevices of rocks and on trees (Dt 32:13). It was the primary sweetener in cooking. Although it could not be used in a sacrifice to the Lord (Lv 2:11), honey was prized as a delicacy. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, when Thutmose III was campaigning in Syria and Palestine, he brought back vast quantities of honey as tribute from his newly conquered lands.<\/p>\n<p>Locusts were probably first eaten in desperation after they had devastated crops. They are one of the few insects mentioned as a permissible source of food (Lv 11:22). Locusts were fried in flour or honey, or were preserved by being dried. Locusts and wild honey formed John the Baptist’s basic diet in the wilderness (Mt 3:4; Mk 1:6). Although locusts contain little protein, they are rich in fat and have some mineral content.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VegetablesandSeasoning\">Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people wandering in the Sinai wilderness bemoaned the loss of the flavorful vegetables they had become accustomed to during their Egyptian captivity. In particular, they expressed a longing for cucumbers, melons (possibly watermelons), leeks, onions, and garlic (Nm 11:5). Many of these vegetables were later grown in Palestine (particularly in the Gaza). When cucumbers were first cultivated, they were regarded as luxury items and had to be protected by guards who lived in shacks overlooking the gardens (Is 1:8). Beans, lentils, and parched grain were among the items brought to David and his soldiers at Mahanaim (2 Sm 17:28). Lentils were known in Egypt from at least the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> and were used extensively both then and in later times by the Israelites. Lentil soup is mentioned in Genesis 25:34.<\/p>\n<p>In times of hunger the husks of the carob tree, normally fed to cattle, could be used for food. These would have been most acceptable to the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). There were many kinds of green herbs that could provide a meal for the poor in time of need (Prv 15:17). In cases of extreme hunger, some kinds of mallow and juniper roots could also be used as food. In Elisha’s time a group of prophets at Gilgal prepared a stew of wild vegetables, to which they mistakenly added poisonous wild gourds. Elisha rectified the situation by adding meal to the pot (2 Kgs 4:38-41). While there is no actual record of the kinds of bitter herbs used as part of the Passover offering (Ex 12:8; Nm 9:11), mint and cummin were most probably included. Dill, cummin, rue, and mint were common garden herbs (Mt 23:23; Lk 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>Seasonings were welcome additives to the rather bland character of typical Israelite fare. Salt came mainly from the Dead Sea area and was essential as a seasoning and preserving agent. Salt was so important in the diet that it became part of the vocabulary of moral obligation. The sharing of salt with a person at a meal sealed a covenant or pact (Nm 18:19). In the Levitical sacrificial ritual, salt was part of meat and cereal offerings, since it signified the sealing of God’s covenant with Israel (Lv 2:13; Ez 43:24).<\/p>\n<p>The mustard tree, which was probably grown for its oil content, grew from a minute seed to the height of 15 feet (4.5 meters) (Mt 13:31-32). Anise, coriander, and cinnamon were also available (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:7). Perhaps the most popular and widely used spice, apart from salt, was garlic. Vinegar was also probably used as a flavoring agent and a preservative. From the number of seeds and plants found in Egyptian tombs from the 18th dynasty, it is obvious that the use of seasoning was widespread in antiquity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FruitsNutsandWine\">Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p>Olive trees grew abundantly in Palestine and were an excellent source of food and oil. Even in poor soil, one tree could sufficiently supply a family for a whole year. Some green olives were pickled in brine and eaten with bread, but the olive was most important as a source of oil. Olive oil was used in baking bread and cakes and in frying foods. The best quality olive oil was used in the temple sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was extracted from olives by a simple process: for the finest quality oil, olives were picked before fully ripe and then crushed by hand with a stone mortar and pestle. Usually, however, pickers beat the olives from trees with long poles and collected them in baskets. The oil was then trodden out, probably in the same vat used for grapes (Mi 6:15), which were harvested approximately four weeks later.<\/p>\n<p>An oil mill was developed subsequently, and the heavy upper grinding stone was turned by two people. As the oil dripped through, it was collected in another stone vat and was allowed to settle and purify. When refined, the oil was stored in skins or jars.<\/p>\n<p>Fig trees grew in all areas of Palestine. They required little attention and provided two or three crops per year. The most abundant of these was the second, which ripened in late summer. The first figs of the season were considered a great delicacy (Is 28:4; Mi 7:1). The prophet Hosea suggested that the Israelites were like the firstfruits of the fig tree (Hos 9:10). Another prophet, Jeremiah, spoke of those who had gone into exile as being like the first figs, while those who were left behind were the bad figs, fit only for destruction (Jer 24:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Figs were usually eaten fresh from the trees, but some were pressed into cakes to use when traveling (1 Sm 25:18; 30:12; 1 Chr 12:40). Figs were also valuable for medicinal purposes, since effective poultices could be made from them (2 Kgs 20:7; Is 38:21). Sycamore trees produced small, figlike fruit eaten primarily by the poor. A short time before harvest, the fruit was slightly incised, making it swell and ripen more quickly. The prophet Amos notched sycamore fruit before he was called by God (Am 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>Fruit from the date palm could also have been pressed into flat cakes for travelers, as figs were. The Bible, however, makes no specific reference to its fruit as food (see Jgs 4:5; Ps 92:12; Jl 1:12; Jn 12:13).<\/p>\n<p>Another popular Near Eastern fruit was the red pomegranate. It was eaten whole, or the seeds were pressed to provide a refreshing drink. The pomegranate is mentioned in temple ritual as one of the fruits brought back from Canaan to Moses by his spies (Ex 28:33) and as an exotic drink (Sg 8:2). The “apple” mentioned in Scripture (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:5) was most likely a type of apricot or quince, not an apple as we know it today. Nuts were used for additional flavor in cooking. Almonds and pistachio nuts were among the gifts sent by Jacob to ransom his sons (Gn 43:11).<\/p>\n<p>Grapes were popular and plentiful from the early Bronze Age. In addition to being eaten fresh from the vine, grapes were dried as raisins (Nm 6:3; 1 Sm 25:18) or pressed, their juice drunk either as new wine or fermented into an alcoholic drink. One of the duties of the cup-bearer in ancient royal courts was to provide grape juice or wine for the king, his family, and guests (Gn 40:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>The juice of grapes also provided vinegar when wine deteriorated. Vinegar was used as a flavoring agent in cooking and as a preservative. When diluted with water, it supplied a refreshing drink for workers in the fields. A type of jelly was made in the Near East by boiling grapes until they assumed the consistency of molasses. This syrup could also be used as a sweetening agent in cooking.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was the universal drink in antiquity. It could be diluted with water or mixed with spices or honey to make a mulled wine (Sg 8:2; Is 5:22). The Hebrew word for “banquet” or “feast” literally means “drinking,” which reveals much of the character of such occasions. A certain amount of merriment was considered proper at a festival or banquet (Gn 43:34; Jgs 9:13; Lk 5:34).<\/p>\n<p>Wine making was similar in many respects to the production of olive oil. Clusters of grapes were cut from the vine with a sickle, collected in baskets, and taken to the winepress, where they were trodden by men and women. The juice ran into a lower vat, where, under the hot sun, fermentation began almost immediately. The wine was left to settle so that any twigs or skins would form a sediment; after that the wine could be strained off. In about six weeks the wine was ready to drink or store in earthenware jars or wineskins.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals; Bread; Family Life and Relations; Leaven; Meals, Significance of; Plants; Unleavened Bread.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION<\/h3>\n<p>Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare with neighboring nations (2 Kgs 6:25), and intermittent plagues of locusts ravaged large areas.<\/p>\n<p>Food was more plentiful in Palestine (described as a “land flowing with milk and honey”) than in many other parts of the Near East. Shallow cultivation of the soil, however, made crops highly reliant on regular rainfall. Egyptian crops were far less susceptible to weather variations, because the Nile provided a dependable source of water.<\/p>\n<p>Food shortages were considered warnings or punishment from God (Lam 4:9, 11; Am 4:6-9) to teach the Hebrews that life is more than food and that faith must continue despite scarcity, famine, or even death (Dt 8:3; Hb 3:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>The staples of nomadic Hebrews were milk, curds, and cheese. As the people became more stationary, they grew grains and vegetables and planted orchards and vineyards. Grain would sometimes be grown for a season, and then after the harvest, the tribes would move their flocks to other pastures and find other arable land. Religious sacrifices and festivals were times not only of solemnity but also of rejoicing and great feasting. Victories were also celebrated with banquets and feasting on the food obtained from the camp of the vanquished enemy.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>• Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>• Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>• Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>• Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DairyProducts\">Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>Milk and its by-products formed a vital part of the Hebrew diet (see Jgs 4:19). Goat’s milk was most frequently used, although milk from camels, cows, and sheep was also available (Gn 32:15; Dt 32:14; Prv 27:27).<\/p>\n<p>Since fresh milk could not be preserved in Palestine’s hot climate, it was processed into buttermilk, curds, and cheese. Milk was poured into goatskins, where it soured and thickened because of the nonsterile condition of the previously used skins and the movement as it was transported. That movement of the pouch (often made from a cow’s stomach, containing the enzyme rennin used in cheese making) produced curds. Curds are first mentioned in the Bible as part of the meal that Abraham provided for his extraordinary guests (Gn 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for curds <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">chena<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also translated “butter” (Jb 10:10). This butter would be similar in consistency to yogurt from which the water has been squeezed out. When pressed and rolled into small balls, it kept indefinitely, despite the climate. Thus, compressed curds were particularly valuable for journeys in arid regions where food was scarce.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GrainCrops\">Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned food in the Bible is bread. The term refers in a general sense to all foods but more particularly to food prepared from grain. In biblical times bread was prepared from several grains. Wheat, barley, and spelt were grown in Egypt (Ex 9:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>An Egyptian physician named Sinuhe, living in the mid-20th century <span>BC<\/span>, recorded that bread was baked daily in Palestine and Syria, and it is probable that it was served with every meal. This bread was probably a wafer or flat cake made from barley or emmer (an inferior form of wheat), since these were the two grain crops that Sinuhe mentioned seeing. Wheat was the most expensive grain. Fine wheat flour was a luxury only the rich could afford (Gn 18:6; Ez 16:13, 19). In later periods wheat became a valuable export crop that was shipped from Tyre to other ports in the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>Because barley could grow in less productive soil and was more tolerant of drought conditions, it became a popular grain crop in the ancient Near East. Barley could also be harvested several weeks earlier than wheat. Barley bread (Jgs 7:13; 2 Kgs 4:42) and barley cakes (Ez 4:12) were eaten by the average laborer. Jesus miraculously multiplied a young boy’s five barley loaves and two fishes and fed five thousand (Jn 6:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Millet, a cereal with a small grain head growing on a stalk less than two feet (.6 meter) high, and spelt, a type of wheat, were also used in times of need as a border around the edges of fields.<\/p>\n<p>The most primitive way of processing grain was to rub the ears between the hands to separate the kernels, as Jesus and his disciples did (Lk 6:1). To perform this act on the Sabbath (the day of rest) was considered the equivalent of reaping and was therefore forbidden.<\/p>\n<p>Parching (roasting the grain lightly in a pan) was another simple method of preparation (Jos 5:11; 1 Sm 17:17). It formed a quick and easy meal for laborers or kings (Ru 2:14; 1 Sm 25:18; 2 Sm 17:28). Parched corn was ideal for taking on journeys.<\/p>\n<p>Bread making was a strenuous task. Mortars, pestles, and simple mills with upper and lower stones were used for grinding flour in ancient Egypt around 2900 <span>BC<\/span>. These primitive mills were normally placed on the ground, and one was compelled to kneel in order to do the backbreaking work. The resulting meal was coarse and filled with small pieces of husk.<\/p>\n<p>When the flour had been prepared, water was added and the mixture was kneaded in a special trough. The dough could then be made immediately into cakes, pancakes, or unleavened bread (Gn 19:3). These flat cakes or wafers were often baked on previously heated stones, on the inner walls of small conical ovens, or in larger communal ovens. Leaven was added to make a lighter dough. The leaven was normally a piece of dough left over from an earlier mixing and allowed to ferment before being used. The flour meal was also mixed with a porridge made of lentil beans in order to stretch the food supply.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AnimalProducts\">Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>The introduction of meat as part of the diet seems to have coincided with the time when Noah and his family left the ark (Gn 9:3). After this time, however, the animals normally eaten for food were so valuable that only the wealthy could afford to slaughter them. So in biblical times the peasant had a simple, somewhat monotonous diet, while the rich feasted on meat, delicacies, and imported commodities. As a result, meat was a luxury item that the poor would rarely enjoy except on such occasions as the Passover celebration or sacrifices in which the worshiper ate part of the offering (Ex 12:8). Although it was clearly uneconomic to slaughter an animal that produced such staples as milk, curds, and cheese, the rules of hospitality in the Near East dictated that an animal should be killed to entertain an honored guest (2 Sm 12:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Domestic sheep, goats, and oxen provided the main source of meat, although venison was popular with the upper classes. When the blind Isaac was deceived by his son Jacob, the father was offered the luxury of both kid’s meat and wild game (Gn 27:3, 9, 19). The ox kept in a stall or the fatted calf were reserved for occasions of great festivity (Mt 22:4).<\/p>\n<p>The use of meat for sacrifice was given definitive form in the provisions of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. The Law forbade anyone to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day (Lv 22:28). Another prohibition, perhaps directed at pagan Canaanite sacrificial rituals, would not allow a kid to be stewed or poached in its mother’s milk (Dt 14:21). Mosaic law was emphatic in prohibiting the consumption of blood in any form. Animal blood was considered the source of the animal’s life and was offered by priests as a sacrifice to God to atone for human sin (Lv 17:11). In the Mosaic law, pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits were considered unclean and were therefore forbidden for food, principally on hygienic grounds (11:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient world, meat was usually boiled or stewed. Roasting an ox or a kid would usually occur only as part of a special feast or sacrificial ritual. Animals might also be roasted for members of the royal palace or for a king’s special guests.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that hunting was enjoyed by all who were able to participate, wild game provided only a minor part of the diet. Among the game found in Palestine and mentioned in the Bible are gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, and deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23). It is probable that pheasants were available, and there were certainly turtledoves, pigeons, quails, and partridges, although the precise quantities of food that these birds provided is not certain (Gn 15:9; Ex 16:13). Goose was the most popular dish in Egypt, and marsh ducks were also highly esteemed as game. After the Persian period, chickens were eaten (2 Esd 1:30), and eggs and omelettes were popular in Rome in early Christian times. The eggs mentioned in Deuteronomy are probably wild birds’ eggs (Dt 22:6-7; cf. Is 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>Thirty varieties of fish were available in the Jordan, and an extensive fishing industry existed on the shores of the Sea of Galilee at the time of Christ. Supplies of fish were readily available from the Mediterranean coast during the Roman period, but at an earlier time the fish supply depended to a large extent upon whichever nation had control of the coastline. In the postexilic period the people of Tyre supplied the city of Jerusalem with fish, which were sold near the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3). In the regulations concerning the types of fish suitable for food, only those that had fins and scales were acceptable (Lv 11:9-12).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times many of the distinctions concerning food were eliminated. In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus, challenging the Pharisees’ hypocrisy, upset the Jewish food laws by saying that evil thoughts, not certain foods, make a person unclean (Mk 7:19). As Christianity spread into gentile areas, there was, however, a continuing concern about eating meat that had been offered to idols. The question came to a head in Corinth. The apostle Paul maintained that though the meat was acceptable, one should take care not to cause spiritual damage to another Christian with a more sensitive conscience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InsectsandTheirFoodProducts\">Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>Wild honey was found in Palestine, but there is no evidence of bee-keeping. Egyptians, however, did practice beekeeping at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The honeycomb is mentioned specifically in 1 Samuel 14:27 and Song of Songs 5:1; liquid honey is referred to in 1 Kings 14:3. Honey was to be found in crevices of rocks and on trees (Dt 32:13). It was the primary sweetener in cooking. Although it could not be used in a sacrifice to the Lord (Lv 2:11), honey was prized as a delicacy. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, when Thutmose III was campaigning in Syria and Palestine, he brought back vast quantities of honey as tribute from his newly conquered lands.<\/p>\n<p>Locusts were probably first eaten in desperation after they had devastated crops. They are one of the few insects mentioned as a permissible source of food (Lv 11:22). Locusts were fried in flour or honey, or were preserved by being dried. Locusts and wild honey formed John the Baptist’s basic diet in the wilderness (Mt 3:4; Mk 1:6). Although locusts contain little protein, they are rich in fat and have some mineral content.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VegetablesandSeasoning\">Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people wandering in the Sinai wilderness bemoaned the loss of the flavorful vegetables they had become accustomed to during their Egyptian captivity. In particular, they expressed a longing for cucumbers, melons (possibly watermelons), leeks, onions, and garlic (Nm 11:5). Many of these vegetables were later grown in Palestine (particularly in the Gaza). When cucumbers were first cultivated, they were regarded as luxury items and had to be protected by guards who lived in shacks overlooking the gardens (Is 1:8). Beans, lentils, and parched grain were among the items brought to David and his soldiers at Mahanaim (2 Sm 17:28). Lentils were known in Egypt from at least the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> and were used extensively both then and in later times by the Israelites. Lentil soup is mentioned in Genesis 25:34.<\/p>\n<p>In times of hunger the husks of the carob tree, normally fed to cattle, could be used for food. These would have been most acceptable to the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). There were many kinds of green herbs that could provide a meal for the poor in time of need (Prv 15:17). In cases of extreme hunger, some kinds of mallow and juniper roots could also be used as food. In Elisha’s time a group of prophets at Gilgal prepared a stew of wild vegetables, to which they mistakenly added poisonous wild gourds. Elisha rectified the situation by adding meal to the pot (2 Kgs 4:38-41). While there is no actual record of the kinds of bitter herbs used as part of the Passover offering (Ex 12:8; Nm 9:11), mint and cummin were most probably included. Dill, cummin, rue, and mint were common garden herbs (Mt 23:23; Lk 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>Seasonings were welcome additives to the rather bland character of typical Israelite fare. Salt came mainly from the Dead Sea area and was essential as a seasoning and preserving agent. Salt was so important in the diet that it became part of the vocabulary of moral obligation. The sharing of salt with a person at a meal sealed a covenant or pact (Nm 18:19). In the Levitical sacrificial ritual, salt was part of meat and cereal offerings, since it signified the sealing of God’s covenant with Israel (Lv 2:13; Ez 43:24).<\/p>\n<p>The mustard tree, which was probably grown for its oil content, grew from a minute seed to the height of 15 feet (4.5 meters) (Mt 13:31-32). Anise, coriander, and cinnamon were also available (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:7). Perhaps the most popular and widely used spice, apart from salt, was garlic. Vinegar was also probably used as a flavoring agent and a preservative. From the number of seeds and plants found in Egyptian tombs from the 18th dynasty, it is obvious that the use of seasoning was widespread in antiquity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FruitsNutsandWine\">Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p>Olive trees grew abundantly in Palestine and were an excellent source of food and oil. Even in poor soil, one tree could sufficiently supply a family for a whole year. Some green olives were pickled in brine and eaten with bread, but the olive was most important as a source of oil. Olive oil was used in baking bread and cakes and in frying foods. The best quality olive oil was used in the temple sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was extracted from olives by a simple process: for the finest quality oil, olives were picked before fully ripe and then crushed by hand with a stone mortar and pestle. Usually, however, pickers beat the olives from trees with long poles and collected them in baskets. The oil was then trodden out, probably in the same vat used for grapes (Mi 6:15), which were harvested approximately four weeks later.<\/p>\n<p>An oil mill was developed subsequently, and the heavy upper grinding stone was turned by two people. As the oil dripped through, it was collected in another stone vat and was allowed to settle and purify. When refined, the oil was stored in skins or jars.<\/p>\n<p>Fig trees grew in all areas of Palestine. They required little attention and provided two or three crops per year. The most abundant of these was the second, which ripened in late summer. The first figs of the season were considered a great delicacy (Is 28:4; Mi 7:1). The prophet Hosea suggested that the Israelites were like the firstfruits of the fig tree (Hos 9:10). Another prophet, Jeremiah, spoke of those who had gone into exile as being like the first figs, while those who were left behind were the bad figs, fit only for destruction (Jer 24:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Figs were usually eaten fresh from the trees, but some were pressed into cakes to use when traveling (1 Sm 25:18; 30:12; 1 Chr 12:40). Figs were also valuable for medicinal purposes, since effective poultices could be made from them (2 Kgs 20:7; Is 38:21). Sycamore trees produced small, figlike fruit eaten primarily by the poor. A short time before harvest, the fruit was slightly incised, making it swell and ripen more quickly. The prophet Amos notched sycamore fruit before he was called by God (Am 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>Fruit from the date palm could also have been pressed into flat cakes for travelers, as figs were. The Bible, however, makes no specific reference to its fruit as food (see Jgs 4:5; Ps 92:12; Jl 1:12; Jn 12:13).<\/p>\n<p>Another popular Near Eastern fruit was the red pomegranate. It was eaten whole, or the seeds were pressed to provide a refreshing drink. The pomegranate is mentioned in temple ritual as one of the fruits brought back from Canaan to Moses by his spies (Ex 28:33) and as an exotic drink (Sg 8:2). The “apple” mentioned in Scripture (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:5) was most likely a type of apricot or quince, not an apple as we know it today. Nuts were used for additional flavor in cooking. Almonds and pistachio nuts were among the gifts sent by Jacob to ransom his sons (Gn 43:11).<\/p>\n<p>Grapes were popular and plentiful from the early Bronze Age. In addition to being eaten fresh from the vine, grapes were dried as raisins (Nm 6:3; 1 Sm 25:18) or pressed, their juice drunk either as new wine or fermented into an alcoholic drink. One of the duties of the cup-bearer in ancient royal courts was to provide grape juice or wine for the king, his family, and guests (Gn 40:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>The juice of grapes also provided vinegar when wine deteriorated. Vinegar was used as a flavoring agent in cooking and as a preservative. When diluted with water, it supplied a refreshing drink for workers in the fields. A type of jelly was made in the Near East by boiling grapes until they assumed the consistency of molasses. This syrup could also be used as a sweetening agent in cooking.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was the universal drink in antiquity. It could be diluted with water or mixed with spices or honey to make a mulled wine (Sg 8:2; Is 5:22). The Hebrew word for “banquet” or “feast” literally means “drinking,” which reveals much of the character of such occasions. A certain amount of merriment was considered proper at a festival or banquet (Gn 43:34; Jgs 9:13; Lk 5:34).<\/p>\n<p>Wine making was similar in many respects to the production of olive oil. Clusters of grapes were cut from the vine with a sickle, collected in baskets, and taken to the winepress, where they were trodden by men and women. The juice ran into a lower vat, where, under the hot sun, fermentation began almost immediately. The wine was left to settle so that any twigs or skins would form a sediment; after that the wine could be strained off. In about six weeks the wine was ready to drink or store in earthenware jars or wineskins.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals; Bread; Family Life and Relations; Leaven; Meals, Significance of; Plants; Unleavened Bread.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare ...","summary_en":"FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare ...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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